EXPLOSIVE

THEORY OF EXPLOSIVES
In general, an explosive has four basic characteristics: (1) It is a
chemical compound or mixture ignited by heat, shock, impact,
friction, or a combination of these conditions; (2) Upon ignition, it
decomposes rapidly in a detonation; (3) There is a rapid release of
heat and large quantities of high-pressure gases that expand rapidly
with sufficient force to overcome confining forces; and (4) The
energy released by the detonation of explosives produces four basic
effects; (a) rock fragmentation; (b) rock displacement; © ground
vibration; and (d) air blast
A general theory of explosives is that the detonation of the explosives
charge causes a high- velocity shock wave and a tremendous release of
gas. The shock wave cracks and crushes the rock near the explosives
and creates thousands of cracks in the rock. These cracks are then filled
with the expanding gases. The gases continue to fill and expand the
cracks until the gas pressure is too weak to expand the cracks any
further , or are vented from the rock.
The ingredients in explosives manufactured are classified as:
Explosive Base:-An explosive base is a solid or a liquid which, upon
application or heat or shock, breaks down very rapidly into gaseous
products, with an accompanying release of heat energy. Nitroglycerine
is an example.
Combustibles:- A combustible combines with excess oxygen in an
explosive to achieve oxygen balance, to prevent the formation of
nitrogenous oxides (toxic fumes), and to lower the heat of the
explosion
Oxygen carriers:- Oxygen carriers assure complete oxidation of the
carbon in the explosive mixture, which inhibits the formation of carbon
monoxide. The oxygen carriers assist in preventing a lowering of the
exploding temperature. A lower heat of explosion means a lower
energy output and thereby less efficient blasting.
Antacids:- Antacids are added to an explosive compound to increase
its long term storage life, and to reduce the acidic value of the explosive
base, particularly nitroglycerin (NG).
Absorbents:- Absorbents are used in dynamite to hold the explosive
base from exudation, seepage, and settlement to the bottom of the
cartridge or container. Sawdust, rice hulls, nut shells, and wood meal
are often used as absorbents
Antifreeze:- Antifreeze is used to lower the freezing point of the
explosive.
Air gap sensitivity:- Air gap sensitivity is a measure of an
explosive’s cartridge-to-cartridge sensitivity to detonation, under test
conditions, expressed as the distance through air at which a primed
half-cartridge (donor) will reliably detonate an untrimmed half-
cartridge (receptor).
Cap Sensitivity:- Cap sensitivity is a measure of the minimum
energy, pressure, or power required for initiation of a detonation; i.e.,
“cannot be detonated by means of a No. 8 test blasting cap when
unconfined.”
Strength :-Two strength ratings are used for commercial dynamites.
Weight strength compares products on an equal-weight basis, and
cartridge strength or bulk strength compares products on an equal-
volume basis. Both are expressed in percent, using straight
nitroglycerin dynamite as a standard. Complicating this picture is the
variety of ingredient mixes among manufacturers, so that 40 percent
gelatin dynamite and a 40 percent ammonia dynamite do their work
differently; similarly, a 40 percent ammonia dynamite from two
different manufacturers will give somewhat different results. Thus, a
blaster who had always used one manufacturer's product could change
suppliers and suddenly start complaining about “bad powder.” To
further confuse the issue, some manufacturers continue to use the
terms “weight strength” and “bulk strength” as a comparative
numerical rating against ANFO at 100.
With the advent of new explosives, particularly the ANFOs and the
slurries, the dynamite method of judging strength failed to give
relevant data. It became necessary to account not only for a product's
relative stored energy, but also its rate of energy release, its gas volume
potential, and its heat of detonation. A number of factors are currently
used to judge an explosive's ability to do the work desired, and today's
blaster must consider at least the following:
Detonation Pressure is a measure of the product's shock wave energy,
influenced by the product's density (latent energy) and detonation
velocity (rate of energy release).
Pressure Magnitude or Gas Pressure is a measure of the potential
expanding-gas energy, influenced by the product's density (latent gas
volume) and the heat and velocity of detonation (rate of gas production
and expansion). Though oversimplified, one way to think of “strength”
is to compare an explosive to a mechanical means of breaking and
moving rock. We can break rock with a sledgehammer, and a
detonation pressure is our explosive hammer. As density increases, the
“weight of the hammer” increases; as velocity increases, we “swing the
hammer” faster and harder. We can move rock with a bulldozer, and
gas pressure is our explosive doze. As density increases, the doze gets
bigger; as velocity increases, the doze runs faster—sometimes so fast
that it outruns the rock it is trying to move.

BLASTING MECHANICS
Upon detonation, explosives affect rock by various interrelated means.
While the following discussion simplifies a complex and (in some
aspects ) largely theoretical subject, it should provide a basic grasp of
blast mechanics. The same mechanisms apply to whatever material is
being blasted (wood, concrete, steel, soil, ice, etc.); however, results
are highly dependent on material integrity. As a result, this discussion
will consider only monolithic bedrock in order to avoid confusion.
1. Detonation Shock Wave
Upon initiation, the detonation (explosive oxidation) zone proceeds
down the column of explosive at the product's detonation velocity. At
the front of this detonation zone, an energy pulse or “shock wave” is
generated and transmitted to the adjacent rock; any air space between
the explosive and the rock absorbs wave energy and reduces its effect
on the rock.
The shock wave travels outward as a compression wave in all directions
from the borehole, moving at or near detonation velocity. The rock
immediately surrounding the borehole is crushed to some extent,
dependent on how much the force of the wave exceeds the
compression strength of the rock. The force of the wave overcomes the
elastic limits of the rock, causing it to bend outward and crack. These
are radial cracks in that they radiate out from the borehole and they
are generated at speeds related to the sonic velocity of the rock itself
(+/–8,000 fps in hard rock, +/–1,500 fps in soft rock). If the rock mass
is too large to permit bending, such as behind the borehole, no radial
fracture occurs; the wave energy is simply absorbed by the rock.
2. Shock Wave Reflection
At this point, the result of the blast will only be very large wedge-
shaped blocks, still interlocked. However, when the shock wave reaches
a free face, the outward-bending compressive force releases, and the
wave is reflected back into the rock as a tension wave. The speed of the
shock wave has been slowed somewhat, and its energy lowered, but if
the distance from the borehole to the free face is not too great, it still
carries enough force to overcome the tensile strength of the rock.
Rock, like concrete, has far greater strength in compression than in
tension (for instance, granite with a compression strength of 30,000 psi
has a tensile strength of only 1200 psi). The reflected tension wave
causes lateral cracking in the rock between the radial cracks, creating
“fragmentation.” Obviously, the greater the distance between the
borehole and the free face, the more the wave energy is used along the
way, and the larger those “fragments” will be. If there is no free face,
such as behind the borehole, there will be no wave reflection and no
lateral cracking. A point to remember is that any break in rock
continuity will act as a free face; a crack or weather seam is as good as
a quarry face in this regard.
3. Gas Pressure and Rock Movement
Upon detonation, along with the shock wave, the solid explosive is
instantly converted to superheated gas that is trying to occupy a space
10,000 to 20,000 times its original solid volume, and exerting a pressure
that can exceed 1.5 million psi. Without this gas pressure, the fractured
rock would not move and would remain interlocked. The fractured rock
mass has a certain inertia (consider this a desire to stay where it is),
which the gas pressure must initially overcome to start rock movement.
Thus, there is “hesitation” between detonation and the start of rock
movement, lasting roughly one millisecond per foot of distance
between the bore hole and the free face (i.e., if the distance is 10 feet,
movement will start roughly 10 milliseconds after detonation). Once
inertia is overcome, the rock moves outward away from the borehole
at around one foot each 10 milliseconds, or between 40 and 70 mph,
although smaller fragments can move faster and be shot out as fly rock.
As with the detonation shock wave, nice even results in rock movement
require rock continuity; cracks and weather seams will allow gas
venting, and result in uneven and sometimes surprising directions and
distances of rock throw.

DETONATION VELOCITY
Detonation velocity is an important property to consider when rating
an explosive. It may be expressed as a confined or unconfined value
and is normally given in feet per second (fps). The confined detonation
velocity measures the speed at which the detonation wave travels
through a column of explosive within a borehole or other confined
space. The unconfined velocity indicates this rate when the explosive is
detonated in the open. Because explosives generally are used under
some degree of confinement, the confined value is more significant.
Most manufacturers, however, measure detonation velocity in an
unconfined column of explosive 1 1/4 inches in diameter, although
some measurements are made within the confinement of an iron pipe
or using a different diameter. The confined detonation velocity of
commercial explosives varies from 5000 to 25,000 fps (Tables 2-1
through 2-6). With cartridge explosives, the confined velocity is seldom
attained because complete confinement is usually impossible. For
blasting in hard rock, a high-velocity explosive is preferable. In a softer
or highly jointed rock, a low-velocity explosive, for example, (ANFO)
with a heaving action may give satisfactory results at a lower cost.
Some explosives, and particularly blasting agents, are more sensitive to
diameter changes than others. In charges with larger diameters, say six
inches or more, the velocity may be medium to high. But as diameters
get smaller, the velocity is reduced until, at the blasting agent’s critical
diameter, (approximately three inches for ANFO, propagation is no
longer assure and misfires are likely).

PROPERTIES OF EXPLOSIVES
By knowing what properties are critical to performance, meaningful
predictions can be made in blast design. These properties are :
detonation velocity, density, detonation pressure, water resistance, and
fume class. For a given explosive, these properties vary with the
manufacturer.

DENSITY
The density of an explosive may be expressed in terms of specific
gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the explosive to the
density of water under standard conditions. The specific gravity of
commercial explosives range from 0.6 to 1.7 g/cc. For free running
explosives, the density is often specified as the pounds of explosives
per foot of charge length in a given size borehole. With few exceptions,
denser explosives give higher detonation velocities and pressures.
Density is an important consideration when choosing an explosive. For
difficult blasting conditions or where fine fragmentation is required, a
dense explosive is usually necessary. In easily fragmented rock or where
fine fragmentation is not needed, a low-density explosive will often
suffice. Low-density explosives are particularly useful in the production
of rip-rap or other coarse products. The density of an explosive is also,
important when working under wet conditions. An explosive with a
specific gravity of less than 1.0 will not sink in water.

DETONATION AND BOREHOLE PRESSURE

Detonation pressure is a function of the detonation velocity and density
of an explosive. The monograph can be used to approximate the
detonation pressure of an explosive when the detonation velocity and
specific gravity are known. As can be seen, the detonation pressure is
more dependent on detonation velocity than specific gravity. A high
detonation pressure is necessary when blasting hard, dense rock. In
softer rock, a lower pressure is sufficient. Detonation pressures of
explosives range from 10 to over 140 Kilobars (l Kilobar = 14,504 psi).
WATER RESISTANCE
An explosive's water resistance is a measure of its ability to withstand
exposure to water without deteriorating or losing sensitivity. Sensitivity
is the ease with which an explosive detonates.
In dry work, water resistance is of no consequence. If water is standing
in the borehole, and the time between loading and firing is fairly short,
an explosive with a water-resistance rating of “good” is sufficient. If the
exposure is prolonged, or if the water is percolating through the
borehole, “very good” to excellent” water Resistance is required. In
general, gelatin and emulsions offer the best water resistance. Higher-
density explosives have fair to excellent water resistance, whereas low-
density explosives and blasting agents have little or none. Brown
nitrogen oxide fumes from a blast often mean the explosive have
deteriorated from exposure to water.
FUME CLASS
Ideally, detonation of a commercial explosive produces water vapor,
carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. In addition, undesirable poisonous gases
such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides are usually formed.
These gases are known as fumes, and the fume class of an explosive
indicates the nature and quantity of the undesirable gases formed
during detonation. Better ratings are given to explosives producing
smaller amounts of fumes. For open work, fumes are not usually an
important factor, In confined spaces, however, the fume rating of an
explosive is important. In any case, the blaster should ensure that
everyone stays away from fumes generated in a shot. Carbon monoxide
gradually destroys the brain and central nervous system, and nitrogen
oxides immediately form nitric acid in the lungs.
Fume classes can be from poor to good and are rated Class A or B by
the Bureau of Mines and class 1, 2, 3, by IME. Class A and Class 1
typically emit less noxious fumes per gram of explosive than Class B or
Classes 2 or 3.
SHELF LIFE
Shelf lives of various products described are listed in their respective
tables. For most explosives' products, a shelf life of one year is
recommended, although satisfactory performance can be expected
from most products two, three, and even four years later. Consult the
appropriate manufacturer to determine shelf-life ratings beyond one
year. NPS-65 mandates a maximum shelf-storage of two years.
PERMISSIBLES OR PERMITTED EXPLOSIVES
A permissible explosive is one which has been approved by the U.S.
Bureau of Mines or the British Ministry of Fuel and Power for the use in
gas or dust-filled mines. When detonated or exploded, all explosives
produce a flame that varies in volume, duration, and temperature.
Black powder produces the longest lasting flame, while dynamites
typically produce a shorter lasting, but more intense flame. Permissible
explosives are especially designed to produce a flame of low volume,
short duration, and low temperature. This is accomplished by adding
certain salts to the explosive's formula in order to cool or quench the
flame to prevent the ignition of gas or dust within the confined space of
a mine.
Permissible explosives are generally modified types of emulsions,
water-gels, or ammonia dynamites, all in cartridge or chub form.
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES
Low Explosives: Low explosives deflagrate rather than detonate. Their
reaction velocities are 2000 to less than 3000 feet per second. Black
powder is a good example. These materials normally have little water
resistance, are highly flammable, sensitive to a No. 6 strength blasting
cap, and have a heaving action during blasting. Low explosives generally
do not fragment rock as well as high explosives.
High Explosives: A high explosive is any chemical mixture that
detonates with a reaction velocity over 5000 feet per second. The
reaction can be initiated by a No. 8 strength blasting cap (i.e., high
explosives are 1.
Straight Dynamite - Nitroglycerin in an absorbent, with velocities
between 10,000 and 20,000 feet per second. This dynamite is the most
sensitive of all commercial explosives. The weight strength is the actual
percentage of nitroglycerin in the cartridge. This explosive has poor
fumes, good water resistance, and poor cohesion.
Ammonia Dynamite - This is similar to straight dynamite except that
ammonium and/or sodium nitrate and various carbonaceous fuels are
substituted for a portion of the nitroglycerin. There are three sub-
classes of ammonia dynamite:
High Density: This product has a detonation velocity of 8000 to 13,000
feet per second, good water resistance, and fair to good fumes.
Low Density: This product has detonation velocities between 7,000 and
11,000 feet per second, fair to good fumes and fair to poor water
resistance.
Permissible Types: These products are similar to the low- density
ammonia dynamites except that They contain cooling salts such as
sodium chloride. Permissible must be approved by the U.S. Bureau of
Mines under specified conditions of usage. This material usually has
good fumes and fair to poor water resistance.
Gelatin Dynamite - Contains nitroglycerin gelled with nitrocellulose,
and various absorbent filler materials. Forms a soupy to rubber-like
mixture which is water-resistant.
(a) Straight Gelatin - Has a detonation velocity of 13,000 to 23,000 feet
per second. Varieties with strength rating above 60 percent have poor
fume characteristics. Water resistance is excellent and material is very
cohesive.
(b) Ammonia or Special Gelatin's - Similar in composition to straight
gelatin except that some of the Nitroglycerin is replaced with
ammonium and sodium nitrates and carbonaceous fuels. Has a
detonation velocity between 10,000 and 23,000 feet per second. Water
resistance is good.
Semi-gelatin Dynamite - A combination of ammonia gelatin and
ammonia dynamite, with lower strength than gelatin, yet has good
water resistance. Velocities between 10,000 and 15,000 feet per
second. Fume rating is good.
Two-component Explosives: These, as packaged, can be shipped by any
means because each separate component is nonexplosive. Mixing,
however, produces a class A explosive that must be handled and stored
as such.
BLASTING AGENTS AND AMMONIUM NITRATE
A blasting agent is any material or mixture consisting of a fuel and
oxidizer that is intended for blasting and that is not otherwise classified
as an explosive.
A blasting agent consists primarily of inorganic nitrates (ammonium and
sodium nitrates) and carbonaceous fuels. The addition of an explosive
ingredient, such as TNT, in sufficient quantity, changes the classification
of the mixture from a blasting agent to an explosive.
When unconfined, blasting agents cannot be detonated by means of a
No. 8 test blasting cap unless an explosive ingredient or sensitizer is
added. No. 8 test caps contain the equivalent of two grams of a mixture
of 80 percent mercury fulminate and 20 percent potassium chlorate.
Nitro carbon Irate is synonymous with a blasting agent, including ANFO,
and is an official classification for interstate transportation. Blasting
agents may be classified as (1) dry blasting agents, (2) emulsions, (3)
water gel or (4) slurry blasting agents.
Bulk Mixed Compounds: This includes the majority of the ammonium
nitrate-fuel oil mixtures and bulk slurries which are often mixed on the
job by the supplier in the delivery truck. The detonation velocities range
between 9000 and 15,000 feet per second. This product has no water
resistance and fair to good fumes, if properly mixed and detonated.
Premixed Nitrocarbonitrates (NCN): Another term for ammonium
nitrate mixes. These include products prepared by a commercial
manufacturer and purchased by the consumer in the ready-to-use
package form. The densities of these products are variable. Velocity
ranges from 12,000 to 15,000 feet per second.
Cycling of Ammonium Nitrate: Ammonium nitrate, for its weight,
supplies more gas upon detonation than any other explosive. In pure
form, ammonium nitrate is almost inert (powerless) and is composed of
60 percent oxygen by weight, 33 percent nitrogen, and seven percent
hydrogen.
Two characteristics make this compound both unpredictable and
dangerous. Ammonium nitrate is water soluble and if uncoated, can
attract water from the atmosphere and slowly dissolve itself. For this
reason, most perils have a protective coating of wax or clay which acts
as a moisture retardant. The second and most important characteristic
is a phenomenon called “cycling.” This is the ability of a material to
change its crystal form with temperature. Ammonium nitrate will have
one of five crystal forms depending on the temperature. The cycling
phenomenon can seriously affect both the storage and performance of
any explosive which contains ammonium nitrate. Most dynamites, both
regular nitroglycerin or permissible, contain some percentages of
ammonium nitrate, while blasting agents are almost totally comprised
of this compound. The cycling effect in dynamite is not due to other
ingredients mixed with the ammonium nitrate. For this reason, cycling
does not greatly affect dynamite the way it does ANFO. The two
temperatures at which cycling will occur under normal conditions are 0
and 90°F. This is to say that products which are stored over the winter,
or for a period of time during the summer, most likely will undergo
some amount of cycling. During the summer, in poorly ventilated
powder magazines, the cycling temperature may be reached daily.
The effect of cycling of ammonium nitrate when isolated from the
humidity in the air is that the prills break down into finer and finer
particles, or enlarge to the point at which they are virtually inert. When
the temperature exceeds 90°F, the prills break down into smaller
crystals. This causes the density to increase from 0.8 to 1.2 gm/ cc. A
density increase will also increase the detonation velocity of the
compound. The detonation velocity of ammonium nitrate with a
density near 0.8 is around 10,000 feet per second. Ammonium nitrate
with a density near 1.2 may have a velocity of 15,000 feet per second.
To further complicate the situation, some blasting agents are not sealed
well enough to exclude humidity. After the ammonium nitrate has
undergone one cycle, the waterproof protective coating is broken and
the water vapor in the air condenses on the particles. As cycling
continues and more water collects, the mass starts to dissolve and
upon dissolving, starts to recrystallize into large crystals.
Therefore, it is evident that a volume of ANFO after cycling may have
very dense areas and areas of large crystals which are not as dense. The
performance of this product may range from that of a very powerful
explosive to one that just burns, or one that will not shoot at all.
PETN-PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate) has a crystal density of 1.76
g/cc and a confined detonation velocity of over 25,000 fps. In various
degrees of granulation it is used as a priming composition in
detonators, a base charge in blasting caps, a core load for detonating
cord, and in the manufacturer of pentolite. PETN is a secondary
explosive and as such is not as sensitive as primary explosives such as
lead azide. Cast primers of PETN are also supplied as shaped charges.
RDX - RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine) is second in strength to
nitroglycerin among common explosives substances. When compressed
to a density of 1.70, it has a confined detonation velocity of 27,000 fps.
RDX is a primary ingredient in composition B. Plasticity and high
detonation velocity make it ideal in shaped charges for oil well
perforators (jet perforators) and furnace papers jet tappers. RDX is
sometimes the base charge for detonators.
Composition B - Composition B is a mixture of RDX and TNT with one to
four percent wax added. When cast, It has a density of 1.65 and a
detonation velocity of about 25,000 fps. Like pentolite, composition B is
used in the cast form as a primer and booster for blasting agents.
Pentolite - Pentolite is a mixture of PETN and TNT. The percentage of
PETN can be from 20 percent to 50 percent, with the remainder being
TNT. It was originally used for booster charges in military explosives
devices and is now used for commercial boosters.
SELECTION OF EXPLOSIVES
There have been many systems developed to rate the strength or
power or an explosive. Although these systems work, it is still not clear
as to whether or not the information is useful to the field blaster. There
are many reasons for choosing an explosive. These reasons range from
the specifications of the product, the price, availability, and reliability.
Whatever the reason for selection, the blaster should consider the
following properties:
Velocity - If fragmentation is desired, the best results are obtained
when the detonation velocity is at or near the sonic velocity of the rock.
If mass movement is more important (as in blast casting) or very large
fragments are desired (as in riprap production or slabbing), detonation
velocity should be notably below the rock's sonic velocity.
Sensitivity - When using charges in small diameter boreholes, the
blaster needs sensitive products such as cap sensitive emulsions or
water gels. The smaller the hole, the more sensitive the product needs
to be. ANFO functions well in large diameter holes (four inches and
above), but has trouble sustaining detonation in small holes.
Gas or Pressure Release - This is the amount of gas and pressure
released when the explosive or blasting agent detonates. Generally, the
more gas release, the more heave or displacement that is possible.
Water Resistance - In conditions where the holes are producing water
or ground water is a problem, packagedANFO, water gels or emulsions
function best. There are also plastic borehole liners that can be used for
bulk loading operations.
Fume Quality - When working in a poorly ventilated operation such as
in a tunnel, mine, or deep trench, select a product with a good (Class I)
fume rating. Even when working in the open, allow all evidence of
smoke and dust to clear before reentering the blast area, and
remember that the toxic gases produced are colorless, odorless, and
potentially lethal.
When selecting explosives there are four basic categories:
1. Dynamites, including Granular Dynamite (Straight Dynamite, High-
Density Extra Dynamite, and Low- Density Extra Dynamite) and Gelatin
Dynamite (Straight Gelatin Dynamite, Ammonia Gelatin Dynamite, and
Semi gelatin Dynamite). Use is prohibited by policy unless a case
specific waver is obtained from the regional blasting officer.
2. Water Gels, Emulsions, and Slurries - Consisting of Cartridges and
Bulk products.
3. Dry Blasting Agents - Consisting of Poured or Bulk ANFO, Aluminized
ANFO, Densified ANFO, and Packaged (waterproof) ANFO.
4. Binary Explosives - Consisting of two-component products that are
mixed in the field to form an explosive.
GENERAL PROPERTIES
Detonation Velocities (FPS)
Type Boreholes or Charge Diameter
1-1/4" 3" 9"+
Granular Dynamite 7 to 19,000 8 to 19,000 N/A
Gelatin Dynamite 12 to 25,000 13 to 20,000 N/A
Cartridge Water Gel 13 to 22,000 14 to 19,000 N/A
Bulk Water Gel N/A 14 to 16,000 12 to 19,000
Air-emplaced ANFO 7 to 10,000 12 to 13,000 14 to 15,000
Poured ANFO 6 to 7,000 10 to 11,000 12 to 15,000 Packaged ANFO N/A
10 to 12,000
14 to 15,000
Cartridge Emulsion 14 to 19,000 14 to 20,000 N/A
Packaged Binary 19 to 20,000 19 to 21,000 N/A
Density (g/cc)
Type Density
Granular Dynamite 0.8 to 1.4
Gelatin Dynamite 1.0 to 1.7
Cartridge Water Gel 1.1 to 1.3
Bulk Water Gel 1.1 to 1.6
Air-emplaced ANFO 0.8 to 1.0
Poured ANFO 0.8 to 0.9
Packaged ANFO 0.8 to 1.2
Cartridge Emulsion 1.1 to 1.8
ELECTRIC BLASTING CAPS (EBC)
The electric blasting caps are commonly used devices for initiating high
explosives. The cap may be inserted directly into the explosive cartridge
or used in conjunction with detonating cord. An electric blasting cap
consists of two insulated leg wires inserted through insulation into a
metal capsule and connected by a Thin filament bridge wire. When
enough current is applied to the leg wires, the bridge wire gives off heat
energy and ignites a flash charge of heat sensitive explosive, usually
lead styphnate. The explosion of the flash charge detonates a primer
charge, lead aside, which in turn detonates a base charge of powerful
explosive such as
PETN or RDX. In some cases, the flash and primer charges are
combined. The base charge of the cap detonates with sufficient force to
initiate a cap sensitive explosion or detonating cord.
The advantages of electric blasting caps over cap-and-fuse include
safety in handling, variety of delay periods, and the ability of the blaster
to choose the exact time of detonation. When working in populated
areas, noise and resulting public relations problems are reduced by
initiating the charge in the borehole with delay caps instead of using
trunklines and downlines of detonating cord. When using electric
blasting caps, avoid stray electric currents, such as those caused by
power cables lying on the ground, particularly when the ground is wet.
Lightning is another source of possible premature detonation. Radio
frequency energy is a potential hazard, although the possibility of
premature detonation due to this source is remote, except for high-
energy, long wavelength transmitters (see IME Publication No. 20).
Consult manufacturer’s data for electric current requirements. They
vary from brand to brand, so mixing brands in a circuit can cause a
misfire and is not recommended. In a delay electric blasting cap, a delay
element containing specially blended powders is interposed between
the bridge wire and the primer charge. The delay element is accurately
calibrated to give a specified time lapse between the application of
electric current and the detonation of the base charge.
Two basic series of delay are available: (1) Short or millisecond delays
and (2) longer delays, often called slow delays. The millisecond delays
have delay increments ranging from 25 to 50 milliseconds; the longer
delays, from 0.5 to 1 second. In normal blasting, where maximum
fragmentation is desired, millisecond delays produce good breakage
and reduce air blast and ground vibration. Slow delays are primarily for
underground, quarry, or tunnel work, where they provide enough time
for rock movement between delay periods. Longer delays may result in
coarser fragmentation than millisecond delays.
Blasting caps are a mass-produced item with extremely tight quality
control. The chances of “bad caps” reaching the consumer are only one
in several million, and a manufacturing defect will occur in an entire
batch (1000 or more) rather than in a single cap. A check of each cap
with the galvanometer before loading will identify any “bad cap” before
it ends up in the explosive product.
EXPLODING BRIDGEWIRE DETONATORS (EBW)
The compounds of an exploding bridge wire detonator (EBW) are
similar to those in a standard electric blasting cap (EBC), but more
stable. The major difference is that EBWs contain no primary explosive.
A fine gold bridge wire is in contact with PETN, a secondary explosive,
which in turn initiates an RDX base charge. To function properly, a very
large electric current must be delivered to the bridge wire in a very
short period of time. This heats the wire through the vaporization
phase so rapidly that the wire explodes with enough force to detonate
the secondary explosive. If either the amount of current or the rate of
application is incorrect, the EBW will not function properly. It may
deflagrate, but will not detonate. This means that most sources of
extraneous electricity that may detonate an EBC are not hazardous
when using an EBC. Static electricity, radio transmissions, automotive
batteries or systems, chain saw magnetos, or most generator-type
blasting machines will not detonate an EBW. However, EBWs provide
no protection against lightning. A special field-firing set capable of
generating a timed 3000 volts is required. A special model suitable for
seismic work is also available.
An EBW can be inserted directly into explosives or can be used to
initiate detonating cord, similar to an
EBC. A maximum of six detonators can be fired simultaneously in series,
but because tolerance can vary among EBWs, consult the manufacture
before firing more than two in series. Because an EBW contains only
secondary explosives (PETN and RDX), delay detonators are not
available.
EBWs are recommended for situations where static or other
extraneous is a concern, or where fire or impact are factors to be
considered, and where unit cost is not extremely important.