P1 MODULE 1 : CARBOHYDRATES

OUTLINE

I. Carbohydrate: Introduction
II. Classification of Carbohydrates
A. Monosaccharide
B. Disaccharide
C. Oligosaccharide
D. Polysaccharide
III. Understanding Principles on the Molecular Structures of
Carbohydrates
A. Mirror Images
i. Two forms of “handedness”
a) “Left-handed” form
b) “Right-handed” form
ii. Two Classes of Objects Divided of their Mirror
Images
a) Superimposable Mirror Images
b) Nonsuperimposable Mirror Images
B. Chirality
i. Requirement to have a “chiral” molecule
ii. Importance of Chirality
C. Stereoisomerism: Enantiomers and Diastereomers ● Plants have two main uses for the carbohydrates they
i. Enantiomers
ii. Diastereomers
produce.
D. Designating Handedness (D,L) USing Fischer Projection
Formulas
E. Structures and Classification of Monosaccharide
F. Important Saccharide
IV. Cyclic Monosaccharide: Haworth Projection Formula
A. Haworth Projection Formula Rules
V. Biochemically Important Monosaccharides
VI. Reactions of Monosaccharide
A. Oxidation to Produce Acidic Sugars
B. Reduction to Produce Sugar Alcohols
C. Glycoside Formation
D. Phosphate Ester Formation
E. Amino Sugar Formation
VI. Disaccharides
A. Tabulation of Disaccharide
VII. Oligosaccharides
A. Importance of Oligosaccharides
VIII. Polysaccharides
A. Storage Polysaccharide
B. Structural Polysaccharide
C. Acidic Polysaccharide
i. Hyaluronic Acid
ii. Heparin
○ In the form of cellulose: carbohydrates serve as
D. Special Group
i. Glycosaminoglycans (GAGS) structural elements
ii. Proteoglycan Structure ○ In the form of starch: they provide energy reserves for
E. Other Natural Polysaccharide of Interest the plants
IX. Carbohydrate Related Diseases ● Dietary intake of plant materials is the major carbohydrate
A. Diabetes source for humans and animals.
B. Galactosemia ○ The average human diet should be ideally be about
two-thirds carbohydrate by mass
INTRODUCTION Carbohydrates have the following functions in humans:
● Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of 1. Carbohydrate oxidation provides energy; through
bioorganic molecules on planet earth. oxidation process
○ Although thor abundance in the human body is relatively 2. Carbohydrate storage, in the form of glycogen, provides
low, carbohydrates constitute about 75% by mass of dry a short-term energy reserve
plant materials. 3. Carbohydrate supply carbon atoms for the synthesis of
○ Green (chlorophyll-containing) plants produce other biochemical substances (proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates via photosynthesis. nucleic acids)
■ In this process, carbon dioxide from the air and water 4. Carbohydrates form part of the structural framework of
from the soil are the reactants, and sunlight DNA and RNA molecules
absorbed by chlorophyll is the energy source 5. Carbohydrates linked to lipids are structural
components of cell membranes

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6. Carbohydrates linked to proteins function in a variety

of cell-cell and cell-molecule recognition processes
CARBOHYDRATE
● CARBOHYDRATE (Cn(H2O)n) is a polyhydroxy aldehyde, a
polyhydroxy ketone, or a compound that yields polyhydroxy
aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones upon hydrolysis
○ The carbohydrate glucose is a polyhydroxy aldehyde,
and the carbohydrate fructose is a polyhydroxy
ketone.

UNDERSTANDING PRINCIPLES ON THE

MOLECULAR STRUCTURES OF
CARBOHYDRATES
The structures of carbohydrates are far from being basic and
ordinary. However, through the delicate principles involves from
chirality – the handedness in molecules to Haworth projection
formulas, details as to how sugars looks and lined together can be
understood in simple yet challenging was

MIRROR IMAGES

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Monosaccharide ● Contains a single polyhydroxy
aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone unit
● Can’t be broken down into simpler units
● Sugars with one molecule
● Naturally occurring monosaccharides
have from three to seven carbon atoms;
five– and six– carbon species are
especially common ● First, an important property of many molecules, including most
● Pure monosaccharides are water soluble, carbohydrates, is “handedness”, which is a form of
white, crystalline solids isomerism
● Cannot be hydrolyze further ○ Molecules that possess “handedness” exist in two forms:
● Considered as the building block of ■ “Left-handed” form
carbohydrates ■ “Right-handed” form
↪ These two forms are related to each other in the
Examples: Glucose, Fructose same way that a pair of hands is related to each
Disaccharide ● Contains two monosaccharide units other.
● covalently bonded to each other ↪ The relationship is that of mirror images
● Sugars that contain two monosaccharide ↪ A left hand and a right hand are mirror images of
units covalently bonded to each other each other.
● Crystalline, water-soluble substances ● Objects can be divided into two classes on the basis of
● Hydrolysis of a disaccharide produces two their mirror images:
monosaccharide units objects with ● Superimposable mirror images
superimposable are images that coincide at all
Sucrose (Table sugar) mirror images points when the images are laid
Lactose (milk sugar) (Achiral) upon each other.
Galactose
Oligosaccharide ● Contains three to ten monosaccharide
units covalently bonded to each other objects with ● Nonsuperimposable mirror
● Sugars that contains 3 to 10 nonsuperimposable images are images where not all
monosaccharide unit mirror images. points coincide when the images
(Chiral) are laid upon each other.
Tri, tetra, hexasaccharide
CHIRALITY
Raffinose

Polysaccharide ● A polymeric carbohydrate that contains

many monosaccharide units covalently
bonded to each other

ExampleS: cellulose, starch

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Chiral ● Has 4 different atoms bonded to

the carbon:

-H, -CH3, -CH2CH3, -CH2CH2CH3

Achiral ● Only has 3 atoms bonded to the

carbon:

-H, -CH3, & O w/ double bond

● Some, but not all, molecules possess handedness. What
determines whether or not a molecule possesses
handedness is the presence of a carbon atom that has
four different groups bonded to it in a tetrahedral
orientation

REQUIREMENTS TO HAVE A “CHIRAL” MOLECULE

1. The tetrahedral orientation requirement is met only if the
bonds to the for different groups are all single bonds
2. Chiral center: the handedness-generating carbon atom Importance of Chirality
↪ Is an aom in a molecule that has four different groups ● In human body chemistry, right-handed and left- handed forms
bonded to it in a tetrahedral orientations of a molecule often elicit different responses within the
○ Chiral: a molecule that contains a chiral center body.
○ Chiral molecule: a molecule whose mirror images are ○ Sometimes both forms are biologically active, each
not superimposable. form giving a different response, sometimes both
↪ Chiral molecules have handedness elicit the same response, but one form’s response is
○ Achiral molecule: a molecule whose mirror images are many times greater than that of the other, and sometimes
superimposable only one of the two forms is biochemically active.
↪ Do not possess handedness ■ For example: studies show that the body’s response
to the right-handed form of the hormone epinephrine
is 20 times greater than its response to the
GUIDELINES FOR IDENTIFYING CHIRAL CENTERS left-handed form
A carbon atom involved in a multiple bond (double or triple ● Monosaccharides, the simplest type of carbohydrate and
bond) cannot be a chiral center since it has fewer than four the building block for more complex types of
groups bonded to it. To have four groups present. All bonds carbohydrates, are almost always “right-handed”.
about the chiral center must be single bonds. ○ Plants, the main dietary source of carbohydrates,
produce only right-handed monosaccharides
○ Interestingly, the building blocks for proteins, amino
Chiral ● Has 4 different atoms bonded to acids, are always left-handed molecules
the carbon:
STEREOISOMERISM: ENANTIOMERS AND DIASTEREOMERS
-H, -Cl, -Br, -CH3 ● The left- and right-handed forms of a chiral molecule are
isomers They are not constitutional isomers, but rather are
stereoisomers.
○ Stereoisomers: are isomers that have the same
molecular and structural formulas but differ in the
orientation of atoms in space.
↪ By contrast, atoms are connected to each other in
different ways in constitutional isomers
Achiral ● Does not have 4 different atoms ● Stereoisomers can be divided into two types:
or groups bonded to the carbon: Enantiomers ● Are stereoisomers whose
(Enantios:means opposite) molecules are
2 Hydrogens, -CH3, -Br nonsuperimposable mirror
images of each other
● Left- and right-handed forms of
a molecule with a single chirap
center are enantiomers

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Diastereomers ● Are stereoisomers whose ● Enantiomers are said to be optically active because of the
molecules are not mirror way they interact with plane-polarized light.
images of each other. ○ Optically active compound: is a compound that rotates
● Cis-trans isomers (of both the the plane of polatized plane
alkene and the cycloalkane ■ Dextrorotatory (+) compound: is a chiral
types) are diastereomers compound that rotates the plane of polarized light in
Molecules that contain more than one chiral center can also a clockwise direction (means to the right, the Latin
exist in diastereomeric as well as enantiomeric forms. dextro means right)
- Substance rotates polarized to the right
(d-glucose; (+)-glucose)
■ Levorotatory compound: is a chiral compound that
rotates the plane of polarized light in a
counterclockwise (to the left the Latin Levo means
“left”) directions
- Substance rotates polarized light to the left
(l-glucose;(-)-glucose)

Most biologically important molecules are chiral and hene

are optically active, often, living systems contain only one
of all of the possible stereochemical forms of a
compound. In some cases, one form a molecule is
beneficial, and the enantiomer: (pair of molecules that
exist in two forms that are mirror images of one another
but cannot be superimposed one upon the other) is a
poison (e,g,, thalidomide)
● Fischer Projection Formula: is a two-dimensional structural
notation for showing the spatial arrangement of groups about
chiral centers in molecules

● The D,L system used to designate the handedness of

enantiomers is extended to monosaccharides with more than
one chiral center in the following manner.
○ The carbon chain is numbered sstarting at the
carbonyl group end of the molecule, and the
highest-numbered chiral center is used to determine
D or L configuration
○ Particularly, the –OH group of the highest chiral
carbon determines the configuration.
○ If the –OH is in the right, then it’s a D-siomer and if
the –OH is in the left and then it is an L-isomer

DESIGNATING HANDEDNESS (D,L) USING FISCHER

PROJECTION FORMULAS

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● Monosaccharides are often classified by both their nummber

of carbon atoms and their functional group
○ Aldohexose: a six-carbon monosaccharide with an
aldehyde functional group
○ Ketopentose: fove-carbon monosaccharide with a
ketone functional group
● Sugars: monosaccharides are also often called as
○ The word sugar is associated with ‘sweetness”, and most
(but not all) monosaccharides have a sweet taste
○ The designation sugat is also applied in disaccharides,
many of which also have a sweet taste
○ Thus sugar is a general designation for either
monosaccharide or a disaccharide
A Fischer projection formula is a two-dimensional structural ■ Saccharide from the latin Saccharum means sugar
notation for showing the spatial arrangement of groups about
chiral centers in molecules. Named after Emil Fischer
ALDOSES (D-configuration)

I know it’s quite challenging. But was it exciting that finally

you’ve got to learn that this hand exercise has meaning? Yes,
they’re structures of sugars. First, I told you to imagine having
an additional 6th finger. It is because 6 mean the total number
of carbon (Hexoses). Second, numbering your fingers but
consider your index as number 1 and not the thumb, because it
is in your index finger that the first chiral carbon is present
Lastly, familiarize in your head the counting and the position of
the exercise. Zero for the first sugar, Allose, it is because it
doesn’t have any chiral center. Now, you’ve tried doing it but
only with your right hand or the right or D-configuration.
● In the present example, compounds A and B (the first However, then again because of its handedness, sugars also
enantiomeric pair) are D-erythrose and L-erythrose; have left or L-configuration. Hence, practice this exercise both
compounds C and D (the second enantiomeric pair) are with your right and left hands and now you can name them.
D-threose and L-threose. However A and C has a different Let’s see about how ketoses would look like.
relationship since they are epimers.
○ Epimers: are diastereomers whose molecules differ only
in the configuration at one chiral center.
↪ Other diastereomeric pairs in the present example are A
and D, B and C, and B and D
KETOSES (D-configuration)
STRUCTURES AND CLASSIFICATION OF
MONOSACCHARIDE
● Although there is no limit to the number of carbon atoms that
can be present in a monosaccharide, only monosaccharides
with three to seven carbon atoms are commonly found in
nature
○ Triose: a three-carbon monosaccharide
○ Tetroses: four-carbon
○ Pentoses: five-carbon
○ Hexoses: six-carbon atoms
● Monosaccharides are classified as aldoses or ketoses on the
basis of type of carbonyl group present
○ Aldose: a monosaccharide that contains an aldehyde
functional group
↪ Aldoses are polyhydroxy aldehydes
○ Ketose: monosaccharide that contains a ketone
functional group
↪ Ketoses are polyhydroxy ketones
C atoms RCHO RCOR RCHO RCOR
3(C3H6O3) triose triulose glyceraldehyde dihydroxyacetone
4(C4H8O4 tetrose tetrulose Erythrose Erythroluse
Threose
5(C5H10O5) pentose pentulose Ribose Ribulose
Arabinose Xylulose
Xylose
Lyxose
6(C6H12O6) hexose hexulose Allose Psicose
Altrose Fructose
Glucose Sorbose
Mannose
Gulose
Idose
Galactose
Talose

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The only difference between D-glucose and D-galactose is on

carbon-4. For D-glucose, the -OH is on the right in Fischer
Projection, and for D-galactose, the -OH group is on the left.
That single different makes D-glucose and D-galactose
epimers. They are not enantiomers, or diastereomers, or
isomers, they are only epimers.

IMPORTANT SACCHARIDE
Sugar Where Found Biochemical Importance
D-Ribose Nucleic acids Structural elements of nucleic acids
(DNA & RNA (β-dribose and and coenzymes eg, ATP, NAD, NADP,
sugar, ATP β-ddeoxyribose) and
flavoproteins. Ribose phosphates are
sugar) ATP intermediates in pentose phosphate
pathway (PPP)
D-Ribulose Formed in metabolic Ribulose phosphate is an
processes intermediate in pentose phosphate
pathway (PPP)
D-Arabinose Gum arabic. Plum Constituent of glycoproteins
This table shows the possible number of optical isomer that the and cherry gums
sugar (aldoses or ketoses) structures can be made based on the
D-Xylose Wood gums, Constituent of glycoproteins
number of chiral centers/carbons and the location of the hydroxyl (aka wood proteoglycans,
(-OH) group in the each of the chiral centers/ccarbons. The higher sugar) glycosaminoglycans
the number of chiral center/carbon, the higher the possible number D-Lyxose Heart cells.muscle A constituent of a lyxoflavin isolated
of optical isomer from human heart
Carbon Chiral Optical Isomers Ruling (Location of –OH in the chiral L-Xylulose Intermediate in Found in urine in essential pentosuria
atoms carbons 2n centers) uronic acid pathway
(4)
Aldohexose 4 2 = 16, 8 D & 8 L ● 1st chiral carbon
(6c) OH alternating right and left Sugar Source Importance Clinical Significance
Aldopentose 3 2(3) = 8, 4 D & 4 L ● 2nd chiral carbon D-Glucose Fruit juices. “Sugar” of the body Present in the urine
(5c) OH alternating 2 rights and 2 lefts (Grape Hydrolysis of since blood contains (glycosuria) in diabetes
● 3rd chiral carbon sugar, starch, can dissolved glucose. mellitus owing to raised
Aldotetrose 2 2(2) = 4, 2 D & 2 L
OH alternating 4 rights and 4 lefts dextrose, sugar, maltose, Normal glucose level blood glucose
(4c)
● 4th chiral carbon blood sugar) and lactose 70-100mg/dL (hyperglycemia)
Ketohexose 3 2(3) = 8, 4 D & 4 L OH alternating 8 rights and 8 left
(6c)
Primary source of cell’s
Ketopentose 2 2(2) = 4, 2 D & 2 L energy
(5c)
D-Fructose Fruit juices. Can be changed to Hereditary fructose
(levulose, Present in glucose in the liver and intolerance leads to fructose
fruit sugar, Honey in equal so used in the body. accumulation and
THE 16 OPTICAL ISOMER OF ALDOHEXOSES dietary amount with Sweetest tasting sugar. hypoglycemia
sugar) glucose Dietary sugar because
less is needed for the
same amount of
sweetness
D-Galactose Hydrolysis of - Can be changed to Failure to metabolize leads
(brain sugar) lactose glucose in the liver to galactosemia and cataract
(just (disaccharide and metabolized
remember consisting of a - As brain sugar it is a
that our glucose and a constituent of
brain is a galactose nit) glycolipids and
galaxy of since this sugar glycoproteins found
information) does not occur in brain and nerve
free in nature. tissue
Synthesized in - D-galactose is
the mammary present in chemical
gland to make markers that
the lactose of distinguish various
Epimers - carbohydrates which vary in one position for the milk types of blood — A,
placement of the –OH group. The best examples are for D-glucose B, AB, and O
and D-galactose D-Mannose H/ydrolysis of A constituent of many Used for preventing urinary
plant mannans glycoproteins tract infections (UTIs) and
and gums treating
carbohydrate-deficient
glycoprotein syndrome, an
inherited metabolic disorder

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CYCLIC MONOSACCHARIDE: HAWORTH PROJECTION ■ b-stereoisomer has the -OH group on the
FORMULA same side of the ring as the -CH2OH group
● Fischer projection formulas are useful for describing the
stereochemistry of sugars, but their long bonds and
right-angle bends do not give a realistic picture of the bonding
situation in the cyclic forms, nor do they accurately represent
the overall shape of the molecules
● Haworth projection formulas are more useful for those
purposes
○ Haworth projection formula is a two-dimensional
structural notation that specifies the three-dimensional
structure of a cyclic form of a monosaccharide.
○ The cyclic forms of monosaccharides result from the
ability of their carbonyl group to react intramolecularly
with a hydroxyl group. Structurally, the resulting cyclic D or L isomer: position of CH2OH group on the highest carbo
compounds are cyclic hemiacetals or hemiketals atom C5
● Pyranose (only aldohexose is capable): A cyclic
monosaccharide containing a six-atom ring
● Furanose (aldopentose and ketohexose are capable of
forming): five-atom ring
Because their ring structures resemble the ring structures in the
cyclic ethers pyran and furan, respectively

1. α or β configuration (anomers): determined the position

of the –OH on carbon 1 related CH2OH group

● Anomeric carbon atom: the hemiacetal carbon atom

present in a cyclic monosaccharide structure atom
○ Is the hemiacetal carbon atom present in a cyclic
monosaccharide structures
○ It is the carbon atom that is bonded to an –OH group and
to the oxygen atom in the heterocyclic ring
○ Cyclic monosaccharide formation always produces two
stereoisomers: an alpha form and a beta form
↪ These two isomers are called anomers
● Anomers: are cyclic monosaccharides that differ
only in the positions of the substituents on the
anomeric (hemiacetal) carbon atom.
■ The a-stereoisomer has the -OH group on
the opposite side of the ring from the
-CH2OH group,

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CYCLIC FORMS OF OTHER MONOSACCHARIDE D-Ribose

- Is a component of ribonucleic acids (RNAs) and energy-rich
compounds such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- The compound 2-deoxy-o-ribose is also important in nucleic
acid chemistry
- This monosaccharide is a component of DNA molecules
- The prefix deoxy– means “minus an oxygen”; the structures
of ribose and 2-deoxyribose differ in that the latter compound
lacks an oxygen atom at carbon 2

HAWORTH PROJECTION FORMULA RULES

Rules Aldohexoses
Edge on oxygen atom ring - D-Ribose is a pentose
D or L isomers: - D-glucose, D-galactose, and D-fructose are all hexoses
- Position of CH2OH group of the - If carbon 3 and its accompanying -H and - OH groups were
highest carbon atom eliminated from the structure of D-glucose, the remaining
- D form - CH2OH is a Dove the ring
structure would be that D-ribose
- L form - CH2OH is be Low the ring
Alpha or Beta configuration (anomers)
- Determines the –OH position of the D-Galactose
anomeric carbon (C1 or C2) in - Is synthesized from glucose in the mammary glands for use in
relation to the position of the highest lactose (milk sugar), a disaccharide consisting of a glucose
CH2OH
- Alpha - 2 groups are in the opposite
unit and a galactose unit
or “apposite” position - Sometimes called brain sugar because it is a component of
- Beta - 2 groups are in the same or glycoproteins found in brain and nerve tissue
“Be same” position - D-Galactose is also present in the chemical markers that
Location of the remaining –OH distinguish various types of blood—A,B,AB, and O
- Right –OH = (lower down)
- Left –OH = (lifted up)

BIOCHEMICALLY IMPORTANT
MONOSACCHARIDE

D-Glyceraldehyde & Dihydroxyacetone

- The simplest of the monosaccharides, these two
trioses are important intermediates in the process of
glycolysis, a series of reactions whereby glucose is
converted into two molecules of pyruvate
- D-Glyceraldehyde is a chiral molecule, but
dihydroxyacetone is not
- D-Galactose and D-Glucose are epimers (diastereomers that
D-glyceraldehyde Structure Dihydroxyacetone differ only in the configuration at one chiral center)
- Two compounds differ only in the configuration of the –OH
group and –H group on carbon 4
Has chiral carbon or Does not poses chiral
center carbon or center
Epimers: are diastereomers whose molecules differ only in the
L and D forms are L and D form is not configuration at one chiral center
possible possible
Aldose Ketose
D-Glucose
- Aka dextrose, blood sugar, grape sugar
- Of all monosaccharides, D-glucose is he most abundant in
nature and the most important from a human nutritional
standpoint
- D-glucose tastes sweet, is nutritious, L-Glucose on the other
hand, is tasteless and the body cannot use it

● Dextrose: draws attention to the fact that the optically active

D-glucose, in aqueous solution, rotates plane-polarized light
to the right
● Blood sugar: draws attention to the fact that blood contains
dissolved glucose. The normal concentration of glucose in
human blood is in the range of 70-100 mg/dL (1 dL 5 100 mL)

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D-Galactose Hydrolysis of lactose. Can be changed to Failure to metabolize

D-Fructose (brainsugar)(j (disaccharide glucose in the liver leads to galactosemia
- Is biochemically the most important ketohexose. ust consisting and metabolized and cataract
- It is also known as levulose and fruit sugar remember of a glucose and a
- Used as a dietary sugar not because it has fewer calories that our brain galactose unit) since As brain sugar it is a
per gram than other sugars but because less is needed for is a galaxy of this sugar does not constituent of
the same amount of sweetness information) occur free in nature. glycolipids and
Synthesized in the glycoproteins found in
mammary gland to brain and nerve tissue
make the lactose of
milk D--galactose is
present in chemical
markers
that distinguish
various types of
blood—A, B,
AB, and O
D-Mannose Hydrolysis of plant A constituent of Used for preventing
mannans and gums. many glycoproteins. urinary tract infections
(UTIs) and treating
carbohydrate-deficient
- From the third to the sixth carbon, the structure of D-fructose glycoprotein
is identical to that of D-glucose. Differences at carbons 1 and syndrome, an inherited
2 are related to the presence of a ketone group in fructose metabolic disorder
and of an aldehyde group in glucose
C atoms RCHO RCOR RCHO RCOR
D-fructose Structure D-glucose
3(C3H6O3) triose triulose glyceraldehyde dihydroxyacetone
4(C4H8O4) tetrose tetrulose Erythrose Erythroluse
hexose hexose Threose
5(C5H10O5) pentose pentulose Ribose Ribulose
ketose aldose Arabinose Xylulose
Xylose
Carbons 1 and 2 are Carbons 1 and 2 are Lyxose
related to the related to the presence of 6(C6H12O6) hexose hexulose Allose Psicose
presence of a ketone an aldehyde group Altrose Fructose
group in fructose. glucose. Identical structure Glucose Sorbose
Identical structure from C3-C6 Mannose
from C3-C6 Glucose
Idose
Galactose
Talose

REACTIONS OF MONOSACCHARIDE
Five important reactions of monosaccharides are oxidation to
acidic sugars, reduction to sugar alcohols, glycoside formation,
phosphate ester formation, and amino sugar formation.Remember,
Sugar Where Can Be Found Biochemical Importance however, that other aldoses, as well as ketoses, undergo similar
D-Ribose (DNA nucleic acids (β-d-ribose Structural elements of nucleic reactions
and RNA Sugar, and β-d-deoxyribose) and acids and coenzymes, eg, ATP,
ATP Sugar) ATP NAD, NADP, flavoproteins.
Ribose phosphates are
intermediates in pathway (PPP)
Oxidation to Produce Acidic Sugars
The redox chemistry of monosaccharides is closely linked to
that of the alcohol and aldehyde functional groups
D-Ribulose Formed in metabolic Ribulose phosphate is an
processes intermediate in pentose
phosphate pathway (PPP)
D-Arabinose Gum arabic. Plum and Constituent of glycoproteins
cherry gums
D-Xylose (aka Wood gums, Constituent of glycoproteins
wood sugar) proteoglycans,
glycosaminoglycans
D-Lyxose Heart cells/muscle A constituent of a lyxoflavin
isolated from human heart
muscle
ACIDIC SUGARS
L-Xylulose Intermediate in uronic acid Found in urine in essential
pathway pentosuria Aldonic Acid - Acid group on top
- Uses weak oxidizing agent
Sugar Where Can Be Biochemical Clinical Significance
Found Importance
D-Glucose Fruit juices. Hydrolysis Sugar” of the body Present in the urine
(Grape of starch, cane sugar, since blood contains (glycosuria) in diabetes
Sugar, maltose, and lactose. dissolved glucose. mellitus owing to
dextrose, Normal glucose level raised blood glucose
blood sugar) 70-100mg/dL Primary (hyperglycemia
source of cell’s
energy.
D-Fructose Fruit juices. Present in Can be changed to Hereditary fructose
(levulose, Honey in equal glucose in the liver Intolerance leads to
Fruit sugar, amount w/ glucose and so used in the fructose accumulation
dietary body. Sweetest and hypoglycemia.
sugar) tasting sugar. Dietary
sugar because less
is needed for the
same amount of Alduronic Acid - Acid group on bottom
sweetness - Uses enzymes

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Phosphate Ester Formation

Aldaric Acid - Acids groups both on top and bottom ● The hydroxyl groups of a monosaccharide can react with
- Uses strong oxidizing agent inorganic oxyacis to form inorganic esters.
○ Phosphate esters, formed from phosphoric acid and
various monosaccharides.
■ For example, specific enzymes in the human body
catalyze the esterifi cation of the hemiacetal group
(carbon 1) and the primary alcohol group (carbon
6) in glucose to produce the compounds glucose
1-phosphate and glucose 6-phosphate,
respectively.
● These phosphate esters of glucose are stable in aqueous
solution and play important roles in the metabolism of
carbohhydrates.

Reduction to Produce Sugar Alcohols

● The carbonyl group present in a monosaccharide (either an
aldose or a ketose) can be reduced to a hydroxyl group,
using hydrogen as the reducing agent.
○ For aldoses and ketoses, the product of the reduction
is the corresponding polyhydroxy alcohol, which is
sometimes called a sugar alcohol
■ For example, the reduction of D-glucose gives
D-glucitol
● D-Glucitol aka D-sorbitol have properties similar to those of
the trihydroxy alcohol glycerol
○ These alcohols are used as moisturizing agents in
foods and cosmetics because of ther affinity for water.
○ D-Sorbitol is also used as a sweetening agent in Amino Sugar Formation
chewing gum; bacteria that cause tooth decay cannot ● If one of the hydroxyl groups of a monosaccharide is
use polyalcohols as food sources, as they can glucose replaced with an amino group, an amino sugar is produced.
and many other monosaccharides ● In naturally occuring amino sugars, of which there are three
common ones, the amino group replaces the carbon 2
hydroxyl group. The three common natural amino sugars
are.

● Amino sugars and their N-acetyl derivatives are important

building blocks of polysaccharides found in chitin and
Glycoside Formation hyaluronic acid.
● Hemiacetals were shown to react with alcohols in acid ● The N-acetyl derivatives of D-glucosamine and
solution to produce acetals D-galactosamine are present in the biochemical markers on
○ Because the cyclic forms of monosaccharides are red blood cells, which distinguish the various blood types
hemiacetals, like the reaction of b-D-glucose with
methyl alcohol DISACCHARIDES
● Glycoside: the general name for monosaccharide ● A monosaccharide that has cyclic forms (hemiacetal forms)
○ An acetal formed from a cyclic monosaccharide by can react with an alcohol to form a glycoside (acetal).
replacement of the hemiacetal carbon –OH group with ○ This same type of reaction can be used to produce a
an –OR group. disaccharide, a carbohydrate in which two
○ It can exist both in alpha and beta form monosaccharides are bonded together.

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 P1 MODULE 1 : CARBOHYDRATES

○ In disaccharide formation, one of the monosaccharide

reactants functions as hemiacetal, and the other
functions as an alcohol

● Glycosidic linkage: The bond that links the two TABULATION OF DISACCHARIDE
monosaccharides of disaccharide (glycoside) together
Features Maltose Cellobiose Lactose Sucrose
○ Glycosidic linkage is the bond in a disaccharide resulting Common Malt sugar Cellobiose Milk Sugar Table Sugar
from the reaction between the hemiacetal carbon atom names (⅓ as sweet as
-OH group of one monosaccharide and an -OH group of sucrose)
the other monosaccharide. Source Digestion by Intermediate in Milk. Juice of sugarcane
○ It is always a carbon-oxygen-carbon bond in a amylase or the hydrolysis of (20% by mass) &
hydrolysis of polysaccharide Clinical sugar beets (17%
disaccharide. starch. cellulose significance: in by mass)
Germinating lactase
cereals and malt Nursing deficiency, Clinical
mother=7-8% malabsorption significance: in
Cows milk=4-5%
leads to diarrhea sucrase deficiency,
and flatulence. malabsorption
Hence, lactose leads to diarrhea
intolerance and flatulence
Structural 2 Glucose units 2 Glucose units -β-D-galactose -α-D glucose &
Units -α-D glucose -β-D-glucose & & -D-glucose -β-D-fructose
& -D- glucose
- D-glucose
Glycosidic α (1-4)(head to β(1-4)(head to β(1-4)(head to α,β(1-2)(head to
linkage tail) tail) tail) head)
● It was noted that a cyclic monosaccharide contains a Enzymes Maltase Cellobiase Lactase Sucrase
hemiacetal (anomeric) carbon atom. Many disaccharides for
contain both a hemiacetal carbon atom and an acetal carbon hydrolysis
atom, as is the case for the precending disaccharide structure.
● Hemiacetal and acetal locations within disaccharides play an Maltose
important role in the chemistry of these substances - Malt sugar, one-third as sweet as sucrose, is produced
whenever the polysaccharide starch breaks down, as
happens in plants when seeds germinate and in human
beings during starch digestion
- It is a common ingredient in baby foods and is found in malted
milk. Malt (germinated barley that has been baked and
ground) contains maltose
- An interesting compound because of its use in alcohol
production (fermentation)

Cellobiose
- Like maltose, cellobiose contains two D-glucose
monosaccharide units. It differs from maltose in that one of
the D-glucose units—the one functioning as
hemiacetal—must have a or b configuration instead of the
a-configuration for maltose. This change in configuration

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 P1 MODULE 1 : CARBOHYDRATES

results in a b(1:4) glycosidic linkage

- Produced as an intermediate in the hydrolysis of the
polysaccharide cellulose
- Like maltose, cellobiose is a reducing sugar, has three
isomeric forms in aqueous solution, and upon hydrolysis
produced two D-glucose molecules

Lactose
- Milk sugar major sugar found in milk
- Uses:
- Ingredient in infant formulas that are designed to
stimulate mother’s milk
- Lactose as an excipient used as a filler or filler-binder
- Cost-effectiveness
- Availability
- Bland taste
- Low hygroscopicity
- Compatibility with active ingredients and other
excipients
- Excellent physical and chemical stability
- Water solubility
- Conditions associated with Lactose
1. Lactase persistence - used to describe the
condition where milk– drinking ability continues to
adulthood
2. Lactose intolerance – a condition in which people Tetrasaccharide Composed of:
lack the enzyme lactase, which is needed to Stachyose - α-D-galactose
hydrolyze lactose to galactose and glucose - α-D-galactose
Causes - α-D-glucose
- Genetic defect
- β-D-fructose
- Physiological decline w age
- Injury to the mucosal lining of the
intestines
3. Galactosemia – caused by the absence of one or
more of the enzymes needed for the conversion of
galactose to glucose
- In people with this condition, galactose and its
toxic metabolic derivative galactitol (dulcitol)
accumulate in the blood
- Can cause mental retardation in infants and
even death

Sucrose
- Composed of a-D-glucose and b-D-fructose
- Table sugar, is the most abundant of all disaccharides and
occurs throughout the plant kingdom
- The glycosidic linkage is not a (1:4) linkage, as was the case
for maltose, cellobiose, and lactose. It is instead an a b(1:2)
glycosidic linkage
- The –OH group on carbon 2 of D-fructose (the hemiacetal
carbon) reacts with the -OH group of carbon 1 of D-glucose
(the hemiacetal carbon)

OLIGOSACCHARIDES
● Are saccharides that contain three to tn monosaccharides
units bonded to each other via glycosidic linkages. IMPORTANCE OF OLIGOSACCHARIDE
○ Two naturally occurring oligosaccharides found in ● The type of blood a person has (O, A, B, or AB) is determined
onions, cabbage, broccoli, brussel sprouts, whole wheat, by the type of oligosaccharide that is attached to the person’s
and all types of beans are the trisaccharide raffinose and red blood cells
the tetrasaccharide stachyose. ● Four monosaccharides contribute to the make-up of the
Trisaccharide Composed of: oligosaccharide “marking system”
Raffinose - α-D-galactose
- α-D-glucose
- β-D-fructose

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 P1 MODULE 1 : CARBOHYDRATES

a. Homopolysaccharide/glycan - only one type of

monosaccharide monomer
b. Heteropolysaccharide/glycan - with more than one
(usually two) type of monosaccharide monomer
2. The length of the polymer chain.
3. The type of glycosidic linkage between monomer units.
4. The degree of branching of the polymer chain

TYPES OF POLYSACCHARIDES
a. STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDE
- Used as an energy source in cells
Examples: start and glycogen
STARCH GLYCOGEN
Energy storage polysaccharide in plants Energy storage polysaccharide
for animals aka animal starch.
A homopolysaccharide containing only
glucose monosaccharide units Branched polysaccharide
containing only glucose units.
amylum
Liver cells and muscle cells are
the storage sites for glycogen in
humans
Amylose Amylopectin 3x more highly branched than
- straight-chain - A branched glucose amylopectin and it is much
glucose polymer, polymer, accounts larger, with up to 1,000,000
usually accounts for the remaining glucose units present
for 15%-20% of 80%-85% of the
the starch starch
- With 300-500 - More water soluble
monor units of because of increase
glucose in branching
- Contains 100,000
glucose units
Glucose units are connected by a(1:4) The two opposing processes are
glycosidic linkages called glycogenesis and
glycogenolysis, the formation and
Both a(1:4) and (1:6) decomposition of glycogen,
respectively

Note that all three of the oligosaccharide markers have a common

four-monosaccharide sequence in their structure

The absence or presence of a fifth monosaccharide (attached to

the second galactose) determines blood type.
● Type O blood lacks a fifth monosaccharide unit
● Type A blood has N-acetylgalactosamine as a fifth unit.
● Type B blood has galactose as a fifth unit
● Type AB blood contains both type A and type B markers
POLYSACCHARIDES
● A polysaccharide is a polymer that contains many
monosaccharide units bonded to each other by glycosidic
linkages
○ Polysaccharides are often called glycans
↪ Glycan is an alternate name for a polysaccharide
● Unlike monosaccharides and most disaccharides,
polysaccharides are not sweet.
● They have limited water solubility because of their size.
However, the -OH groups present can individually become
hydrated by water molecules.
○ The result is usually a thick colloidal suspension of the
polysaccharide in water.
● Polysaccharides, such as flour and cornstarch, are often
used as thickening agents in sauces, desserts, and gravy

Parameters to distinguish polysaccharides:

1. The identity of the monosaccharide repeating unit(s) in
the polymer chain.

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 P1 MODULE 1 : CARBOHYDRATES

b. STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDE
- Serves as a structural element in plant cell walls and
animal exoskeletons like chitin and cellulose
Cellulose Chitin
Gossypium hirsatum

HORMONAL CONTROL OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

INSULIN
● he structural component of plant cell ● The 2nd most abundant naturally - A 52-amino acid protein hormone produced by the beta
walls, occurring polysaccharide, next to cells of the pancreas
● is the most abundant naturally cellulose.
occurring polysaccharide. ● Function is to give rigidity to the - Promotes the uptake and utilization of glucose cells. Thus
● the “woody” portions of exoskeletons of crabs, lobsters, its function is to lower blood glucose levels
plants—stems, stalks, and shrimp, insects, and other arthropods. - It is also involved in lipid metabolism
trunks—have particularly high ● It also has been found in the cell walls - The release of insulin is triggered by high blood-glucose
concentrations of this fibrous, water of fungi.
insoluble substance. ● Structurally identical to cellulose, levels
● Contains 5000 glucose units except the monosaccharide present is - The mechanism for insulin action involves insulin binding
● Nondigestible (human lacks N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (rather than to protein receptors on the outer surfaces of cells, which
cellulase) glucose)
● Like amylose (a-1:4) ● ND-glucosamine, product of hydrolysis facilitates entry of glucose into the cells.
of chitin, that is marketed as a dietary - Insulin also produces an increase in the rates of
supplement touted to decrease joint glycogenesis, glycolysis, and fatty acid synthesis
inflammation and pain associated w/ - Insulin is at the core of the metabolic disorder known as
osteoarthritis
● The structures of cellulose (a) and diabetes: either the body does not produce enough
chitin (b), in both substances, all insulin or body cells do not respond properly to the insulin
glycosidic linkages are the b(1:4) type that is produced
c. ACIDIC POLYSACCHARIDE GLUCAGON
- With a disaccharide repeating unit in which one of the - Polypeptide hormone (29 amino acid) produced in the
disaccharide components is an amino sugar and one or pancreas by alpha cells
both disaccharide components has a negative charge - It is released when blood-glucose levels are low
due to a sulfate group or a carboxyl group - Its principal function is to increase blood-glucose
- Acidic polysaccharides are heteropolysaccharides concentrations by speeding up the conversion of
Example: hyaluronic acid and heparin glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis) and
HYALURONIC ACID HEPARIN gluconeogenesis in the liver. Thus glucagon effects are
● contains alternating residues of ● small highly-sulfated polysaccharide opposite those of insulin
Nacetyl-b-Dglucosamine (NAG) and with only 15–90 disaccharide
DGlucuronate. residues per chain EPINEPHRINE
● D-Glucuronate – is the carboxylate ion ● The source for pharmaceutical
formed when D-glucuronic acid loses heparin is intestinal or lung tissue of
- Also called as adrenaline
its acidic hydrogen atom. slaughter-house animals (pigs and - Is released by the adrenal glands in response to anger,
● Highly viscous hyaluronic acid cows). Both with negative charge fear, or excitement
solutions serve as lubricants in the groups. - Its functions is similar to that of glucagon —stimulation of
fluid of joints, ● Blood anticoagulant. It is naturally
● are also associated with the jelly-like present in mast cells and is released glycogenolysis, the release of glucose from glycogen
consistency of the vitreous humor at the site of tissue injury. - Its primary target is muscle cells, where energy is needed
of the eye. (The Greek word hyalos ● It prevents the formation of clots in the for quick action
means “glass”; hyaluronic acid blood and retards the growth of
solutions have a glass-like existing clots within the blood. It does
- It also functions in lipid metabolism
appearance.) not, however, break down clots that
have already formed. SPECIAL GROUP
● The source for pharmaceutical
heparin is intestinal or lung tissue GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS (GAGS)
of slaughterhouse animals (pigs
and cows). aka mucopolysaccharides, or negatively charged
polysaccharides. Are large linear polymers of repeating
disaccharide units, commonly containing one or another amino
sugar as one of the monomers in the disaccharide units
● GENERAL ROLE
○ mechanical support
○ cushioning of joints
○ cellular signals in cell proliferation and cell
migration
○ inhibitors of certain enzymes
● LOCATION
○ found outside cells
○ cell surface
○ part of extracellular matrix
○ or attached to protein core to form proteoglycans.
● PROTEOGLYCANS
○ When glycosaminoglycans are attached to a
protein molecule the compound is called

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 P1 MODULE 1 : CARBOHYDRATES

proteoglycan [proteoglycans = ○ found primarily in the cornea of the eye and in joint
Glycosaminoglycans + proteins] cartilage for mechanical support and structural role
○ are more carbohydrate than protein, hence their ○ structural polysaccharide in nails
properties are mainly determined by the ● Dermatan sulfate
carbohydrate portion of the molecule. ○ closely related GAG, which is composed of glucuronic
○ The carbohydrate moieties may contain acid and N-acetylgalactosamine
carboxylic acids or sulfated sugars thus the GAG ○ structural polysaccharide in skin
chain carry negative charge

PROTEOGLYCAN STRUCTURE OTHER NATURAL POLYSACCHARIDE OF INTEREST

Core protein strands are heavily modified keratin sulfate and ● AGAR
chondroitin sulfate. The core protein strands are held in a ○ linear polymer of sulfated and unsulfated galactose
complex with s strand of hyaluronic acid by link proteins prepared form marine algae – agarose
○ w/ alternating copolymer of galactose and
3,6-anhydrous-galactose
○ Not a proteoglycan but is purely carbohydrate
○ When dissolves in hot water and then cooled, it forms
gels
○ Also used as food additive to chicken liquid
suspensions
● INULIN
○ is a polysaccharide of fructose (and hence a fructosan
found in tubers and roots of dahlias, artichokes, and
dandelions.
○ It is readily soluble in water and is used to determine
the glomerular filtration rate.
● DEXTRIN
○ are intermediates in the hydrolysis of starch.

Mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) - are a group of metabolic

disorders caused by the absence or malfunctioning of lysosomal
enzymes needed to break down molecules called
glycosaminoglycans
CARBOHYDRATE RELATED DISEASES
EXAMPLES OF GLYCOSAMINOGLYCAN (GAGS)
● Chondroitin Sulfate 1. DIABETES
○ contains alternating residues of glucuronic acid and - is a chronic (long-lasting) health condition that affects
galactose N-acetyl 4-sulfonate how your body turns food into energy.
○ structural polysaccharide of ligaments, cartilage and - Most of the food you eat is broken down into sugar
tendons (also called glucose) and released into your
○ ROLE: to lend mechanical support and flexibility to bloodstream.
tissue to help form skin and cartilage - When your blood sugar goes up, it signals your pancreas
● Heparin Sulfate to release insulin. Insulin acts like a key to let the blood
○ sulfated polysaccharide found as a component of sugar into your body’s cells for use as energy.
cell-surface proteoglycans as a component of - If you have diabetes, your body either doesn’t make
cell-surface proteoglycans in mast cells and in the enough insulin or can’t use the insulin it makes as well as
surface of endothelial cells lining blood vessels it should. When there isn’t enough insulin or cells
○ composed of repeating units of N-acetylglucosamine stop responding to insulin, too much blood sugar
and uronic acid stays in your bloodstream. Over time, that can cause
○ Sulfate ester formation can be found at several serious health problems, such as heart disease,
positions on these residues and the acetyl group on vision loss, and kidney disease
N-acetylglucosamine may be replaced by sulfate group
(see heparin structure) Symptoms of Diabetes
○ Function: : After an injury to tissue, the The Big 3 (3Ps) - These are the common ones seen in diabetic
oligosaccharides derived from this GAG are released patients
to: 1. Polyuria: increase urination
■ help mediate the inflammatory response 2. Polydipsia: increase thirst
■ promote activity by growth factors, chemokines 3. Polyphagia: increase eating due to hunger
and cytokines
■ recruit leukocytes to the injury site Other noted symptoms:
■ as anticoagulant in the form of pentasaccharide 1. Weight loss
sequence, HEPARIN. 2. Slow healing of wounds
NOTE: Heparin is much smaller than heparin sulfate and 3. Extreme fatigue
that is not linked to a protein core. It is also more sulfated 4. Blurry vision
than the average random polysaccharide sequence in 5. Tingling or numbness in the hands and feet
heparin sulfate. Types of Diabetes
● Keratan sulfate
○ formed form alternating units of galactose and sulfated
N-acetylgucosamine

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 P1 MODULE 1 : CARBOHYDRATES

- is a rare, hereditary disorder of carbohydrate

metabolism that affects the body’s ability to convert
galactose to glucose. Galactose is a sugar contained
in milk, including human mother’s milk as well as other
dairy products. It is also produced by the human body,
and this is called endogenous galactose. Glucose is a
different type of sugar.
- The disorder is caused by a deficiency of an enzyme
galactose-1-phosphate uridylyl transferase (GALT)
which is vital to this process. Galactosemia is
inherited as an autosomal recessive genetic
condition.
- Classic galactosemia and clinical variant galactosemia
can both result in life threatening health problems unless
- lactose is removed from the diet shortly after birth
Symptoms of Classic Galactosemia

1. Type 1
- most diagnosed in children and teenagers. It’s an
autoimmune condition.
- When you have type 1 diabetes, your immune
system attacks the cells in your pancreas
responsible for making insulin.
- Body doesn't produce enough insulin
- The result of inadequate insulin production by the
beta cells of the pancreas
- Control of this situation involves insulin injections
and special dietary programs
2. Type 2
- happens when your body stops responding to the
insulin your pancreas makes. Over time, your
pancreas also stops producing enough insulin. It’s 1. Brain damage
generally linked to a combination of genetic and 2. Cataracts
lifestyle factors. 3. Jaundice
- Body produces insulin but can’t use it well 4. Enlarged liver
- Results from insulin resistance, a condition in which 5. Kidney damage
cells fail to use insulin properly. Bodily insulin
production may be normal, but the cells do not If a galactosemic infant is given milk, unmetabolized milk sugars
respond to it normally. build up and damage the liver, eyes, kidneys and brain
- Treatment involves use of medications that
decrease glucose production and/or increase insulin How is Galactosemia Treated?
levels, as well as carefully regulated diet to Treatment requires the strict exclusion of lactose/galactose from
decrease obesity if the latter is a problem, the diet. A person with galactosemia will never be able to properly
- More efficient use of undamaged insulin receptors digest foods containing galactose. There is no chemical or drug
occurs at increased insulin levels substitute for the missing enzyme at this time. An infant
3. Gestational diagnosed with galactosemia will simply be changed to a formula
- This type of diabetes is a response to the hormonal that does not contain galactose. With care and continuing medical
changes that happen during pregnancy. The advances, most children with galactosemia can now live normal
hormones made in the placenta can lower your lives
body’s sensitivity to insulin. This may result in high
blood sugar during pregnancy
- A temporary condition in pregnancy
1. What are the negative effects of carbohydrates?
Refined carbs may increase blood triglycerides, blood
There isn’t a cure yet for diabetes, but losing weight, eating
sugar levels and cause insulin resistance. All of these are
healthy food, and being active can really help. Taking medicine as
major risk factors for heart disease and type 2 diabetes.
needed, getting diabetes self-management education and support,
2. How can carbohydrates lead to diabetes?
and keeping health care appointments can also reduce the impact
When a person consumes carbohydrates, the digestive
of diabetes on your life.
system breaks some of them down into glucose. This
glucose enters the blood and raises blood sugar, or
2. GALACTOSEMIA glucose, levels. When blood glucose levels rise, beta cells
- Also known as: in the pancreas release insulin. Insulin is a hormone that
○ galactose-1-phosphate uridylyl makes our cells absorb blood sugar for energy or storage.
○ transferase deficiency As the cells absorb the blood sugar, blood sugar levels
○ transferase deficiency galactosemia start to drop. When blood sugar levels drop below a
○ GALT deficiency certain point, alpha cells in the pancreas release

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glucagon. Glucagon is a hormone that makes the liver

release glycogen, a sugar stored in the liver. In short,
insulin and glucagon help maintain regular levels of blood
glucose in cells, especially the brain cells. Insulin brings
excess blood glucose levels down, while glucagon brings
levels back up when they are too low. If blood glucose
levels rise too rapidly, too often, the cells can eventually
become faulty and not respond properly to insulin’s
instructions. Over time, the cells need more insulin to
react. We call this insulin resistance. After producing high
levels of insulin for many years, the beta cells in the
pancreas can wear out. Insulin production drops.
Eventually it can stop altogether.
3. Should carbohydrates be eaten before exercise?
Ingestion of carbs before exercise is important, mainly for
the purpose of topping up energy stores in muscles and
the liver, and so fatigue delay and performance can be
improved by ensuring these stores are high when first
beginning exercise. Eating carbs will therefore be
beneficial both during and after exercise, helping you feel
the benefits of your sport and exercise. For high
endurance sports it is best to maximise glycogen stores in
the days leading to an event by carbo-loading the few
days prior to an event
4. What happens when all carbs are used?
Your performance firstly decreases when you skip or use
up all your carbs, muscle movements and motivation both
become more difficult, which can then affect performance.
When carb stores have been used up, the body will then
use protein as it’s energy source, which subsequently will
affect it’s ability to gain and support muscles. Burning
protein as energy can cause further problems as when
your body tries to clean out the byproducts of protein, your
kidneys have to work harder, causing stress which could
result in damaging them. Carbs also help fueling the brain
and central nervous system, and when you have run out
of carbs, this can affect their functioning and can in
serious cases lead to further problems

REFERENCES

stoker, H. S. (2017).Biochemistry (3rd ed.).

(M. Finch, Ed.) Belmont CA, USA

Ferrier, D. (2017). Lippincott's Illustrated Biochemistry (7th

ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins,.

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