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Handout 1

Surveying is the science of determining the relative positions of points on the Earth's surface. It involves measuring horizontal distances, vertical distances, horizontal angles, and vertical angles using surveying instruments. There are two primary types of surveying - plane surveying, which neglects Earth's curvature over small areas, and geodetic surveying, which accounts for curvature with high accuracy over large areas. Surveys can also be classified based on their purpose, such as land surveys to determine property boundaries, topographical surveys to establish terrain elevations, and engineering surveys to collect data for infrastructure design projects.

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54 views

Handout 1

Surveying is the science of determining the relative positions of points on the Earth's surface. It involves measuring horizontal distances, vertical distances, horizontal angles, and vertical angles using surveying instruments. There are two primary types of surveying - plane surveying, which neglects Earth's curvature over small areas, and geodetic surveying, which accounts for curvature with high accuracy over large areas. Surveys can also be classified based on their purpose, such as land surveys to determine property boundaries, topographical surveys to establish terrain elevations, and engineering surveys to collect data for infrastructure design projects.

Uploaded by

habte
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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1.

BASIC CONCEPTS

1.1 Introduction
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative position of various points
above, on or below the surface of the earth. The relative positions are determined by
measuring horizontal distance, vertical distances (elevations), horizontal angles and vertical
angles accurately using various surveying instruments. After taking the measurements in
the field, computations are done and the plans and maps are prepared in the office. These
plans and maps are used for planning of engineering works, making of boundaries,
computations of areas and volumes, and various other purposes. Surveying also includes
the art of setting out or locating the points on the ground from the plan or map.

The first stage in all the big projects is generally to survey the area and to prepare plans.
These plans are used in the preparation of the detailed drawing, design and estimate of the
project. After finalizing the drawings, setting out is done by establishing the various points
and lines on the ground from the drawing.

Surveying, although simple in concept, requires great skill and practice for doing the
work accurately and economically. It requires basic knowledge of various disciplines such
as mathematics, physics, geodesy and astronomy. The need for accurate surveying is
increasing rapidly with the development in technology. The construction of modern
buildings, highways, railways, high dams, long bridges, and tunnels requires accurate
surveying. As the cost of the land and property is increasing rapidly, high accuracy is
required in making the boundaries and the land subdivision.

1.2 Primary divisions of surveying


Primary divisions of surveying are made on the basis whether the curvature of the earth
is considered or whether the earth is assumed to be a flat plane. The shape of the earth is an
oblate spheroid. It is an ellipsoid of revolution, flattened at the poles and bulging at the
equator (see figure 1.1). The length of the polar axis is about 12713.168 km and that of the
equatorial axis is about 12756.602 km as computed by Clark in 1866. Thus the polar axis is
shorter than the equatorial axis by about 43.43km.
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NCTTE-Surveying Department SUT171 handout 1
figure 1.1

Because of the curvature of the earth’s surface, the measured distances on earths are
actually curved. However, when the distances are small, compared with the radius of the
earth, there is no significant difference between the curved distances and the corresponding
straight-line distances, and the curvature of the earth can be neglected.

Surveying is thus primarily divided in two types:

1) Plane surveying
2) Geodetic surveying

1. Plane surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth
is neglected and it is assumed to be a flat surface. All distances and horizontal angles are
assumed to be projected on to a horizontal plane. A horizontal plane at a point is the plane,
which is perpendicular to the vertical line at that point.

Plane surveying can safely be used when one is concerned with small portions of the
earth’s surface and the areas involved are less than 250 sq. km or so. It is worth noting that
the difference between an arc distance of 18.5 km on the surface of the earth and the
corresponding chord distance is less than 10mm. Further the difference between the sum of
the angles of a spherical triangle having an area of 200 sq.km on the earth’s surface and that
of the corresponding angles of the plane triangle is only 1 second. In plane surveying, the
angles of polygons and triangles are considered as plane angles.

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NCTTE-Surveying Department SUT171 handout 1
2. Geodetic surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is
taken in to consideration, and a very high standard of accuracy is maintained. The main
object of geodetic surveying is to determine the precise location of a system of widely
spaced points on the surface of the earth. In geodetic surveying, the earth’s major and minor
axes are computed accurately and a spheroid of reference is visualized. The spheroid is a
mathematical surface obtained by revolving an ellipse about the earth’s polar axis. The
earth’s mean-sea-level surface, which is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at every
point, is represented by a geoid (see also figure 1.2). Because of variation in the earth’s
mass distribution, the surface of the geoid is irregular. However, if the irregularities of the
surface are neglected, the geoid can be very closely approximated as spheroid. The
dimensions of the spheroid are selected so as to give a good fit to the geoid over large area.

figure 1.2

1.3 Functional classifications of surveying


Based on the purpose for which they are conducted, surveys may be classified in to
following types:
1. Control surveying: It consists of establishing the horizontal and vertical positions of
widely spaced control points using the principles of geodetic surveying.
2. Land surveying: Land surveys are conducted to determine the boundaries and areas
of tracts of land. These are the oldest types, as land surveys have been used since the
early civilization. These are also known as property surveys, boundary surveys or
cadastral surveys. These surveys are also used to provide data for making a plan of
the area.
3. City surveys: These surveys are conducted within the limits of a city for urban
planning. These are required for the purpose of layout of streets, buildings, sewers,
pips, etc.
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NCTTE-Surveying Department SUT171 handout 1
4. Topographical surveys: Topography is defined as the shape or configuration of the
earth’s surface. These surveys are required to establish horizontal locations of the
various points as well as their vertical locations. Information pertaining to relief and
undulations on the earth’s surface is generally shown in the form of contours of
equal elevations.
5. Route surveying: These surveys are special types of surveys conducted along a
proposed route for highway, railway, sewer line etc. Route survey is done along a
wide strip. In general, route surveying also includes the staking out and calculation
of the earth work.
6. Mine surveys: These surveys are conducted to determine the relative positions and
elevations of mines, shafts, bore holes etc for underground works. Mine surveys are
useful to plan the working of mines and to compute volumes of materials in mines.
7. Hydrographic surveys: These surveys are conducted on or near the body of water,
such as lakes, rivers, bays, harbours.
8. Engineering surveys: Engineering surveys are conducted to collect data for the
designing and planning of engineering works such as building, roads, bridges, dams,
reservoirs, sewers and water supply lines. These surveys generally include surveys
discussed above.
9. Astronomic surveys: These surveys are conducted for the determination of latitudes,
Azimuths, local time etc. for various places on the earth by observing heavenly
bodies (the sun or stars).
10. Satellite surveys: These surveys are conducted to obtain intercontinental, interdatum
and interisland geodetic ties all the world over by artificial earth’s satellites.
11. Geological surveys: Geological surveys are conducted to obtain information about
different strata of the earth’s surface for geological studies.
12. Construction surveys: All the above-mentioned survey are conducted to obtain
information required for preparation of maps, plans, sections etcs. After the plans
have been prepared and the structures designed, the construction survey is
conducted. The points and lines are established on the ground, and the layout plan of
the structure is marked on the ground.

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NCTTE-Surveying Department SUT171 handout 1

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