DACTYLOSCOPY 2023-2024

THOUSAND OF PEOPLE IN THE WORLD, NO TWO FINGERPRINTS

ARE IDENTICAL EVEN TWINS. Of all the methods of identification,
fingerprint alone has proved to be both infallible and feasible. Its superiority
over the older methods, such as branding, tattooing, distinctive clothing,
photography, and body measurement has been demonstrated time after time. POROSCOPY
Many cases of mistaken identification have been occurred through the use of
those older system, to date the fingerprints of no two individuals have found
to be identical.
 DACTYLOSCOPY
ROHITO A. FORNIZ REG. CRIM.

MODULE OBJECTIVE:

At the end of the semester the students should be able to:

1. Trace the history of fingerprint and identify the different personalities and their contribution.

2. Discuss the principle of fingerprint and know its importance and value,

3. Identify the ancient and the present method of criminal investigation,

4. Understand the composition, layer and structure of skin,

5. Observe the rules and selection of Core and Delta and know how to performance ridge counting,

6. Differentiate the standard pattern of every fingerprint impression,

7. Internalize the rules in ridge tracing and classification of standard of every fingerprint impression.

INTRODUCTION

The earliest dated prints of the ridges of the skin on human hands and feet were made about 4,000
years ago during the pyramid building era in Egypt. In addition, one small portion of palm print, not known to
be human, has been found impressed in hardened mud at a 10,000-year old site in Egypt.

It was common practice for the Chinese to use inked fingerprints on official documents, land sales,
contracts, loans and acknowledgments of debts. The oldest existing documents so endorsed date from the 3rd
century BC, and it was still an effective practice until recent times. Even though it is recorded that the Chinese
used their fingerprints to establish identity in courts in litigation over disputed business dealings, researchers
fail to agree as to whether the Chinese were fully aware of the uniqueness of a fingerprint or whether the
physical contact with documents had some spiritual significance.

Criminal Identification by way of fingerprints is one of the most indispensable factors in obtaining
the apprehension of fugitives who might escape and continue their criminal activities indefinitely. These types
of identification also make possible an accurate determination of the number of previous arrest and
convictions which of course result in the imposition of more equitable sentences by the judiciary, in as much
as the individual who repeatedly violates the law finds it impossible to successfully as a first, or minor
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offender. This system of identification enables the prosecutor to represent his case in the light of the
offender’s previous record. On the other hand civil fingerprints are invaluable aid in identifying amnesia
victims, missing persons and unknown deceased. In the latter category the victim of major disaster may be
quickly and positively identified if their fingerprints are on files, thus providing a humanitarian benefit not
usually associated with fingerprints records.

Fingerprint alone has proved to be both infallible and feasible. Its superiority over the older
methods, such as branding, tattooing, distinctive clothing, photography, and body measurement (Bertillon
system), has been demonstrated time after time. While many cases of mistaken identification have been
occurred through the use of those older system, to date the fingerprints of no two individuals have found to be
identical.

 Excerpt from the message of the late JHON EDGAR HOOVER, Director , (FBI) Department of
justice, USA.

FORENSIC SCIENCE IN THE PHILIPPINES

Before the 1900s, criminal investigation relied almost exclusively upon the interaction of the people.
Detective used their skills as interviewers and persuaders to obtain information regarding innocent or guilty.
This form of information gathering, including the frequent use of the information was nearly always the sole
means of field criminal detection. Today the emphasis is very criminalistics, or the more generic term,
forensic science. In its simplest form, criminalistics is the application of many fields of natural science to the
detection of crime. Chemistry, Physics, Biology, and Mathematics are frequently considered the backbone of
Forensic Science. Although many crime laboratories existed throughout Europe in the early 1900s, the oldest
forensic laboratories in the United States was established in 1923 by the Los Angeles Police Department.
Other large police agencies soon developed forensic units, often following sensational criminal events.

For example, the Chicago police, assisted by business and civic leaders, established a scientific crime
detection laboratory at northwestern university following the infamous 1929 ST. Valentine’s Day
murders .additional widespread interest and development of criminalistics followed the 1935 kidnapping trial
of Bruno Hauptmann. Convicted of murdering the infant son of Charles Lindbergh, a national hero who
completed the first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic, the determination of Hauptmann’s guilt was heavily
based on forensic evidence. However, the establishment of the FBI laboratory in the early 1930 had the
greatest impact on the rapid growth of forensic laboratories in this country. There are currently more than 300
public crime laboratories operating in the United States.

In the relatively short span of less than 90 years, criminalistics has become an absolutely
indispensable cornerstone of criminal investigation. Many thousands of criminal convictions each year can be
trace directly to the efforts of the criminalist. To appreciate why and how this development occurred, we again
examine the nineteenth-century Europe.

Alphonse Bertillon

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 The detective had become an undisputed part of police organization by the late 1890s. Yet there
appeared to be no significant drop in the level of crime. Many critics of the police pointed out that there
actually seemed to be a corresponding rise in crime resulting from the direct presence of the detective. But this
phenomenon was due to the increased efficiency of the European police. As more detectives operated in the
field, more arrest was made; statistical rates alone would indicate a growth in crime. As detective work
becomes popularized by the literary media, Europe’s scientific community sensed that criminal investigation
was a field in which their talents untold had future.
There is no one individual who can be termed the founder of criminalistics. However, Frenchman
Alphonse Bertillon is unquestionably the founder of criminal identification, in addition to being instrumental
in the development of forensic science. Born in Paris on April 24, 1853, Bertillon was the second son of
prominent physician-statistician who had founded the society and school of Anthropology. Under family
pressure to be a physician, Bertillon poor academic achievements soon force him from college into the French
army.
Shortly after Bertillon’s military discharged in 1879, his father secured for him a minor clerk
position with the Paris police. His main duty was to copy onto cards the physical descriptions of arrested and
wanted suspects. Bertillon soon sensed the inadequacy of existing methods of criminal identification. He
noted that the mere recording of the basic factors, such as name, height, weight, and hair color did not insure
identification of the criminal recidivist (crime repeater), who could always
Change names or physical appearance. This was a problem that, for centuries, the French police
had been unable to resolve. Primitive methods, such as branding and tattooing, had been use well into the
1900s. Although French police routinely photographed arrested criminals, a practice started in 1840; it was
quite difficult to identify a suspect by the crude, poorly defined images.
Alphonse Bertillon was promoted to chief of the department judicial identity in1888. This
department was the identification bureau of the French police and aided the field detective in evidence
investigation. Bertillon concentrated much of his research time into the development of police photography.
He is credited with the development of the modern police “MUG SHOT”, or the standardized method of
photographing arrested suspects. He persuaded the Paris police to adopt the method of photographing suspects
both full face and side profile, with each subject sitting the same distance from the camera. Yet another of his
photographic innovations was the metric photograph. This type of photograph was enclosed within a metric
scale along the photograph’s border. The scale could be used to measure the distance in the photograph if the
subject was a flat surface at a right angle to the camera. Although the metric photograph could not rely upon
for an exact measurement, it nevertheless gave a fairly accurate representation of the scene.
The speaking picture, aided the police in identifying individuals by detailed descriptions of the
human head features. It was developed to be used in lieu of an actual photograph, or as a method of obtaining
an accurate description of the suspect from an observant victim. The bases of the method were to emphasize
the uniqueness of each part of the head. Bertillon compared the photographs of numerous ears, foreheads,
eyes, etc…, in a side by side manner. Contrasting them in his fashion, he illustrated the wide variance of
human features. His object was to train the police to describe wanted suspect by individual features, thus
increasing the probability of an accurate arrest based on description alone.
The portrait parle is still used in police work, both in written descriptions and in identification kits used to
help victims describe suspects.
Bertillon was instrumental in other forms of criminalistics, including the science of
fingerprinting. He was the first identification expert in Europe to solve the murder case solely by means of
fingerprinting evidence in 1902. Bertillon also credited with inventing a method of preserving plaster casts by
using a metallic replica. He is an early pioneer in ultraviolet photography. Bertillon developed ways of
utilizing this technique to examine questionable documents.
To his death in 1914, Bertillon never accepted the method of fingerprinting as being superior to
anthropometry. Anthropometry was widely adopted by police department in Europe and the United States for
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more than twenty years. However, as the infant’s science of fingerprinting became better known,
anthropometry quickly disappeared as a standard method of criminal identification. The now famous west
case was probably most instrumental in hastening the demised of anthropometry. In 1903, a man by the name
of Will West was committed to the U.S. Penitentiary at Leavenworth, the clerk found a previous file with
nearly identical measurements and a photograph of a man who appeared to be the prisoner sitting before him.
Will West continued to deny that the record was his, and stubbornly maintained that he had never before been
measured. The record clerk turned the file over and was shocked to read that the card belong to inmate
William West Who was already a prisoner in Leavenworth, having been committed to a life sentence on
September 9, 1901, for murder. After such time, Bertillon’s system of Anthropometry was short lived, yet it
served as the foundation of all methods of identification classification.
The current methods, in which fingerprints are classified and systematically filed, can be linked to Bertillon’s
methods. The true value of anthropometry is in the influence it had on police identification and record
keeping. For the first time police authorities became convinced of the value of science in its application to
police problems.

THEORIES AND PERSONALITIES

Criminalistics was primitively a European phenomenon during its formative years. As early as police
authority Raymond Fosdick noted in his influential book AMERICAN POLICE SYSTEM, European agencies
instituted the majority of criminal identification discoveries long before their U.S. counterparts. Yet few
authorities would disagree that the United States now ranks second to none in its legal forensic capabilities.
A complete listing of all the men and women who have contributed the scientific expertise in the development
of the criminal investigation would fill several books. However, the following selected individuals are
presented as early and contemporary criminalistics authorities:
. Juan Vucetich (1858-1926) Vucetich was an early pioneer in the development and classification of
fingerprints. In 1898, in Argentina, He introduced a system of fingerprint classification credited by many to be
the first complete system. It found complete use, especially in Latin countries, and is still used in original or
modified form in many South American police departments. Vucetich had no formal education. He joined the
police department in Buenos Aires. In 1889 he was appointed chief of the Anthropometric Bureau, instituting
the Bertillon methods of identification. By 1891 he had devised a system of fingerprint classification based on
ten fingers. Shortly thereafter, he became the first individual in South America to secure a criminal conviction
based upon fingerprints as to the sole clue.
Juan Vucetich was affirming believer in the identification value of fingerprints, not only in criminal
investigation, but in noncriminal cases as well. On July 20, 1919, his proposal to fingerprint the entire
population of Argentina became law, with Vucetich died in 1926, a well –known forensic scientist and
founder of the field of fingerprint classification.

Francis Galton (1822-1911).Known as the first individual to a publish a definitive study of dactylography
(fingerprint identification), Galton complied much scientific data to prove that fingerprints are both
unchanging and unique of each individual .He demonstrated mathematically that there are approximately
64,000,000,000 chances to 1 of two fingerprints being identical .A cousin of Charles Darwin, Galton was a
physician who never practiced. His scientific interest were broad, his major fields of study being statistical
research and anthropology.
In addition to his work in fingerprinting, Galton researched virtually unknown field of composite
photography during the latter part of his life .He superimposed photograph of hundreds of human face,
attempting to demonstrate common anthropologic characteristics common to all criminal type. Galton was
knighted by the English government for his many scientific achievements

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 Edward Richard Henry (1850- 1931).Still another pioneer in the science of fingerprinting,
Henry developed his interest in criminal identification while serving as inspector – general of the Bengal
police in India. Finding anthropometry unsatisfactory, he studied under Francis Galton, basing much of his
later work on Galton’s principles. After studying Vucectich’s system of fingerprint classification, Hendry
devised a classification scheme based on pattern and shapes. It was considered to be a sample, yet
comprehensive method, which he described in his book, Classification and Uses of Finger-Prints, Publish in
1901. Hendry’s work is credited as the major factor in the persuasion of Scotland Yard to adopt fingerprinting
as a means of criminal identification. Following his scientific studies, Henry becomes a commissioner of the
London Metropolitan Police in 1903. Henry system of fingerprint classification is currently used by nearly all
English speaking countries. However, it was found to be inadequate for fingerprint collection of over 100 000
sets. Accordingly, the original Hendry system has been combined with an extended FBI system.

Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930). Born in Edinburgh, Scotland, Doyle is well known for
creating the fictional detective Sherlock Holmes of Baker Street, London and his friend, Dr. Watson. Doyle
was a medical doctor who abandoned his practice to become a fulltime writer. He developed his famous
character into a scientifically trained investigator, thereby popularizing criminal investigation based on
forensic principles.

Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943). An Austrian Medical doctor researcher and pathologies,

Landsteiner discovered in 1901 the agglutination of the human blood possesses certain characteristics, which
allowed the designations A, B, AB, and O. Landsteiner’s work pioneered a specialty of forensic serology ,
the scientific study of bodily fluids, Particularly blood. Dr. Landsteiner’s discoveries enabled other
criminalist, such as Leone Lattes, to assist criminal investigators by developing methods used to blood-type
dried bloodstains. He is awarded a 1930 Novel prize for his blood grouping research Landsteiner relocated to
the United States in 1922.

Robert Heind (1883-1958). Hiendi was a German criminalist and chief of many bureaus of
criminal investigation. It was on his initiative that fingerprint classification was introduced in Germany
around 1900. The reliability of witnesses’ observations and statements intrigued Heindi. In a series of
scientifically controlled experiments, he found that witnesses ‘generally overestimated suspect height by five
inches and age by eight years. He also found that men have accurate form of perception than women. After
considerable historical study, Dr. Heindl concluded that the Egyptians used a method of identification quite
similar to Bertillon’s portrait Parle. He further documented a continuous effort to develop a method of
criminal identification since man’s earliest civilized society. Heindl was a forensic scientist who continually
aided the field detective. When he became aware of a field problem to which methodology could be applied,
he responded quickly with research and frequently a solution. His book containing a classification of all
known tire pattern was used with success in one of the earliest cases involving such evidence.

Edmund Locard (1877-1966). One of the foremost criminalists in the world, Locard founded
the internationally known Institute of Criminalistics in Lyons, France. His research of the science of
poroscopy, the identification of sweet pores, he proved that pores vary in number, size, and position in each
individual. In addition to writing police science books, Dr. Locard authored an encyclopedia of criminalistics
(Traite de Criminalistique), as well as numerous articles published in scientific journals. He was responsible
for training many criminalists who later gained fame. Locard’s principle, “every contact leaves a trace,” is
well worth remembering by all criminal investigators.

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Alec Jeffrey’s (1950-1984). In a British biologist, Professor Jeffrey’s discovered the concept of DNA
profiling, commonly called “genetic fingerprinting,” at the University of Leicester in England. DNA
(deoxyribo-nucleic acid) is a genetic compound found in every cell of the human body. Dr. Jeffrey’s
discovery has enabled criminalist to individualize DNA traces commonly encountered in evidence such as
blood, semen, and hair roots among other bodily compounds. Despites its name, this method of
individualizing human trace evidence has nothing to do with traditional fingerprinting.
DNA Profiling was first issued by British criminal investigators in 1987. At that time, a double
homicide was solved when the perpetrator’s DNA matched semen DNA located at the murder scene. The
discovery of this technique has opened a new and vastly important area of criminal identification. Hundreds of
otherwise unsolvable homicide and rape investigations have been resolved through DNA analysis and suspect
comparison. In to solving violent crimes, Dr. Jeffrey’s’ profiling technique is now regularly used in many
noncriminal cases, such as paternity suits.

THE SCIENTIFIC CRIME LABORATORY:

The development of scientific crime detection is comparatively recent although this aspect of police
work has long been exploited in fiction, notably by Conan Doyle’s masterly creation, Sherlock Holmes.
Scientific crime detection such as may well be described as owing its birth to the St. Valentine’s day massacre
which occurred in Chicago on February 14, 1929.A group of public minded individuals was responsible for
the establishment of a scientific crime laboratory in that city which today has taken its place in the historical
annals of police science.
In the Philippines the first public recognition of the value of science in the proper administration of
justice was made when the position of “Medicos Titular’s” was created in the Philippines by virtue of the
Royal Decree No. 188 of Spain dated March 31, 1876. For every province a Forensic Physician was assigned
to perform public sanitary duties and at the same time medico-legal aids to the administration of justice. On
December 15, 1884, Governor General Joaquin Javellar created a committee to study the mineral waters of
Luzon and appointed Anacleto del Rosario as chemist. Realizing the importance of this work, the government
established in September 13, 1887 the “Laboratory Municipal de Manila” under the inspection of the
“Direction General de Administration Civil” and the control of the “Gobierno de Provincias”. The functions
of the laboratory were to make analysis, not only of food, water and others from the standpoint of public
health and legal medicine, but also of specimens for clinical purposes. Anacleto Del Rosario was appointed
director after a competitive examination in June 17, 1888.
In1894 the “Laboratorio Medico-Legal” was created under the dependency of the judicial branch of the
government and the laboratory functioning under the direction of a physician and assisted by a pharmacist-
chemist. Ulpiano Rodriguez was appointed as one of the first chemist.
In 1899 Antonio Luna arrived and established a clinical laboratory where some original works in
chemistry were done. Unfortunately all prospects for the agglutination of 1896. After the revolution and as
soon as Manila was taken in 1899, the first scientific laboratory were establish in a small building on the
banks of Pasig river with Lt. R.P. Strong of the U.S. Army in charge.
Actual scientific work began under the initiative of Dean C. Worcester in 1901. By virtue of Act
No. 156 approved by the Civil Commission on July 1, 1901, the Bureau of Government Laboratories was
created for the purpose of performing biological and chemical examinations as well as for the production of
vaccines and sera.
Dr. Paul C. Freer, professor of chemistry in the University of Michigan, was appointed as the first
director in June 21, 1901 and he arrived in Manila on September 1, 1901to assume the post. In his first annual
report (1902-1903), he recommended the creation of a position of analytical chemist in the bureau. In his

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second report (1903-1905) he mentioned several accomplishments of his bureau. Among them were the
analysis of the suspected counterfeit silver coins for the custom house and treasury, toxicological analysis and
the corresponding court appearances and the analysis of stains for the detection of blood in two cases. The
different biological and chemical laboratories of the bureau were later consolidated into what is called as the
Bureau of Science (now the institute of science and technology) by virtue of Act No.1407 which also provided
for the merging of the Bureau of Mines with the Bureau of Government Laboratories
On March 11, 1915 the Department of Legal Medicine in the university of the Philippines was
created pursuant to the resolution of the Board of Regents. Originally the Department took charge of the
courses of Legal Medicine and its branches in the college of Medicine and Law. Dr. Sixto Delos Angeles was
appointed head of the department and also conferred as the authority to collect materials in the interest of
medico-legal questions in the island.
On October 14, 1924, through the passage of Act No. 3043 by the Philippine Legislature, the same
Department of Legal Medicine became a branch of the Department of Justice and at the same time, an integral
part of the University of the Philippines. As such entity, the department assist in the administration of Justice
in the city of Manila including those services rendered to the Manila Police Department, assist in the
administration of justice in the provinces including those services rendered to the Philippine Constabulary;
and renders medico-legal services to the public in general. Chemical and Toxicological analysis originally
performed in the Bureau of Science were later transferred to the school of hygiene and then to the College of
Pharmacy, University of the Philippines.
Realizing the need for the scientific laboratory organized in relation to crime detection under
auspices of a police organization and for a more systematic scientific crime detection, the division of
investigation was created on Dec. 1, 1937 by commonwealth Act No.181.With two Medico-Legal officers and
a chemist the Medico-Legal Section of the Division of Investigation started the definite movement towards the
creation of a scientific crime detection laboratory national in scope. When the Department of Legal Medicine
was abolished on March 31, 1938, the activities of this office were turned over to the Medico-Legal Section.
Criminal investigations in the Philippines are not consolidated under one office. The Manila Police
Department, Philippine Constabulary and the Division of Investigation (now the NBI) are engage in this task.
The Philippine Constabulary organized its own medico-legal office with a chemical laboratory on October
1939 for the purpose
of assisting in the investigation of crimes within their jurisdiction. With the Japanese occupation of Manila
and
the subsequent reorganization of the Government, the Manila Police Department created its own Medico-
Legal section on July 4, 1942 with the appointment of Dr. Pablo Anzures as medico-legal officer and later
head of the office when it expanded to include a chemical laboratory. Even before the organization of the
Medico-Legal section, the Manila Police Department has already acquired the services of a chemist when the
former Miss Marcelina Villanos was appointed detective chemist on August 4, 1937 and detailed to work in
the Department
of Legal Medicine. She was performing laboratory examination for the Manila Police Department and the
Department of Justice under the supervision of the Department of Legal Medicine of the University of the
Philippines. When the Division of investigation was organized in 1938 she was transferred to the Secret
Service Division of the Manila Police working under Mr. Arcadio Laperal.

To cope with the increasing number of crimes in the provinces, the Medico-Legal Section of the
Division of Investigation was reactivated on June 28, 1945 with the appointment of a skeleton force by order
of the Secretary of Justice. By September of the same year, the whole staff was placed on the saddle and the
activities of the Medico-Legal Section were extended again all over the archipelago. With the approval of
Republic Act No. 157, the National Bureau of Investigation was organized with the Division of the

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Investigation as the nucleus. The chemical laboratory of the Medico-Legal Section was expanded into a
Forensic Chemistry Division.
At present there are four distinct laboratories in the Philippines performing forensic chemical
analyses, namely, the Forensic Chemistry Division of the NBI with six chemists and two assistants, the C.I.
laboratory of the Manila Police Department with three chemists, the C.I.D. laboratory of the Philippines
Constabulary with two chemists and the MIS laboratory with one chemist.
Source: FORENSIC CHEMISTRY BY Lorenzo A. Sunico

LESSON I

SOME KNOWN METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION

 TATTOOING – ( among the Barbarians and savages ) was the intentional pricking of needles with
ink on outer layer of the skin to form permanent designs and symbols of belongingness to a tribe,
association, club and even as an acknowledgement of a criminal conviction and service of sentence.
 SCARIFICATION- (also practiced in the past) was a process to inflicting wound or mutilating a part
of the body in to form permanent scarf thereof.
 “PERSONAL DESCRIPTION”- identification is achieved by way of “recognition” and
“observation” of the facial profiles and other bodily features of a person.
 PHOTOGRAPHY – with the use of cameras and other devices for reproduction, identification could
be had through actual viewing of picture profiles of known persons and criminals within locality. A
compilation of pictures of known suspects, criminals, or convicts recorded through their “modus
operandi” in a police department is called “Rogue’s Gallery”.

ANTHROPOMETRY- introduced in 1882 at Paris, France by ALPHONSE BERTILLION (then

Head of the Identification Services in the Office of the Prefect of Police), was a system which involved the
measurements of certain bony parts and extremities of the human body. This is considered the first Scientific
method of identification of human beings.

“PORTRAIT PARLE”- (which means “word pictures” to the French) was another method developed
and used by Bertillion thru sketching, drawing and portraiting criminals (and even non-criminals), based on
the descriptions given by complainants and witnesses. This method is still being practiced today whereby
some sophisticated law enforcement agencies worldwide utilize talents and abilities of Artist and
Cartographers.

Source: Notes on Fingerprints, Camillus L. Allego, Sr.

Outline History of Fingerprinting

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 Unquestionable, man’s consciousness of the patterned ridges on his fingers and palms predates the
Christian era by many centuries and has been evidence in varying degrees by successive civilizations. On the
face of a cliff in Nova Scotia, for instance, has been found prehistoric Indian “picture writing” of a hand with
ridge patterns crudely marked. Scholars refer to the impression of fingerprints of clay seals to ancient Babylon
Chinese origin bearing thumb prints. The Apostle Paul concludes one of his epistles with the words “The
Salutation of Paul with mine own hand, which is taken in every epistle: so I write” some have inferred from
these words that Paul used. In tracing the origin of the fingerprint science we draw a distinctive between the
realization that the tips on fingers bear diversified ridges and the application of this knowledge to the problem
of personal identification.

It is conjectural to what extent those earlier instance of fingerprinting were intended for actual
identification of persons impressing the prints. Certainly if some cases the object was simply add more or less
superstitious solemnity to business contracts through the personal contact of the contracting parties’
fingerprints, with the written record.
There is evidence, however, that the fact of the individuality of fingerprints, though not put to practical
use, dawned recurrently through the ages. In fourteenth century Persia, various official government papers
were reportedly impressed with fingerprints, and the observation was made by a government official who was
also a physician that the fingerprints of no two persons were exactly alike.
In 1684, Dr. Nehemiah Grew, a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, in the course of a lecture
commented upon the ridge patterns appearing on fingers, But if any of this early adventures in fingerprints
observation had any direct influence on the man who are the fathers of the modern science of fingerprint
identification, the known record does not reflect it.
A scientific approach to fingerprinting was essential before it could be put to practical use on any
extensive scale. The outline which follows begins with what are believed to be the first scientific observations
which may reasonably be supposed to have contributed to the inception of modern fingerprint identification.
These observations are made in:
1686 By Marcello Malpighi, Professor of Anatomy at the University of Bologna. Malpighi,
making use of a newly discovered instrument, the microscope, noted and discussed in his treatises “certain
elevated ridges” describing “divers figures” on the palmers surfaces. He perceived them to be “drawn out into
Loops and Spirals” at the end of the fingers. Apparently the significance of his observations escaped him,
however, for he pursued then no further. More than a century elapsed, and it was not until.

1823 That John Evangelist Purkinje, professor of Anatomy at the University of Breslau, published a
thesis in which he commented upon the diversity of ridge patterns “especially” on the last phalanx of each
finger” and evolved a vague differentiation of these patterns into nine varieties. Purkinje’s paper was intended
only as a scholarly treatise and had no practical application to the problem of identification, thirty five years
later.
J.P. PURKINJE, 1787-1869. (From Wentworth and Wilder, after Locy, courtesy of the Finger Print
Publishing Association.)

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1858 Sir William James Herschel, British chief administrative officer for the Hooghly district, Bengal,
India, began the first known official used of fingerprints on the large scale. He required natives to affix their
fingerprints as well as their signatures to contracts. Apparently he had no idea originally that the marks were
individual but adopted the practice with the thought that this very personal type of contact with official papers
would be impressive to the native mind and would discourage dishonesty and default. As familiarity with
finger impressions grew, however, their individuality must have become evidence to him.

1877 Herschel introduced the use of fingerprints in several departments at Hooghly and also submitted
a report asking permission to extend the practice as an identification of prisoners as well as parties to civil
contracts. This permission was not forthcoming, but Herschel, within his own province, applied the system
extensively. He did not however evolve a method of classification suitable for general use.

1880 At about the same time Dr. Hendry Faulds, of Tsukiji Hospital in Tokyo Japan, begin his
observations of Fingerprints. The English Scientific journal, “Nature”, in.
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Dr. Faulds published an article discussing his studies and making suggestions as to the future possibilities of
the Fingerprint science. His ideas are remarkable for their anticipation of present day practices He
recommended the use of a thin film of printer’s ink as a transfer medium, just as is generally used today. He
discussed quiet fully the potentialities of identification of criminals by their fingerprints left at the scenes of
crimes, just as in the modern science of latest fingerprint identification. As a matter of fact, Faulds, himself,
demonstrated the practical application of his theory by establishing through greasy fingerprint marks the
identity of a person who had been drinking some rectified spirits from the laboratory supply-certainly one of
the earliest latent fingerprint identification of modern times.
1882 is the year in which appears the first authenticated record of official use of fingerprints in
the United States. Mr. Gilbert Thompson of the United States Geological Survey, while in charge of a field
project in New Mexico, used his own fingerprint on commissary orders to prevent their forgery. An
interesting sidelight, which had possible effect on the introduction of fingerprint identification into the United
States, occurred in
1883 with the publication of Mark Twain’s “Life on the Mississippi.” An episode in this book
relates to the identification of a murder by his thumbprint. Mark Twain further developed his team ten years
later in 1893 with the publication of “Pudd”n’ head Wilson,” a novel plotted around a dramatic fingerprint
identification demonstrated during a court trial and including a striking exposition of the infallibility of
fingerprint identification, the more remarkable because of the dates of its publication.
It was also in the 1680’s that Sir Francis Galton, a noted British Anthropologies and a cousin of Charles
Darwin , began his observation, which led to publication, in 1892, of his book , “Fingerprint” Galton ‘s
studies established individuality and permanence of fingerprints, and be made another important contribution
by dividing the first scientific method of classifying fingerprint patterns.

1891 Marked the first installation of fingerprint files as an official means of criminal investigation.
Juan Vucetich, as an Argentinian police officials based his system on the patterns by Sir Francis Galton. At
first it was used in conjunction with the Bertillon system of identification by body measurement which is
gradually replaced. The Vucetich system is the basis of those systems presently used on most Spanish
speaking countries and a number of other countries as well.
1892 At La Plata, Argentina, a woman named Rojas, who had murdered her two sons and had cut
her own throat, though not fatality, blamed on attacks on a neighbor. Bloody fingerprints on a door post were
identified by Vucetich as those of the woman herself and led to her confession.

1901 Marked the official introduction of fingerprinting for criminal identification in England and
wales. The system employed was also developed from Galton’s observations and was devised by Mr. - Late
Sir Edward Richard Hendry, then Inspector General of Police in Bengal, and later commissioner of London’s
Metropolitan Police .Henry simplified Fingerprint classification and made it applicable to police
identification. His system and that devised by Vucetich form the basis of all modern ten-fingerprint
identification system. It is basic Henry System, with modifications extensions, which is used by the FBI and
throughout United States today.
1902 I the year in which the first known systematic use of fingerprints in the United States was begun with
the establishment of the practice of fingerprint by the New York Civil Service Commission to prevent
applicants from having better qualified persons take their test for them. Dr, Hendry P. De Forest, an American
pioneer in the fingerprint science, installed the system in December 1902.

1903 Is by the New York state prison system as the date of the first practical, systematic use of
fingerprints in the United States for the identification of criminals. As early as March of that year fingerprints
of prisoners were taken and classified, and on year fingerprints on June 5 the fingerprints system was
officially adopted.
11
1904 Found acceptance of the fingerprint system accelerated when the United States Penitentiary at
Leavenworth, Kansas, and the St. Louis, Missouri, Police Department both establish fingerprint bureaus. The
St. Louis bureau was inaugurated with assistance of a sergeant of London’s Scotland Yard, who was on easy
at the St. Louis Exposition guarding a British exhibit. The Leavenworth bureau became the first to offer
facilities on more than a local basis when it gradually expanded the scope of its operations to include a free
fingerprint exchange service among a growing list of contributing peace officers.

1905 saw the adoption of a fingerprint system accelerated when the United States Army. Installation
was completed the following year, marking its first official military use in the United States. The first official
use by the Navy was begun two years later by the Bureau of Navigation followed the next year by the Marine
Corps.
During the first quarter of the 20th Century more and more local police identification bureaus established
fingerprint systems, and many sent copies of their fingerprints record to the National Bureau of Criminal
Investigation, established by the International Association of Chiefs of Police. The obvious need and demand
by police officials led to an Act Congressing establishing on July 1.

1924 The Identification Division of the FBI. The fingerprint records of both the National Bureau of
Criminal Identification and of Leavenworth Penitentiary, totaling 810, 188, were consolidated to form the
nucleus of the FBI files. This national repository of criminal identification data quickly proved its worth to
law enforcement officials faced with the problems of criminals moving rapidly from city to city and States.
Additional services were added in the FBI Identification Division as the need become apparent, on March 1.

1932 The International exchanged of Fingerprint data was initiated with a number of other nations
on February 15.

1933 A latent Fingerprint section, for making technical examinations of latent prints or of inked
prints on an individual basis was instituted on November 10 the same year the Civil Identification Section was
established. A steadily increasing rate of receipts brought the number of fingerprint cards in FBI files to 10
million, 1939, but it was the exigencies of World War II that brought about the most phenomenal period of
the Identification Division’s growth during the years just before and during the War, the number of civil
fingerprint. Including those of aliens, military personnel, and civilian employees in defense industries, far out
stripe the number of arrest prints. Both types together added to the swelling total unit, on January 31.

1946 The 10,000 000 million fingerprint cards was received in the Identification Division of the FBI,
the world’s largest repository of fingerprint records. Although new methods of personal identification are
constantly being suggested even today, it is hard to conceive of a system being revised which can improve
upon the combination of facility, practicality and infallibility which are characteristic of the fingerprint
system, as January 1.

1964 the total number of Fingerprint records on file approached 172,000. This was indeed a
suspicious figure as the Identification Division approached its 40th year of uninterrupted service to citizen and
peace officer alike.
1974 Marked the Golden Anniversary of the Identification Division. In 1924, when the FBI
Identification Division was established, few persons could envision the high degree of efficiency and utility
12
which this newly formed branch of the FBI would attain in just 50 years. During the period of its existence the
FBI Identification Division has made remarkable and far reaching Progress in technology to improve
identification services. Ahead, lies the Division’s greatest challenged the successful development of a fully
automated fingerprint processing system.
Source: FBI, USA

May 19, 1945 The PNP Crime Laboratory was created following the end of the Second World War It
started as a section of G2 Division of Military Police Command or AFPWESPAC. Then known as the Finger
Record Section, it grew into a branch as other vital units of the Philippine Constabulary were added including
Photography, Questioned Documents, Ballistics, etc.

LESSON II

PRINCIPLE AND CONCEP OF FINGERPRINT

A. Principles of Individuality - Meaning that there can no two fingerprints that exactly alike.
The probability of duplication has been estimated as one in sixty four billion, in order to
have duplicity, a population of no less than (64,000,000,000,000) sixty four billion, should
be attained which is impossible.
Twins, triplets, quadruplets, quintuplets, and so fort and soon are found to have different
prints. In fact,variations found in the fingers of Siamese twin, whose bodies have been joined
together since birth. Why? “Nature never repeats itself in all details.”
B. Principle of Permanency- The pattern of fingerprints never changes during human life. The
fingerprint patterns are said to have been formed during the third embryonic period (or the fourth
month of fetal life ), which have been found to be exactly the same during lifetime, and even will
remain the same after death, until decomposition sets in, and that skin and flesh of the hands have
fallen away. Ridges do not change, except for size, which is subject to growth and shrinkage.
C. Principle of Infallibility- Fingerprinting is an exact feature articles and fiction writers have
asserted that fingerprints can be successfully forged. If by forgery it is meant duplication, the
illustrative prints depicted in some books are mere duplicates of real fingerprints or mere machine-
reproductions of genuine fingerprints. “for anything that can be photographed can be duplicated
(not a forgery), but one has to be the original and the other a mere copy.”

ALLIED SCIENCE OF FINGERPRINT

13
 A. Podoscopy (Science of Footprint Identification)
B. Chiroscopy (Science of Palmprint Identification)
C. Poroscopy (Science of Pore Identification)

DEFINITIONS:

Dactyl--- Is from the latin, means finger or toe.

Dactylography--- is the study of fingerprint for the purpose of identification.

Dactyloscopy--- is the science of identification by means fingerprints.

Polydactyl --- It is a hand having more than the normal number of fingerprints.

Dactylomancy--- is an attempt at character reading through the patterns of fingerprints.

Dermatoglypics--- are the lines, tracings, designs, etc. on the skin of fingers, palms and soles.

IMPORTANCE OF FINGERPRINT
1. Used in Maternity Hospitals ---Newly born babies are foot-printed right in the delivery room of
hospitals instead of fingerprinting them because their friction ridges are not yet very clear right after
the birth. However, the fingerprint of the mothers are also imprinted along with their respective
children, so that, should there ever be a question as to the identity of the body, the true identity can be
easily and positively established. The system is much more certain than the practice of attaching
identification bands to the wrists or ankles of the babies, since these bands might be removed and then
lost or misplaced.
2. Identification of Victims ---Victims of train, sea, and air disasters; bomb or dynamite explosions;
mutilating remains; and all other victims who were found decomposed or beyond recognition were
identified by the police because of their fingerprints.
3. Identification of Employees---Business establishments, factories, and other organizations have their
employees and/or members fingerprinted for positive identification.
4. Insurance Companies---Insurance companies used fingerprints as means of identifying positively
persons who claimed they were insured, along with their photograph and signatures.
5. Election Protest---Flying voters were also identified by their fingerprints.
6. Bureau of Immigration---The bureau of immigration also maintains a file of fingerprints of foreigners
for positive personal identification.
7. Wills and Testaments---Wills and Testaments are impressed with the thumb marks of the testators.
Many heirs disputed as to the genuineness of the wills and testaments of their deceased parents. All
cases of this nature were clearly solved by the thumb marks of the deceased testators, along with their
signatures.

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 FRICTION SKIN

Fingerprints --- are the distinctive ridge-outlines which appear on the bulb on the inside end joint of
the finger and thumbs.

Bulb of fingers—the bulb of the fingers and thumbs is the portion on the inside of the tips of the
fingers and thumbs, in the first phalanx and from one nail joint to the opposite nail
joint.

Friction Skin---
is the skin covering the bulb of the fingers and thumbs the palm of the hands, and
the sole of the feet. That skin of the human body devoid of hair, which surfaces
resist Slipping and provides constant gripping of objects.
FORMATION OF FRICTION SKIN:

1. Ridges---raised strip of skin on the inner side of the end joints of fingers and thumbs.
2. Furrow—the depressed area between the ridges.

.EPIDERMIS--- is the scientific term for the outer or top skin, which also identified as the surface
of the skin
.COMPONENTS OF EPIDERMIS:
1. Stratum Corneum--- Covers the Surface on which the ridges are visible.
2. Stratum Mucosom—beneath the stratum corneum.

DERMIS— the deeper inner or true skin layer.

GLANDS SECRETIONS

Glands Inorganic compound Organic Constituents

Amino Acids
Chlorides Urea
Metal Ions Lactic Acids
1. Eccrine Ammonia Sugars
Sulphates Creatine
Phosphates Choline
Uric Acids
Fatty Acids
2. Sebaceous Glycerides
Water Hydrocarbon
Alcohols
Proteins
3. Apocrine Iron Carbohydrates
Cholesterol

15
COMPONENTS OF DERMIS
1. Sweat duct
2. Sweat glands
3. Dermal papillae (nerve of touch)
 RIDGE FORMATION

Ridges begin to form on the human fetus four to five months before birth. Since the ridges are the
basis for fingerprint identification, they seemed to appear as continuous lines-some short and curved others
long and short and a few like islands containing a single pore structure. During the process of growth and
development these ridge formations are not continuous lines but consist of a series of islands, each containing
a small opening or pore. As they grow, they fuse together and eventually the round contours flatten and
straighten out to form a continuous straight or short line.

DESCRIPTIONS OF RIDGE

The LENGTH: The Length of a fingerprint ridge is variable, depending on whether it comes to an
abrupt, end, bifurcates, or forms a simple design, as compared with sometimes complicated pattern.

 The WIDTH: The Width of fingerprint ridge, on the average is about 1/3 mm. in children, 1/2 mm. (or
slightly less) in women, and 1/2 mm. (or slightly more) in males.

16
  The THICKNESS: For adults, the average thickness is 1 mm. to 2 mm. (or 1/25 th of an inch); such
measurements are made from the top of a ridge down to the junction of the dermis with the deeper,
underlying layers.

 COARSENESS OF RIDGES
1. Ridges of males tend to be coarser than the ridges of females.
2. Ridges of an adult tend to be coarser than of younger persons.
3. Ridges of the right hand of both males and females tend to be coarser than those of the left hand.
 NUMBER OF RIDGES

The number of ridges in any finger varies with individuals; however, as a general rule the thumbs have greater
number of ridges.

DESTRUCTION OF PATTERNS BY:

1. Surgery
2. Amputation
3. Certain skin diseases
4. Corrosive acids
5. Abrasions
6. Total decomposition after death

LESSON III

PATTERN
Purpose of Fingerprinting - to be able to compare them, either immediately or at some future date, with
another set of prints. This comparison may be necessary because a crime has been committed, or may be made
in order to clear up a matter of non-criminal identification.

 3 GENERAL GROUPS OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS:

ARCH – 5% LOOP – 60% WHORL – 35%

Plain arch Radial loop Plain Whorl
Tented Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket Loop
Double Loop
Accidental Whorl

 STANDARDS OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS:

DEFINITIONS AND REQUISITES/ ELEMENTS:

17
 1. LOOP is a pattern in which one or more of the ridges enter on either side of the impression, and
then turn around (recurve), passing or touching an imaginary line drawn between the delta and the
core, flow toward the same side of the impression from whence the ridges interred.

Two division of Loop:

Forearms contain 2 large bones namely:

1. Radius Bone – Recurving towards thumb side
2. Ulna Bone – Recurving towards Little finger side
The Loop Pattern

Radial Loop - When the downward slope or slanting of the ridges is towards the direction of the thumb.

Ulnar Loop – Ridges flow toward the direction of the little finger.

Requisites:
1. It must have a delta
2. It must have a core
3. It must have a recurving ridge that passes between the delta and core
4. It must have a ridge count of at least one

The Arch Pattern, Look Fig. 21 and 22

18
2.ARCHES
3. Plain Arch – a pattern in which the ridges inter on one side of the pattern then flow towards the other
side, with a raise at the centre.

4. Tented arch – a type of pattern where majority of the ridges form an arch and one or more ridges at
the centre shape a tent in outline giving an angle of 90 degree or less, or one with an upward thrust
having an angle of 45 degree or more, or a pattern similar to a loop but lacking or two of its essential
elements.

3 Whorl Family Type-line of Whorl

a. Plain Whorl
Elements:
a. 1. A complete circuit
a. 2. Two deltas

19
 a. 3. At least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed by an imaginary line traversing
between two deltas.

b. Central Pocket Loop

Elements:
b.1. At least one recurving ridge or obstruction ridge at the right angle.
b.2. Two deltas
b.3. No recurving ridge within the pattern area is touched or crossed by an imaginary line

20
drawn between the two deltas.

21
22
D. Double loop
Elements:
c. 1. Two separate loop formations
c. 2. Two separate and distinct sets of shoulders
c. 3. Two delta
Types of core formation which are not included in the double loop pattern:
1. The “S” type core
2. The interlocking core
3. The formation of a loop inside another loop

23
Accidental whorl

Elements:
d. 1. Combination of two different types of patterns with exception of plain arch
d. 2. Two or more deltas

RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS

The ridge characteristics are the details of ridge structure, formation, and elements which differentiate one
fingerprint from another and which impart individuality to each fingerprint.

1. Ridge – is raised strip of skin or the inner side of the end joints of finger and thumbs.
24
 2. Ridge formation – such as recurving, converging, short, long, etc.
3. Short ridge – is used in the ridge count only when it appears as thick and as dark as all of the
surrounding ridges.
4. Recurving ridge – a ridge which, at a certain points in its course, curves back in the direction of its
of its starting point.
5. Converging ridge – are two ridges suddenly tending to approach each other at one point; they may
even meet and continue as a single ridge.
6. Divergence – is the spreading apart of two ridges which, after running parallel or nearly parallel,
suddenly separate, spread apart, and cease to be parallel.
7. Bifurcation – is one single ridge splitting or forking into two or more branches.
8. Inverted bifurcation – is the bifurcation of one single ridge, splitting or forking in the opposite
direction from the line of flow of the surrounding ridges.
9. Difference between bifurcation and divergence:
a. Bifurcation - results from one single ridge.
b. Divergence - results from two distinct ridges
10. Enclosure – is formed by a bifurcation when the branches, once separate ridge meet to again
become one ridge.
11. Dot – is exactly what is implies.
12. Island – it resembles a circle, or a dot, or at times an oval. It is formed by a single ridge, which
after bifurcating for a short space, converges and continues as a single ridge. An island is always
much smaller than an enclosure.
13. Angle –it is the result of two or more ridges meeting each other. A single ridge cannot form an
angle.
14. Ending ridge – it is a ridge abruptly stopping its course.

LESSON IV
RECORDING OF FINGERPRINT
Taking fingerprints is not a difficult job, but it requires patience and concentration. It requires
the operator’s skill in controlling the subject’s hand; the subject must merely give his fingers and stand
in a relaxed position. The person taking the prints is called the fingerprint recorder. Knowledge of
what constitute a fingerprint is very important. The fingerprint recorder must know what is a single,
clear, classifiable pattern, and he must know when a pattern is complete. It is important that the points
required for classification are obtained in the taking of good impressions. The outer terminus or deltas
which are often missed in rolled impression are considered important in classification. Therefore, if
deltas are clearly shown, the pattern may be good quality printing. Instruction on how to record

25
 fingerprint with few pointers on the appearance of the pattern types and delta formations may give
fingerprints recorders knowledge in producing good inked impression.
 Procedures
1. The first step in taking fingerprints is to clean the inking plate thoroughly. Before starting to
fingerprint subject, make sure that his are clean and dry. If his hands are perspiring, freely wipe
them off with a soft, clean cloth, dampened with alcohol. Use of paper napkins can suffice, as they
act like blotters. Should the subjects’ hands be dry and hard, pour a little lotion into the palms of
his hands and have him message it into his fingers until the fingers become tacky.
2. After this, place a dab of ink the size of a match head on the slab, the glass slab, another on the
middle and still another on the opposite edge. The roller is then touched to the first dab, and a film
of ink is rolled length of the plate. The roller must be passed over the plate until the ink has been
evenly distributed.
3. To test whether there is a correct amount of ink on the glass slab try to print your finger from the
freshly inked slab and match this fresh print with old one to determined clarity density. Another
way is to hold the glass slab up to the light to see if the spread of ink has a light brown coating on
it.
4. Proper arrangement of the inking paraphernalia must be in order. The glass slab must be placed at
the extreme left of the table. The record card must be placed on the right of the inking plate (glass
slab) on a card holder. Now the recorder is ready for taking the prints.
5. Allow the subject to stand directly in front of the table facing not too near or too far to reach the
glass plate and the record card. The operator must have sufficient control over the subject’s hands
finger in order to take good prints. The recorder must be on the subject’s left hand on recording the
rolled prints of the hand, he record first the thumb continues the process up to the little finger.
After this, he takes the left hand rolled print in the same manner from the thumb to little finger. In
taking the rolled impressions, the side of the bulb of the finger is placed upon the inking plate and
the finger is rolled to the other side until it faces the opposite direction. Care must be exercised so
that the bulb of each finger is inked evenly from the tip to below the first joint. Rolled the finger on
the card lightly to obtain a clear impression of the finger surface. This requires the thumbs be
rolled towards the fingers away from the centre of the subject’s body. The subject must be
cautioned to relax and refrain from trying to help the operator.
6. To obtain plain impression, all the finger of the right hand should be pressed lightly upon the
inking plate, then press simultaneously upon the lower right hand corner of the card in the space
provided. The left hand fingers should be similarly printed after this; the thumbs of the hands
should be inked and printed without rolling on the specific space designated.
7. There are two types of inked impression recorded. They are called rolled impression and plain
impression. The rolled impressions are placed on the designated spaces on the fingerprint card with
ten squares or blocks. Incorrect classification may result if the rolled impressions are not placed on
the proper blocks. The plain impression of the right hand for fingers: Index, middle, ring, and little
finger are printed simultaneously on the space provided on the right side corner below on the card,
while the thumbs are placed on their specified blocks. Plain impressions of the left. Hand fingers
are printed on the left side on the card below. Plain impressions are recorded for purpose of
reference by the rolled impressions. It serves as a check.
26
 8. For accurate fingerprint classification,. Rolled impression must be taken carefully and must show
focal points (core and delta) for accurate ridge counts and tracings.

 Causes of Imperfect Inked Impressions

Good fingerprints, the necessary equipment shall be maintained in a neat and orderly manner at all times.

Poor impressions are usually caused the following faults;

1. The use of poor, thin, colored or ink, resulting in impressions which are too light and faint, or in
which the ink has run, obliterating the ridges. The best results will be obtained by using heavy block
printer’s ink, a paste which should not be thinned before using. This ink will dry quickly and will not
blur or smear with handling.
2. Failure to clean thoroughly the inking apparatus and the fingers of foreign substances and
perspiration, causing the appearance of false markings and the disappearance of characteristics.
Windshield cleaner, gasoline, benzene, and alcohol are good cleansing agents, but any fluids maybe
used. In warm weather each finger should wipe dry of perspiration before printing.
3. Failure to roll the fingers fully from one side to the other and to ink the whole area from tip below the
first fissure. The result of this is that the focal points of the impressions (the deltas or cores) do not
appear. The whole finger surface from joints to tips and from side to side should appear.
4. The use of too much ink, obliterating, or obscuring the ridges. If printers ink is used, just a touch of
the tube end to the inking plate will suffice for several sets of prints. It should be spread to a thin,
even film by rolling
5. Insufficient ink, resulting in ridges too light and faint to be counted or traced.
6. Allowing the fingers to slip or twist, resulting in smears, blurs, and blurs, and false appearing
patterns. The fingers should be held lightly without too much pressure. The subject should be warned
not to try to help but not remain passive.

 Problems in Recording Inked Fingerprint

1. Temporary disabilities
2. Permanent disabilities
3. Deformities

In fingerprint work, many experience fingerprint technicians have encountered one or more of the
rare cases involving the taking of fingerprints of person with temporary, permanent, disabilities or
deformities. For a beginner the important thing to know is what to do when faced with such a problem. Since
it is difficult to anticipate every possible abnormality, it is impossible to prepare for every possible
contingency. Whenever technician encounters more problems which have escaped his knowledge concerning
difficult fingerprint, he must use his good judgement in recording the impression and make specific comment
on the back of the card as to what the abnormality is.

Temporary disabilities
27
 One problem that a fingerprint officer may encounter is temporary disability. Occupational problems
(acid workers, plasters, cement mixers, assembly workers in electrical appliance plants) pose a challenge to
finger point technicians. In such cases the appearance of the ridges are not exactly destroyed, but they are
weaken and the prints show faint ridges. The patterns are still present and have not changed. When such
workers have stopped working for a certain length of time, the ridges will come back clear and sharp as they
were before.

One permanent disability that a fingerprint technician may encounter is an amputated finger. Such
problem once in while may crop up. When the technician prepares to record the prints, he should make
annotation on the particular block where the amputated finger is to be recorded. The notation should be exact
as to what part of the joint of the finger is amputated. Was it amputated at the first or second joint? If so, write
the information as the case maybe.

For person born without fingers, it is proper to make a notation “missing fingers at birth”. In taking the
prints having crippled fingers, it is not sufficient to write or note down crippled, broken, or disabled (see
figure 118). If the fingers are extremely bent toward the palm and they are hard to move, then proper notation
on the fingerprint card should be made. However, there are cases which are rare. The recorder should make
use of certain inking devices like the spatula, the roller, and a curve card strip holder (see figure 119). Usually
these are included in a fingerprint kit used in taking post-mortem prints.

Deformities

Under this situation, a relatively infrequent occurrence is the appearance of persons with extra fingers. A
subject may show two thumbs to two little fingers on the same hand. Sometimes the extra digit may appear on
the index, middle, or ring fingers. Such fingers should often represent the thumbs with complete nail-joints.
For classification purpose, on the inner thumb is use while the outer joint is not given by the any
consideration. Webbed fingers appearing on the right hand poses no problem for the fingerprints classifier
because in the recording process they are rolled together on the card and their prints are in correct order. For
the left hand, roiled inked prints are recorded in the opposite order of their position on the hand. From left to
right the prints are rolled starting with the thumb, then index, middle, ring, and little finger. Looking at back
of your left hand in that direction, you see that direction; you see that the fingers are positioned from left to
right as little, ring, middle, index, and thumb, the opposite order from which they are rolled. When left hand
webbed fingers are rolled on a fingerprint card, they are recorded in their national order on the card being
joined together they must be rolled together. This shift in the sequence might the classification for that
particular set of prints. The operator in this must be very specific in pointing out the fact that fingers are
webbed and were rolled in their natural sequence.

 DECEASED PERSON

Identify positively some dead human bodies, especially when advance decomposition set in, “through
fingerprints techniques has been a continuing problem in a criminalistics laboratory.” The problem range from
the taking of fingerprint to search the standard of fingerprint files.

Problems in Fingerprinting the Dead

28
Some deceased persons cannot be identified simply because their fingerprint are not in the police files; when
decomposition is for advance is not possible to take fingerprints already in the regular manner because all
ridges or ridge details are already destroyed. However, incredible as it may seem, it has been possible to
ensure identifiable impressions three years after death.

Three Classes of Deceased Persons

There are three classes of deceased persons which fingerprint operators may need to take their fingerprints for
identification purposes.

1. Those who have died recently, in which cases the task is relatively simple.
2. Those who have been dead for a long period, in which cases difficulty is experienced due to the
pronounced stiffening of the fingers, the early stage of decomposition, or both.
3. Cases of maceration, desiccation, or advanced decay of the skin are extremely difficult.

Fingerprint the newly dead person

In taking the fingerprint of a newly dead person, the following procedures must be properly performed
to obtain clear fingerprints.

1. The operator should see to it that the fingers are clean and dry before inking.
2. If necessary, wash the digit with soap and water and dry thoroughly.
3. If by regular method it is difficult to take the fingerprints, cut the ten squares numbers for the rolled
impressions form a fingerprint card, then roll each cut around the inked fingers and thumbs without
letting it slip. After the inked impression is properly taken, the ten squares bearing the impressions are
posted or stapled to a standard fingerprint card in their proper position. If it is possible the plain
impression should also be taken.
4. Broad-bladed putty knife of spatula, in some cases, is used as an inking instrument. This tool replaces
usual glass inking slab or plate. The ink is rolled thinly and evenly on the spatula and applied to the
fingers by passing the ink tool around.
It is possible to take inked fingerprint impression of a deceased person through the regular
inking process on a fingerprint card if the fingers are still flexible. This can be made possible or easier
if the deceased is laid face and palm on a table. (See Fig. 125)

Stiffening or Early Decomposition of the Finger Present

The taking of fingerprint where stiffening or early decomposition of the friction skin of the fingers
is present can be properly performed by observing the following procedures:

1. Cutting off the skin maybe necessary if the hands are clenched, or the fingertips are wrinkled, or
decomposition has begun, and/or a combination of these conditions. Before cutting the parts of the corpse,

29
 legal authority should be secured first. This authority may be granted or issued by an inquest officer or a
person who has legal authority on his matter.
2. If the fingers are tightly clenched and stiffening of the muscles or rigor mortis has already set in, the
fingers may be forcibly straightened by breaking the rigor. This can be done by holding the hand firmly
with one hand, grasping the finger to be straightened with the four fingers of the other hand and placing
the thumb, which is used as a lever, on the knuckle of the finger and forcing it straight. Then the spatula
the ten cut off squares of the card are used to take the fingerprint.
3. A spoon-shaped tool for holding cut squares or cut strips, while printing the fingers, may be utilized if the
rigor mortis cannot be completely overcome. This tool is similar to the tool used for crippled fingers, it
somewhat resembles a gauge without the sharp edge, with handle, a concave end and a frame or clamp to
hold the cardboard squares or strips.
4. The presence of wrinkles in the skin, even if the tips of the fingers are fairly pliable and intact, complete
impressions cannot be obtained. However, it can be remedied by the injection of a tissue builder,
obtainable from a dealer and undertaker’s supplies. Glycerine of water may be used in the absence of the
tissue building. This is than with the use of a hypodermic syringe. The hypodermic needle is injected at
the finger up into the tip with the needle below the skin surface. The injection is done until the finger
bulbs are rounded out, and then they are inked and printed.
5. Sometimes, the injection at the joint will not completely fill the finger bulb. To overcome this difficulty,
the fluid will be injected at the other point of the finger, particularly, at the extreme tip or side.
6. The tissue builder is better than glycerine or water because it hardens after a short period of time and is not
lose. When pressure is applied during the taking of the fingerprints, glycerine and water may sometimes
seep out. However, this seepage at the point where hypodermic needle is injected maybe offset by tying a
piece of string tightly around the finger just above the point of entry of the needle. For the tissue builder,
when it hardens in the syringe and needle cleansing solvent will be used.
7. When decomposition in its early stage is present, frequently, the outer layer of the skin will begin to peel
off. A careful examination should be made to determine if the peeling skin is intact or if a part has been
lost. If it is one piece secure prints just we thought it were attached normality to finger. If it as deemed
advisable, the skin may be peeled off in one piece, then place over the finger of the operator, ink and print
it as though it were his own finger. When the dermis or second layer of the skin missing this would be
dealt with as through it where the outside skin and then use the technique describe above. More attention
and care are needed dealing with the dermis because its ridge details is less pronounced than of the first
layer.

FINGERPRINTING THE DEAD IN DIFFICULT CASES

In difficult cases, the following technique overcomes the operator’s problem:

1. The first thing to do is examine the fingers to see to if it all is present. If not be following should be
determined.
a. Whether the missing finger or hand was amputated during the person’s life time.
b. Or whether the loss was due to other causes such as destruction by animal or marine life.

30
2. In the initial examination, the finger should be thoroughly cleaned. Soap and water are good cleansing
agents. If the fingers are dirted with grease or any patty matter, a chemical known as xylene may be
used. In cleansing the following shall be done.
a. A child’s soft-bristled tooth brush, in cases where the skin is firm, should be utilized in order to
clean it very well. The brushing should be done lightly and the strokes should follow the ridge
design so that be depressions will also be thoroughly cleaned.
b. If the skin is not firm, a cotton swab may be used. The wiping should be done very lightly with
either soap and water or xylene, and always following the ridge contours.
3. Bodies found in brush in buried in earth, advance decomposition or putrefaction is prevalent. The skin
Is may be rotted, soft, or flabby and very fragile. In cases like these, the techniques may greatly help
and facilitate the work of the operator of fingerprint technician:
a. It the outer skin is present and intact, if possible, ink and print it in the regular manner.
b. If it is soft and fragile to ink and roll in the regular manner, the skin may be removed from the
finger, or the finger itself may be cut off at the second joint and place in a 10 to 15 percent solution
of formaldehyde for approximately an hour to harden it, and the skin usually turn
Grayish-white and becomes firm. Then the skin is placed over the operator’s own thumb or index
and held in place by his other hand, inked and rolled in the card.
c. If clear prints are not obtained in this manner, examine the underside of the skin. Sometimes, ridge
detail is clearly visible on the underside. In this case the skin is inverted or turned inside out very
carefully to prevent splitting or breaking and then it is inked and printed in the usual way. If to
invert or to turn the skin inside out is not advisable for fear damaging it, photograph of the inner
ridge detail is made and the negative is print to give and “as is” position photograph for proper
classification and comparison purposes. Trimming the skin, flatten at out between the piece of
glass, and photograph it in that position good photographs can be obtained.
d. In handling the skin treated with formaldehyde, care should be exerted because it is brittle and may
split if not handled carefully. The skin is immersed in the solution only after it hardens sufficiently,
after which it is remove and carefully wipe dry with a piece of cloth.
e. When the entire finger is immersed into the solution the skin may swell and come loose from the
finger. Then the skin is removed carefully and the procedure above will be followed. If the skin is
still adheres to the fingers and is not too wrinkled, ink is applied and then print made. If the print is
too wrinkled, injection of the tissue builder, as explain earlier should be done. Of course, this can
only be done if the skin is intact.
f. Should part of the skin be destroyed to the extent that tissue builder cannot be injected effectively
while examination discloses that the pattern area is present but wrinkled, cut off the entire pattern
area from the join to tip of the finger and care must be exercised to insure that injury to the skin
will be avoided. After the excision the flesh is carefully and meticulously removed from the inside
by scrapping, cutting and trimming until only the skin remain or until the specimen is so thin that it
can be flattened out to remove most of the wrinkles.
g. If the outer skin is fairly pliable, the operator should attempt to place it over one of his own fingers
and try several prints. If the print secured is not suitable, the place of the skin is flattened out
between two pieces of glass and photograph. Care must be exerted to avoid breaking or splitting.

31
 h. If the outer skin is still attached but is of no value it should be removed by carefully picking or
prying it off with scalpel. Be sure that the ridge detail of the second layer is not injured. Then
proceed to the procedure as explain above. In the event the result impressions are not suitable for
classification and identification purposes, the fingers should be cut off at the second joint and
photograph.
i. If the outer skin is still attached and wrinkle cannot be removed by injecting tissue builder and
which also preclude the taking of photograph, the pattern area is cut off with a scalpel from the
first join to the tip. The flesh is then cut and scrapped out as previously describe, then enough to
flatten out between two pieces of glass which may be held together by scotch tape, then
photograph.

TAKING PHOTO AFTER FLATTENING

1. If after the flattening process it will be noted in the ground glass of the camera that the skin may be
seem plainly but the ridge detail is very poor, maybe due to the poor contrast of the ridges and
furrows when using direct lighting, it can be overcome by scrapping the skin to transparency and
then photographing it by transmitted light, that is passing light through the skin.
2. Sometimes due to the condition of the skin, even though it is tissue thin, it will not be transparent. If
this happens, it can be overcome by soaking the skin in xylene for a few minutes and then
photographing it by transmitted light while it is still impregnated with the xylene.
3. If the substance dries too fast to permit improper photographing, the skin should be photograph
while immersed in the xylene. The negative should be printed to give a reverse position so that the
print will be comparable with the ink impression on the card.
4. Desiccation and Charring:
a. When the fingers are desiccated, or dried and shrivelled, the problem here is that of
distending and softening the skin.
b. Desiccated fingers are generally found to have the outer layer of the skin intact and the
ridge details fairly clear. However, due to the shrinking, numerous wrinkles will be present,
and as the dying process continues the skin and flesh harden until the fingers become
almost as hard as stone.
c. It is sometimes possible to distend or swell the flesh by utilizing a 1 to 3 percent solution
sodium hydroxide, sometimes referred, to as caustic potash. As a matter of caution, this
process should be tried with the one finger before using it for the remaining fingers. This
point of caution is made because of the reaction of the potassium or sodium hydroxide,
which of actually one of destruction. While absorption as swelling of flesh occur the
disintegrating action of fluid may result in total destruction of the flesh.

32
LESSON V

CLASSIFICATION OF FINGERPRINTS

 PATTERN AREA

The pattern area is that part of a loop and of whorl in which appear the core, the delta and the ridges. The
pattern area is the only portion of the impression which the fingerprint expert is concerned when
interpreting and classifying print.

 FOCAL POINT

The focal points are enclosed within the pattern area of loop and whorls. They are the deltas and core.

Core – the inner terminus; the approximate centre of the pattern.

Deltas – the outer terminal point of the patterns

ABSENCE OF PATTERN AREA

ARCHES – Has no pattern area

Plain Arch

Tented

 PATTERN CONSIDERED DESTROYED

A pattern may be considered destroyed only when the entire pattern area and the focal points are
involved.
 TYPE LINES

-are the two innermost ridges witch start parallel, diverge, and surround or tend to surround the pattern
area.

LENGTH OF THE TYPE LINES - varies and at times they may be very short.

DOT – is never considered as a possible type line.

BROKEN TYPE LINES –type lines are not always two continuous ridges. They are frequently
broken. When there is a definite break in a type line, the ride immediately outside of it is considered its
continuation.

BIFURCATION AND TYPE LIINES – the two forks of a bifurcation may never constitute
the type lines; because of a bifurcation is the forking, or the dividing, of one line into two or
33
 more branches. The two branches of a bifurcation may constitute the type lines only when the
forks run parallel after bifurcating, and then diverge and surround or tend to surround pattern
area.

ANGULAR FORMATION NOT TYPE LINES –an angular formation between two lines which,
after running parallel, surround, or tend surround the pattern area is not to be considered as forming
typelines, but is not considered delta instead.

BIFURCATION NOT TYPE LINES – it must be remembered that a bifurcation is the dividing or
forking of one single ridge, but the type lines are two distinct ridges which, after running parallel,
diverge to surround or attempt to surround the pattern area.

CORE FORMATION

CORE - is the second of the two focal points.

- The approximate center of the fingerprint impression.

CORE IN LOOPS – it is placed upon or within the innermost looping ridge. When the looping ridge
has a rod, or rods, enclosed within it, the core is place on a rod. When there is no such formation, the
core is placed on the looping ridge itself, in a designated spot.

NO RIDGE OR ROD – when the innermost loop contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high as the
shoulders of the loop the core is placed on the shoulder of the loop farthest from the delta.

SHOULDERS OF A LOOP – are the points at which the recurving ridge definitely turns inward, or
curves.
ONE ROD – if there is but one rod within the recurving ridge which is as high as the shoulders, the
core is placed on the tips of this rod.
TWO RODS, DIFFERENT HEIGHTS – if there are two rods within the recurving ridge which rise
to the shoulders at different heights, the core is placed on the higher tip.

TWO RODS, SAME HEIGHT – if there are two rods within the recurving ridge at the same height,
the core is placed on the tip farthest from delta.

THREE OR UNEVEN NUMBER OF RODS – if there are three or uneven, number of rods within
the recurving ridge, the core is placed on the center rod if it does not high as the shoulders of the
recurving ridge and whether it touches the loop or not.

FOUR OR EVEN NUMBER OF RODS – if there are four, or an even, number of rods within the
recurving ridge, the two innermost rods are considered as one, as if an imaginary curve joined the tips
of the two rods, and the core is placed on the imaginary shoulder farthest from the delta.

34
RECURVE OF RIDGES – a sufficient recurve is that part of recurving ridge between the shoulders
of a loop.

RECURVING RIDGE DESTROYED BY APPENDAGE – any appendages abutting upon the

outside of the recurve at a right angle automatically destroy the ridge for use as a core or ridge count.

TWO LOOPS SIDE BY SIDE – when two loops, side by side, are present within one recurving
ridge, the two loops are considered as one, and the core is placed on the inner shoulder of the loop
farthest from the delta.

TWO LOOPS INTERLOCKING:

Imaginary lines crosses at point of intersection – when two loops are interlocking, the loops are
considered as one. If imaginary line drawn between the shoulders of both loops crosses the point of
interlocking, the core is placed as this point.

TWO LOOPS INTERLOCKING:

Imaginary line below intersection – when two loops are interlocking, the loops are considered as one.
If an imaginary line is drawn across the shoulders and falls below the interlocking point of the loops,
the core is placed on the farthest shoulder of the loop closer to the delta.

TWO LOOPS INTERLOCKING:

Imaginary line above intersection – when two loops are interlocking, the loops are considered as one.
If an imaginary line is drawn across the shoulders and falls above the interlocking point of the loops
the core is placed on the shoulder facing the delta of the loop farthest from the delta.

Recurving ridge destroy – any appendage or spike on the outside of a recurving ridge, at a right angle
between the shoulders, destroys the recurving ridge. The core cannot be placed on a recurving loop
having an appendage. If the innermost loop has an appendage on the outside of the recurve, at a right
angle between the shoulders, the next outside loop is considered for the placing of the core.

Core below Shoulder – the core may not be placed below the shoulder if it is being placed on the
recurving ridge itself.

Abutting Ridge Through Two Looping Ridges – when the abutting ridge or appendage continues up
through the next looping ridge, the core will be placed at the intersection of the second looping ridge
Abutting Ridge Recurves Away from the delta – When the abutting ridge or appendage continues up
and it recurves, but away from the delta, the core will be placed on the shoulder of the abutting on
recurving ridge farthest from the delta.

35
 DELTA LOCATION

Delta – is the first of two focal points.

the first obstruction of any natures at the point of the divergence of the type lines, in front of,
or nearest to the center of the divergence.

The Delta’s location maybe:

1. The point on the first bifurcation which open towards the core;
2. An abrupt ending ridge;
3. The meeting of two ridges (angle);
4. Dot
5. Any fragmentary ridge;
6. Any point upon a ridge;
- At the center of the divergence of the two types lines;
- Or nearest to the center of the divergence;
- Or directly in front of the divergence;

Delta Attached:
The ridge of the delta may be joint, either or both type lines, and ridges converging upon it from within the
pattern area.

Not a Delta:
The delta maybe either end of the ridge running between the type lines.

1. When a ridge runs half way between the type lines and the pattern area, the delta placed on the end of
the nearest the core;
2. When a ridge runs entirely within a pattern area, the delta is placed on the end nearest the point of
divergence of the type lines;
3. When a ridge inters the pattern area from a point below the divergence of the type lines, the delta is
placed on the end nearest the core.

Rules Governing the Choice between Two or More Possible Delta:

1. When two or more possible deltas conform to the definition, delta nearest the core is chosen;
2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the bifurcation is selected as
the delta;
3. When there is between two possible deltas, neither of which a bifurcation is, and when both are in the
vicinity of the divergence of the type lines, the delta nearest the center of the divergence is selected.
4. When a single ridge enters the pattern area with two or more bifurcations opening towards the core,
the bifurcation which is closest to the core becomes the delta.

RULES IN RIDGE COUNTING

1. Locate the exact points of the core and delta:
36
 2. Count all ridges which touch or cross an imaginary line drawn between the core and delta.
3. Never include the core and the delta in the count. Count only those ridges which intervene or pass
between the core and delta.
4. Incipient ridges are never counted, no matter where they appear. The general rule is that in order to be
counted, the width of a ridge must be equal to the width of the other ridges in the pattern under
consideration.

Ridges Subjected to ridge counting with given numerical values:

1. Island or dot – 1 count

2. Short ridge – 1 count
3. Long ridge – 1 count
4. Abrupt ending ridge – 1 count
5. Bifurcating ridge
a. Bifurcates into two across the imaginary line – 2 counts
b. Imaginary line cross only at the forking point – 2 counts
c. Imaginary line does not cross at the point of forking or even touch it but rather touches only
the single ridge – 1 count
d. Ridge enclosures are counted – 2 counts
e. Crossing or meeting of ridges – 2 counts

Rules for Ridge count of loops and their symbols ( I ) Inner (O) Outer

1. A ridge count 1-9 inclusive of each index finger is inner and is symbolized by capital letter (I), While
a count of 10 or more ridges is outer symbolized by capital letter (O), Letter symbol should be
exhibited on the classification line only.
2. A ridge count of 1- 10 inclusive of each middle finger is inner and is symbolized by capital letter (I),
while a count of 11 or more ridges is outer and symbolized by capital letter (O), letter symbols be
exhibited on the classification line only.
3. A ridge count of 1-13 inclusive of each ring finger is inner and is symbolized by capital letter (I), while
count of 14 or more ridges is outer and symbolized by letter (O), letter symbols be exhibited on the
classification line only.

Basic Rules for ridge tracing in whorls;

1. Tracing always begins at the left delta and goes towards the right delta.
2. An uninterrupted ridge can be traced from the left delta to right delta.
3. When the tracing ridge suddenly ends, the tracing is continued on the ridge immediately below it.
4. A ridge must definitely end before the tracing may be continued on the ridge below.
5. When a ridge bifurcates, the tracing is continued on the lower branch of the bifurcation.
6. When the delta is a dot, the tracing begins on the type line, which is the ridge immediately below the
“delta “. (This is the only time the type line is used as a tracing line).

37
Rules for beginning and ending a ridge tracing

1. Ridge tracing begins at the extreme left delta and stops at the point directly in front of the right delta.
2. In an accidental whorl having three deltas, the tracing begins at the extreme left delta and goes
towards the extreme right delta. Any other delta encountered is ignored.
3. In a double whorl, the tracing begins at the extreme left delta .when the tracing passes inside of the
right delta, one stop at the nearest point to the right delta on upthrust.
4. If no up upthrust is present, one continues the tracing until a point opposite the right delta, or the delta
itself, is reached.

THE CLASSIFICATION FORMULA

Records have shown that there are more than fifty fingerprint classifications throughout the world.
We have the Gasti system of Italy, the patter system of Holland, Vucitech system of Argentina, and some
other systems used by other countries. But the most popular one is the Henry, Galton, FBI classification
system. This system is well known all over the world because of its influence and popularity among
democratic countries and because of its gigantic facilities. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) source is
derived from the pure Hendry system of classification.

The main purpose of a classification system is to facilitate the filing, searching, and retrieval of
fingerprint records. Classification means the sorting of things into division or groups for easy and fast
location. In fingerprint science, it refers to the arrangement of fingerprint records into groups or sub-groups
for filing purposes.
A person who has basic knowledge of classification and rules involved in the proper recording of
fingerprints will surely make a better technician than one who knows nothing of both.
In deriving the fingerprint classification formula, a technician or classifier should first all examine the
rolled impressions to see if they were placed in their respective spaces in the chart. The first column beginning
with block number 1 to block number 5 are for the right hand finger, starting from the thumb to the little
finger respectively. Fingers from the left hand starting from the thumb to the little finger occupy the second
column from block number 6 to block number 10. The ten rolled impressions must tally with the plain
impressions on their corresponding places on the chart. If a discrepancy found as in the case of interchanged
of the recording of the right hand digits and those of the left hand, immediate correction must be taken in
order not to affect the classification.
The Hendry Galton, FBI system with modification and extension is adopted by almost all English-
speaking countries of the world. The Philippines is using this system in its locally modified form. This system
derived through a succession of steps; first is blocking out a sets of prints. Blocking out is the process of
writing below each pattern in the space provided in the card conspicuously or in capital letters purposely to
facilitate the attainment of the primary Classification.

Symbols of the Fingerprint Patterns in Block

Fingerprint Name Symbol Sign

1. Plain Arch A
2. Tented Arch T
38
 3. Radial Loop / Right Hand
4. Radial Loop \ Left Hand
5. Ulnar Loop \ Right Hand
6. Ulnar Loop / Left Hand
7. Plain Whorl W
8. Central Pocket Loop Whorl C
9. Double Loop Whorl D
10. Accidental Whorl X

Note: The diagonal line symbol should be used in loops (Radial and Ulnar) and must always follow
the slope of the innermost sufficient recurve. Block numbers 1 to 5 are for the right hand fingers, while
block number 6 to 10 for the left hand fingers.

DIVISION OF THE CLASSIFICETION FORMULA

1. Primary Classification Classification line – this refers as a line
2. Secondary Classification placed on the upper
corner
a. Capital Letter Group of the fingerprint card
where
b. Small Letter Group the classification
formula is
3. Sub-secondary Classification exhibited.
4. Major Division
5. Final classification example:
6. Key

8 S 17 aUt IIO 19
L 9 W2r OIM

Primary Classification
This is the result of the summation of all the numerical values assigned to whorls(plain whorl, central
pocket loop whorl, double loop whorl, and accidental whorl), appearing in the fingerprint chart(ten
fingerprints) which are expressed as numerators and denominators plus the pre-established fraction of
one over one (1/1).
Division of Patterns as to Numerical Values
1. Pattern of numerical values: All whorl type patterns.
2. Pattern without numerical values: Arches and loop-type patterns.
Four (4) steps to attain Primary Classification
1. Pairing – The ten fingerprints from the corresponding finger are divided into pairs, totalling 5
pairs in all.
The first pair is composed of the thumbs and the right index finger (block #1and 2). The second
pair is composed of the right ring finger (block # 3and 4). The third pair is composed of the right
little finger and left thumb (block # 5and 6). The fourth pair is composed of the left index finger

39
 and the left middle ring finger (block #7and 8). The fifth pair is composed of the left ring finger
and the left little finger (block #9 and 10).
2. Assigning numerical values to whorl patter only

These numerical values assigned to the corresponding fingers are permanent.

- Whorls appearing in the first pair have a numerical value of 16 for each whorl.
- Whorls appearing in the second pair have a numerical value of 8 for each whorl.
- Whorls appearing in the third pair have numerical value of 4 for each whorl.
- Whorls appearing in the fourth pair have numerical value of 2 for each whorl.
- Whorls appearing in the fifth pair have numerical value of 1 for each whorl.

3. Knowing the numerators and the denominators in pairs

The first pattern of every pair is the denominator while the second pattern of the pair is the numerator.
There are five numerator and five denominators in the pairs in a set of ten fingerprints.

4 Summing up the numerical values of whorls assigned to the fingers plus the pre-established
fraction of 1/1.

To determine the exact result of the primary classification, get the total value of all the numerators and add the
fraction of 1/1 and for the total value of all the denominator also add the fraction of 1/1. The pre-established
fraction of 1/1 is always added, for in the absence of the numerical value this fraction 1/1 should be exhibited
in the classification line to complete the primary formula for filing purposes.

SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION
 A. CAPITAL LETTER

The secondary classification is symbolized by capital letters of the patterns represented by the two
index fingers after the primary classification in the classification line. The finger print pattern
appearing on the right index is the numerator while the fingerprint pattern from the left index is the
denominator.

A COMBINATION OF THE FOLLOWING SYMBOLS MAY COME OUT

Plain arch ……………………………………………………….............. A

Tented arch ……………………………………………………………….. T
Radial loop …………………………………………………………………. R
Ulnar loop ………………………………………………………………….. U
Plain whorl ………………………………………………………………….W
Central Pocket loop Whorl …………………………………………. C
Double Loop Whorl …………………………………………………….. D
Accidental Whorl ………………………………………………………… X

 B. SMALL LETTER GROUP

40
 This classification refers to the three types of fingerprint pattern only;
Namely the plain arch, tented arch, radial loop. Whenever any or all of these patterns appear in
any finger-or fingers, excluding the two index fingers, its symbol in a small letter is exhibited
in
the classification line as; a for plain arch, t for tented arch and r for radial loop, before and/ or
after the secondary Classification by capital letters, depending on the finger of origin. The for
fingers from the right hand are the numerators while the other four fingers from the left hands
are the denominators.

 The Sub- secondary Classification

This is derived through the process of ridge counting the loops or ridge- tracing the whorl type
patterns appearing on the index, middle, and ring fingers of both right and left hands. Whenever
loop patterns are shown on the above mentioned fingers it should be ridge counted and the result of
such count in number be displayed on the right upper corner of the block where found and later on
represented by a letter symbol (I or O) in the classification line based on inner and outer group
division table for ridge- counts of loops.
Whorls are ridge-traced and the result of such tracing is represented by the letter symbols
I, M, O (inner, meeting, outer) on the tables for symbols of whorls for ridge tracing. The letters
symbols are then placed on the right upper corner of the block were found and later on the symbols
are exhibited on the classification line. Under this classification, the right index, middle, and ring
fingers are the numerator while the opposite fingers from the left hand are the denominators. The
plain arch and tented arch are neither ridge counted nor ridge traced. They are merely represented
by dash (-) on the classification line.

Symbols for Whorls as a result of ridge tracing

1. When the ridge being traced from the left delta to the right delta passes inside or in front of the
right delta and there are three (3)or more intervening ridges between the traced ridge and the right
delta, the result of tracing is known as inner and represented by capital letter I. The symbol is
exhibited on the right upper corner of the block where found on the classification line.
2. When the ridge being traced passes on either inside or outside of the right delta and there are two
or less ridges intervening between the traced ridge and the right delta or it actually meets the right
delta. The result of the tracing is known as meeting and is represented by capital letter M. The
symbol is exhibited on the right upper corner of the block where found in the classification line.
3. When the ridge being traced passes outside or below the right delta and there are three 3 or more
ridges intervening between the traced ridge and right delta, the result of the tracing is known as
outer and represented by capital letter O. The symbol is exhibited on the upper corner of the
block where found on the classification line.

41
The Major Division
The Major Division is quite in derivation to the sub-secondary classification thought it applies only
to thumbs. This is done by ridge counting the loops and ridge tracing the whorls appearing on the thumbs. The
results of the ridge-count of the loop is exhibited on the right upper of the block where the loop is found and
later on is expressed by a letter symbol in the classification line.

The whorls are ridge-traced, as is done in the sub-secondary classification line and the letter symbol
is represented on the right upper corner of the block where found and is also exhibited on the classification
line.

Two sets of table for symbols are used in loops whenever both loop patterns appear in the thumbs. The placed
for the symbol of the Major Division is on the left side of the primary in the classification line. The right
thumb is the numerator while the left thumb is the denominator.

Table A. Ridge-count and Letter Symbols for Loops

1. A ridge-count of 1 to 11, inclusive, is small. It is represented by capital letter S.
2. A ridge –count of 12 to 16 inclusive, is medium. It is represented by capital letter M.
3. A ridge – count of 17 or more, inclusive, is large. It is represented by capital letter L.

Table B

To be applied only to the loop from the right thumb when the ridge count of the loop from the left
Thumb is 17 or more, making it large (L).
1. A ridge – count of 1 to 17, inclusive, is small. It is represented by capital letter S.
2. A ridge – count of 18 to 22 inclusive, is medium. It is represented by capital letter M.
3. A ridge – count of 23 or more, inclusive, is large. It is represented by capital letter L.

Left thumb Ridge count Denominator Right thumb Ridge Numerator

count
1-11 S 1-11 S
12-16 M
17 or more S
12-16 M 1-11 S
12-16 M
17 or more L
17 or more L 1-17 S
18-22 M
23 0r more L

Fig.137 scale for Major classification

42
The Final Classification
The final classification is the exhibition in a numerical figure of the ridge. Count of loops and/ or whorls
from the two little fingers. The result of the ridge-count is exhibited on the right upper corner of the block
where found and placed at the extreme right of the classification line. The ridge- count of the right little finger
is the numerator while that of the left little finger is the denominator. Arches are represented by a dash (-)on
the classification line.

Rules in deriving the ridge- count of whorls

For purpose of deriving the final classification, whorls are subject to ridge- counting as in the loops.

1. A plain whorl or central pocket loop whorl is treated as an ulnar loop.2

2. A double loop – whorl must be ridge – counted to an upright loop
3. An accidental whorl must be ridge- counted from the extreme corresponding delta to the nearest
core (least number of ridge- count)

The Key Classification

The key classification is derived by ridge-counting the first loop in a set of prints. The ridge- count
of the first loop may come from the right thumb or any other finger except the little fingers. The ridge-
count is always placed at the extreme left of the classification line and is always represented as
numerator, no matter where it is taken. Where there is no loop, the first whorl is ridge-counted, being
treated as ulnar loop; and the result of the count is displayed on the left upper corner of the block
where found. When arches appear in all the prints (there is no loop or whorls) the symbol of the key
classification is just a dash (-) on the classification line.

LESSON VI

DEVICES AND EQUIPMENT FOR RECORDING PRINTS

A fingerprint kit where the investigator can the tools and other equipment needed for fingerprint work
must be provided. The kit may be small, handy or portable, larger equipment that cannot be placed inside the
kit shall be carried separately.

FINGERPRINT EQUIPMENT
The following are the needed equipment and other items in fingerprint investigation and
examination:

1. Fingerprint card holder - To readily use it in the field work; it may attached to the lid or movable cover
of the kit.
2. Fingerprint Inking devices – Pad, Plate or glass slabs, roller or other convenient device to take
comparison prints at the crime scene.
3. Fingerprint powder – One bottle for each of the following powder is sufficient:

43
 a. Black powder
b. Black fluorescent
c. Gray powder
d. Pale gold lining
e. Fine aluminium lining
f. Good dark colored paper powder (manganese dioxide).

Black colored powder is mostly used in fingerprint work; the investigator should carry extra black
powder.

4. Two-cell flashlight. This is primarily used for searching latent fingerprint. It is however used for other
purpose. Focusing light is preferable.
5. Rule or roll tape measure. A six foot spring metal “Tubboy” type tape is very useful. Six foot folding
tape, or twenty five-foot tape measure with plain black and white and easily read markings, will do.
6. Six inches long transparent rule.
7. Scissors or small size shears. A shear is a machines used to cut metals.
8. Pencil. It has many uses in investigation work so the investigator must not forget to bring it.
9. Brushes. Six brushes are sufficient enough. Three small size brushes with hair not less than one fourth
inches long and the other three are of larger size.
10. Fingerprint cards. The size 8x8’ and 12 places are sufficient enough.
11. Transparent cellophane tape. It would be in roll form. The investigator should carry adequate supply of
tape. Usually 1 and 1 ½ inches are needed.
12. 3x5 inches cards, white index. Usually they are obtainable in packs of 100; used to receive dark
colored lifts.
13. Black paper. Exposed sheets of photographic paper if cut into 3x5 inches will do.
14. Sheeting. Either transparent or translucent but the latter is preferable. The sheets are cut into 5x3
inches or may be smaller to receive lifts. The sheeting is frosted.
15. A pair of tongs. They are made of wood or plastic of about six inches long will do.
16. A magnifying glass. This is indispensable for classifying and comparing prints if accuracy is to be
achieved and unnecessary eye strain avoided. The Bausch and Lomb glass, with Henry disc is the best.

B. KEEPING OF KIT
The kit should be kept, clean, orderly, and well supplied. There will be a periodic check-up and
replenish of all its contents. Every time kits is used the investigator must conduct a quick check to find out of
everything in there is in order before he proceeds to the crime scene.

KEEPING THE POWDER DRY AND LOOSE

The powder should always be kept dry and loose. To keep them loose bottle or container shall be
lightly taped on any flat hard object and then shake the powders to become loose and workable all the time are
charcoal, gum Arabic, basic lead carbonate and fullers ‘earth. The powder will be prevented from clamping.

FINGERPRINT BRUSHES
There are several kinds of fingerprint brushes that can be effective in the development of latent
impressions. They vary in sizes and shapes. Generally, they are classified into two, namely, hair and feather.
44
 1. Hair, if the brush is made of hair it should be very soft and pliable. It would never contain stiff bristle.
One can detect the presence of bristle in a brush by streaking in a powdered image. This type of brush
is commonly used for the following reasons.
a. Suitable and durable than feather brushes or duster,
b. Cheaper and more easily procured.
c. Adaptable of fingerprint work, maybe dipped into small one-ounce powder bottles.
d. It hold powder well.

FINGERPRINT MAGNIFYING GLASS

In classification and comparing fingerprints, magnifying glass is needed because without the aid of it
the naked eyes cannot achieve accuracy. The most common magnifying glass used in examining and
classifying fingerprints is:

1. Folding tape glass – generally, it is not used in classifying fingerprint. However, it is convenient to
carry it to the crime scene and it has five magnifying power. For students’ purpose to practise
examining fingerprint impression this can be useful.
2. Bausch and Lomb glass, It is sturdy and heavy-duty; the eye piece is adjustable for focusing
purposes to fit for individual’s vision capacity; a grove is milled in the inside edge of the
microscope type base with a ball and spring lock to receive different reticules for special types of
examination like the single fingerprint

Hendry Battly, Moran and Larson are the four common discs or reticules made purposely for the glass.
Each is designed for special system classification. The reticules are interchangeable and can be removed
very easily by slight pressure. These glasses have a magnifying power of 4x5. In actual use the bar
should be placed toward the operator or to either side just to allow light to fall on the pattern being
viewed underneath without being obstructed.

F. FINGERPRINT TAPE
In fingerprint work not just any kind of tape is used. There are two things to be considered in
selecting the best tape. First to be considered in is the quality and second is the width. Clear cellophane
or cellulose tapes free from any imperfection or discoloration are excellent. Transparent tapes being
sold in retail store are good only for binding, wrapping, and pasting purpose but not for lifting
developed Latent fingerprints. Three rolls of tape: three-quarter inch roll, one-inch roll, and one and half
inch roll shall always be available in the kit. Lifting individual or single fingerprint or pairs of
fingerprints side by side or crosswise the first two should be use. The last one is good for palm prints.
The most useful width is one-inch roll of tape. Special scotch tape (trade mark MM&M) is
manufactured by Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company. Texcel fingerprint tape is
manufactured by Industrial Tape Corporation in new Brunswick, Chicago, and Los Angeles.

G. THE FINGERPRINT CAMERA

There are different kinds of camera and each kind has certain features that are better for certain
work. Good police photographs can be made with any kind of camera. But for better photographic
fingerprint evidence there is especially deigned fingerprint camera for making full-size reproductions of
subjects on a plane surface within an area measuring 2 1/8 inches x 3 1/8 inches. The former fingerprint
45
 Camera is the type used mostly by police agencies. Its overall size is 5 ½ by 6x12 inches; it is equipped
with an f-6.3 Kodak anastigmatic lens. The camera is made by Graflex Inc. (formerly Folmergrflex)
whence it takes its name.

This camera was especially designed for investigative fingerprint. However, it can be used in
copying fingerprint and signature, tool marks, jewellery, passes, printed matters and other with little
depth of field.

The detailed explanation on how to use on and operate the camera, including its accessories,
nomenclature and film used shall not be discuss in this study for they are separate subject matters.

H. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES WITH THE FINGERPRINT CAMERA

A quick and easy method of fingerprint on a flat object in the aperture of the fingerprint camera
is to snap open to metal door, open the front section, the body of the camera back in the horizontal position in
such a way that the aperture maybe used like picture frame over the subjects to be photographed.

The back in the camera maybe rested on the table top while the aperture is hold in position over the
area to be photographed. Then the aperture position over, the camera proper is brought back to a vertical
position and close into compartment.

1. Marks on curve surface, fingerprint impression on slightly curved surface like bottles and
drinking glasses can be photographed swinging it back by opening by opening the aperture
compartment as described above and swinging it back out of way. The curve surface bearing the
impression maybe centred in front of the camera. The distance from the camera to the objects
correspond to the distance from the camera to the aperture when it is closed, which distance is 1
½ inches. This distance should be measured not estimated, since image made on the ground
glass or film is not a sharp as in the case of flat surface, the camera does not allow for much
depth of field.
2. Latent prints developed on clear glass. A latent impressions found on the clear glass like broken
window which is developed by an opaque powder maybe photographed as follows:

The pane of glass is supported in a horizontal position with a clear space of several inches or afoot
below the glass. A sheet of white papers is laid under the glass as a background and illuminated with a strong
light. The four lamps in the cameras are loosened. Exposure is made by illuminating the background and
operating the shutter level while the camera is in position over the subject to be photographed. One or two
exposure may have to be made to arrive at the correct exposure time; it will depend on how much light is used
on the white background.

I EQUIPMENT FOR TAKING FINGERPRINT

Any law enforcement agency can easily provide the needed equipment’s for taking inked fingerprints. Some
of this equipment can be made by a local carpenter.

The following are the minimum equipment’s needed for taking fingerprints:

46
1. Inking plate – It is also known as glass slab.
a. The thickness of ½ of an inch provided most satisfactory work.
b. 12 inch plate is long enough for a set of finger or eight fingers and two thumbs.
c. Three inches long is also good for individual fingers and thumbs.
d. The edges of the plate should be smoothly round and the top surface is free from any scratches and
flaws.
e. The corners should be be rounded to prevent any possibility of injury to the operator or to be
subject being fingerprinted.
f. The plate should be firmly and securely attached to the stand or table and may be done and either
of the following ways.
1. The glass counter sunk so that it’s top surface in level with the adjacent working surface of the
table.
2. The surface of the table is build up to the level of the glass.
g. The plate may not be set in position on a table top by the use of quarter to a table top nor should it
be laid loosely on the table because they both constitute hazard. The plate should never be placed
in a position in which it might be dropped and broken and loosen as an offensive weapon.
h. Another method for setting the glass plate on the fingerprint stand is to point the surface beneath
the glass with white-color or to back the plate up with a sheet of white paper. The edges of the
glass may be sealed to prevent cleaning solution from seeping from under the glass and discoloring
the background. White surface under the plate provides the technician with a good aid in
determining the following:
i. Consistency and evenness of the film of ink while it is being rolled out;
j. When the finger is inked the type of pattern can be read when the finger has been rolled on the
plate and so the operator knows immediately whether the finger has been rolled enough to include
the complete pattern area and important points of the pattern for classification purposes;
k. It will also help the operator whether or not the finger is picking up enough ink to make a
satisfactory impression on the card. Any defect in the process if known to the operator in advance
he can take steps to the faults.

2 Card Holder
a. The U-shaped spring clamp is the simplest of the several types of card holders. It holds the
fingerprint card steady during the process of fingerprinting.
b. It is best used on a board which has a rounded front edge to conform the contour of the bend in the
clamp.
c. It may be made of spring steel, stainless steel or brass of a gauge sufficient to hold its shape in
heavy usage.
d. The printing space is one large open space three by seven and one-half inches. Even if it is have no
dividing bars between fingers spaces will do.
e. The three common types of fingerprints card clamps are fauret clamp, one – piece spring steal
clamp, and the one called ace clamp.

47
 3 The Roller
a. It is made of fine hoop rubber with a wood or wire handle. Its sole function is to spread uniform
film of ink on the glass slab.
b. It may be measured from one – half to two inches in diameter and preferable not less than four
inches long.
c. A six – inch roller may be a better size for heavy duty work. It depends upon the size of the inking
plate, the convenience of the persons using it and the amount of usage.
d. Smaller rollers may be used for portable or infrequent usage but not satisfactory for preparing
films of ink for the taking of large number of prints.
e. The handle of the roller should suspend the number the rubber roller in air when not in use, both,
to prevent from developing flat sides and to keep unused portions of the plate and table top from
being smeared with ink.
f. A roller should be cleaned at frequent intervals the same as the inking plate.

4.The ink
a. Black printer’s ink refined heavy paste permanent ink, is commonly used; it has smooth
texture and it is free from lumpiness, it has consistency suitable for rolling into a thin film;
when transferred to a card as an ink impression it quickly dries up; it does dry too fast but
usable for several hours after a film has been rolled on the plate; not so sticky or slippery,
yet it flows evenly on the glass slab after few rolling of the rubber roller.
b. Unless necessary, fountain pen inks, colored inks should be avoided because they dry too
quickly; in the case of stamp pad ink, it dries very slowly and it smears and may produce
weave.

J. THE CLEANING OF THE EQUIPMENT

If not in use equipment should be kept clean because if the inking plate is not clean the ink film
become dry and useless; if the roller is inked and not used, the film of ink on its surface will in time
become dry and hard. The cleaning facilities consist of cleaning fluid, cloths, or paper towels. Lint of
paper towels and dust should be removed or kept off the plate for they will surely mark the impression.
Benzene, other and those used in dry cleaning or good cleaning solvent. But extreme caution should be
taken in the used of benzene, for they are highly inflammable.
Cleaning solvent maybe purchase in quantities and placed in bottles with thumb pressures
spraying device to prevent the danger of being caught by fire.

K. THE FINGERPRINT STAND

The stand should at the height which permits the average person’s hand and forearm to assume a natural
horizontal position, or it would be of elbow height which is approximately 43 inches. This height, however, is
not good for short or six feet or more persons because they may have to stoop slightly.

L. FINGERPRINT CARD
8x8 inches is the standard size of fingerprint card because it has found to be adequate for receiving fine
rolled impression across the card and it is convenient for handling and filing. It is white, light weight
48
cardboard with semi – glazed surface. The texture and strength of the card must be such that it will stand on
the edges of corners. Individual spaces for the ten fingers are provided on the card.

M. ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT SOURCE

The following ultraviolet light sources are must common in fingerprint work:

1. Mineral light type V – 41. It operates on 115 volt AC. It is a short wave source of ultraviolet energy.
2. Westinghouse black light lamp. It usually produces flood light by reason of the contour or shape of the
built in reflector. It is available either a flood or stamp lamp; commonly used in theaters and other
places of entertainment to produce flourescene in carpets, draperies pictures etc. it is a long wave
ultraviolet light.
3. Mercury H – 4 lamps. It is tubular shaped lamp; purple colored outer glass envelope encloses a
mercury tube which produces long wave ultraviolet radiation.
4. Purple – x lamp. It operates an ordinary 115 – volt current; it burns intermittently because of the
intense heat generated by it; it also produces long wave length.
5. Argon Glow Lamp. It is small clear globe; produces small amount of ultraviolet radiation; its
applications to criminology and investigation is limited because it produces only small amount of UV
radiation, it is used chiefly as an indicator lamp where a minimum amount illumination is needed; it
operates on 115 volts current.
6. 360 BL Flourescent tube lamps. This is a special ultraviolet producing lamp. It is available in various
wattages.

A user of any ultraviolet lamp; especially if he is not familiar with the different types of radiation, he
should avoid looking directly at the light sources. Some ultraviolet radiation has injuries effects on the
retina of the eye. Eye glasses may serve as a filter for ultraviolet radiation.

N. STRONG LIGHT SOURCE

A flashlight sometimes is not enough in discovering developing, and especially in photographing
fingerprint strong light is needed because it reveals latent fingerprints which may not be discovered by
flashlight ordinary room lighting, or daylight. When strong light is reflected off the latent at the proper angle
the image can be seen amazing contrast. Latent prints in dust are revealed with striking clarity and detail when
lighted from the side.., in selecting strong light sources two actor s must be considered. One is that the light
must be strong and the other is that the light beam must be controlled. Light aluminium, five inches in
diameter and about five and a half inches deep is a good reflector. It is convenient because it can be attached
to fix objects such a tables, chairs, or it must be held in hand. This type can be purchased in photographic
stores.

O. MORTAR AND PESTLE

If a fingerprint technician, technical investigator, or expert wants to prepare fingerprint powders by

him he can easily do it with the use of a mortar pestles. If the laboratory runs out of stock it’s not a problem if
mortar and pestle are available. Lead sulphide and metallic antimony can be ground to a fine powder very

49
quickly in a mortar. Coarse lumpy chemical compounds like leads sulfide may be ground to a powder good
for fingerprint work. A convenient size of the mortar of three inches in diameter or even larger.

P. FINGERPRINT POWDERS AND PHOSPHORS

A majority of fingerprint impression found as the scene of the crime or else are developed into visibility
with the use of powders. Known national fingerprint powders are basic leads carbonate, finely ground metallic
powders, manganese dioxide, rosin, feldspar, titanium dioxide. If combined with other substances their
characteristics and qualities may be altered in varying degrees. Phosphors, a group of synthetic and natural
chemical compound are also good for fingerprint powder purposes. It is obtainable from firms dealing in
fluorescent pigment and ultraviolet light products.

Q. DACTYLOSCRIPT
Dactyloscript is especially designed device which provides one of the easiest and most convenient
methods of preparing the fingers for taking inked impressions. It consists of a hook of special carbon papers in
pad form contained in a flat box. The overall dimensions are attached to the heavy flat bass of the box.

R. IODINE FUMING PIPE AND NOTEBOOK

1. Iodine fuming pipe. It is used in developing latent prints with iodine. It requires special care and
treatment. If placed in a kit there is a possibility for the pipe to become “water looged” or the iodine
vapors from the pipe may corrode metallic articles in the kit therefore it should not be included in
the kit.
2. Notebook. The notebook is a part of personal effects of the investigator or fingerprint technician.
Notes pertaining to fingerprint, however, are intended to accompany with the evidence in such a
way that they become a part of the evidence. Brief notes regarding time, place, position, etc., may
be made on the backside of the white card or black photographic paper bearing the lifts or they may
be included in photographs of latent. The note or notes may be written with a pencil on frosted side
of translucent lift.

50
LESSON VII

CLASSIFICATION OF SCARED PATTERN, AMPUTATIONS, AND MISSING FINGER AT BIRTH

 STANDARD PROCEDURES TO BE FOLLOWED
Fingerprint classifiers are frequently faced with problems involving scarred impressions as well as
amputated and missing fingers. Scarred pattern sometimes cause complications in determining the
pattern itself, ridge – counting, and ridge – tracing. To complete a classification, there are standard
procedures that should be followed.
1. When a fingerprint is so marred and that the general pattern type is unrecognizable and the ridge –
counting and ridge - tracing cannot be determined, the impression should be given the same pattern
interpretation and sub – classification with the corresponding finger of the other.
2. When a fingerprint is partially scarred and the general pattern type can be determined reasonable
accuracy but the ridge cannot be counted or traced, the impression should be given the ridge-count or
tracing value corresponding finger of the other hand, if the corresponding finger is of the same general
pattern type. If the corresponding is not of the same type, the scarred impression should be given a
provable value and referenced to all other possible combinations.
3. When a fingerprint is scarred beyond its general pattern type recognition and the ridge-counting and
tracing can not be determined with reasonable accuracy, and so happens that the corresponding finger
of the other hand is also scarred, both pattern are arbitrarily inter preted as meeting whorls.
4. Those rare patterns in which dissociated ridges appear are interpreted in the same manner as are scarred
patterns.
5. In the discussion of interpretation of scarred patterns you have probably begun to wonder how an
amputated finger/s would be classified. There is a simple procedure that covers this phase of a
fingerprint classifier’s works. In a case a where a finger is amputated, it is given the same interpretation
– both as to general pattern type and to ridge – count or trace – as the corresponding finger of the hand.
For example, if the right index finger of a subject is amputated and his left index is a radial loop with
12 ridges – count, the right index is considered as a radial loop with a 12 ridge – count. If a person’s
left thumb is missing and his right thumb is an inner central pocket loop whorl, his left thumb is
interpreted as an inner pocket central loop whorl, too. When the same fingers on both hands are
missing, the amputated digits are arbitrarily interpreted as meeting whorls. To follow the same
procedure, if all the fingers of either hand are missing, you must consider them all as having the same
interpretations as the corresponding fingers of the other hand. If all ten fingers are cut off, all ten are
interpreted as being meeting whorls. As a result the classification will be:

Example:
M 32 MMM
M 32 MMM

51
Source: DACTYLOSCOPY/, Proceso T. Tubid

LESSON VIII

METHODS OF LATENT FINGERPRINT DEVELOPMENT

DEVELOPMENT OF LATENT FINGERPRINT BY POWDER

Why latent fingerprints are dusted with fingerprint powders? Well the reasons for this are, namely, to
make the impressions visible, to develop contrast in order to take good photographs, and so that it can
be lifted and preserved.

A. LOOK FOR LATENT PRINTS BEFORE POWDERING

Latent fingerprints at the scene of the crime may be discovered in two ways which are blind
development and visual search. Blind development is applying powder on a surface suspected to have
been touch by the suspect. This method is done if the latent prints are completely invisible. Actually,
there is a guessing work in this development. The visual search, actually, there is a search of latent
prints before any attempts are found that is the time that powder is dusted on them. The visual search
has advantage. When latent prints are seen they can be photographed first before applying powder on
the surface. They will never lost once they are photographed as a matter of fact, it has been a standard
procedure to make a thorough visual search for latent impressions at the scene of the crime before
development of any kind is done. The entire development process can be simplified if latent evidence
can be found by visual search. However, there have been instance wherein the visual search was not all
useful, but the blind development proved worthwhile. For instance, developing latent prints on papers.
“Very often when a technician processing a surface where some evidence is visible, other unseen
latent pop up unexpectedly.”

1. MAKE TEST PRINTS WHEN IN DOUBT

When a fingerprint technician is in doubt as to what and which powder shall be used in order to
develop the latent prints clearly and to develop proper contrast for purposes of taking photographs, he
should make test prints on the same or similar surface where the latent prints re found. But he should
remember that his test prints will not obliterate or interfere the latent evidence.

The advantages of making test prints are:

1. Print testing gives the technician confidence in his techniques and in supports his judgement,
particularly when element of uncertainty may result in destruction of otherwise valuable evidence.
2. If the first test fails the technician can make a series of another tests until he discovers the best
procedure.
52
 3. Test printing usually saves the latent evidence, whereas relying on luck and blind development
may result in loss.

A similar surface where the test is to be performed may be found in the immediate vicinity of the
crime scene. But if it happens that there is no available similar surface, a small area of the suspected
surface may be utilized with the meticulous care not to obliterate nor destroy the evidence.

B. RULES RECOMMENDED IN DEVELOPING LATENT FINGERPRINTS

Ways of discovering latent prints at the scene of the crime and the making of test prints have been
discussed under the preceding topics. Basing on the above procedures, the following rules are
recommended for developing latent fingerprints.

1. When a latent fingerprints is discovered photograph it first before processing.

2. Determine whether the surface under examination will take a print by attempting to place one and
then develop it.
3. In developing with a duster or brush, use a light stroke and a little amount of powder.
4. Then photograph again when the latent evidence is already fully developed.

FPROCEDURE OF DEVELOPMENT AND LIFTING LATEENT PRINTS

1. Brushing latent prints:
The following are the procedures of developing by brushing of latent fingerprints.

NAME: TYPE CORE

ALIAS:

RECORD NO. FINGER

FOUND AT:
DEVELOPED BY:

53
 GENERAL F.P.C.

SIRCHE FINGER PRIN LABS LIGHT OWDER

FORM # FC237 PRINT
Fig. 139 Transfer card suitable for prints developed with light-colored powders.

NAME: MIKE JOHN LABO TYPE CORE

ALIAS: EL-EL

RECORD NO. FINGER

FOUND AT: SUSPECT’S TABLE Right Thumb
DEVELOPED BY:
ROHITO A. FORNIZ

GENERAL F.P.C.

SIRCHE FINGER PRIN LABS LIGHT OWDER

FORM # FC237 PRINT
Fig. 140 Transfer card suitable for prints developed with light-colored powders.

a. The latent fingerprints are carefully dusted with a soft brush and fingerprint powder. When they
become fully visible, a tape is slowly and carefully pulled from the roll. The free end of the tape is
fastened down just to one side of the impressions. The roll of tape is held in the other hand. It is
kept firmly by pulling with the hand holding the roll tape while the other hand slowly smooth
down the prints and care must be taken to push out any small air bubbles which may become
trapped under the tape.
b. The tape is then slowly removed from the surface by pulling back in the same direction it was put
down. The tape will peel away and bring the powder with it.
c. As soon as the fingerprints it is free from the surface a card of suitable color is put underneath.
d. The tape is then pushed back a second time on the card. The used part of the tape is cut off and the
roll put aside.
e. The lifted fingerprint should always be put on the card in the correct position with the tip of the
finger toward the top. This will make it easier to compare with the rolled impression in files.

In short, the foregoing procedures maybe summed up in this manner: first step is dusting latent print
with fingerprint powder; placing transparent tape on developed prints; pressing tape to removed air
54
 bubbles; pulling back the tape from the surface; transferring lifted print in white card; and then
labelling.

D.AMOUT OF POWEDER ON LATENT FINGERPRINT

The technician must be careful in regards to the amount of powder he will use sparingly as possible
because too much powder will smudge the print. If any powder adhere to the print and appear to stay on it in
loose fashion, the loose particles will be brush off with light strokes of the brush. The technician should use
breath in blowing away excess powder on the developed print because his saliva may accidentally be blown
into the print thereby harming it. What is recommended to be used in bowing away surplus powder is the
atomizer. The adherence of powder to the fingerprint may tell whether the latent is a flesh or an old one.

Some experts recommend the use of an atomizer to blow powder on the fingerprint. This procedure is
not very satisfactory. It waste powder and may contaminate other type of physical evidence at the crime scene.
The oldest and best method is careful dusting with a soft brush. The investigator should never apply
fingerprint powder to prints on paper or cardboard. There are better methods using chemicals for detecting
prints on paper. Powder will work all right on afresh print but as the oily materials soak into the paper, the
powder is no longer satisfactory and chemical development must be used.

E.BRUSHING LATENT FINGERPRINT

After applying the powder on the latent fingerprint, brush it with soft and fine brush preferably made of
camel’s hair. The procedure of brushing is as follows.

1. Carefully and deeply handle the brush and in brushing the powder on the latent fingerprint, the brush
should not be wielded like a painter does when painting a house.
2. Brush the powder from one side to the other and then lift the brush and return to the beginning side
before brushing again.
3. After the pattern has been established follow the run of the bridge in the brushing process,
remembering at all times to be very careful.
4. Use as little powder as possible by simply dipping the end of the brush into the powder and then
proceed with the brushing process.

LATENT EXAMINATION AT THE CRIME SCENE

The following place or surfaces must be examined for latent fingerprints at the scene of the crime:

1. The first object to be examined is the point of entry or the place where the culprit entered. It must
be determined if the offender entered the place by using a key or by destroying the entrance.
2. Examined the glass or door or woodwork, doorknob, an anything at the entrance that might have
been touch by the offender.
3. Examine the place that was robbed or ransacked like the safe, aparador, the table drawer, or
whatever it might be.

55
 4. The fingerprint technician should examine any other articles that he has reason to believe that the
offender might have been interested in.
5. He should examine the point of exit or the place where the offender used in making his gateway.
Like at the entrance, it should also be determined how the culprit got out.

PROTECTION OF FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE:

Fingerprint evidence found at the scene of the crime must be fully protected. Unauthorized
persons must be prevented from accidentally destroying the print evidence. The simplest way of doing
this is by covering the latent fingerprint with a piece of paper labelled “Hands Off, Fingerprint” or
other such warning will practically about at everyone to keep away.

HOW MANY LIFTS CAN BE TAKEN FROM ONE LATENT

It can be determined exactly how many lifts can be taken from one latent. In some cases, prints
can
be lifted more than once. Under a favourable condition a series of lifts maybe made, but each
succeeding
lifts is progressively weaker than the preceding one.

HOW LONG DO LATENT PRINT LAST?

There is no definite answer as how long will latent prints remains on the surface. The length of
time may vary according to the following cases/factors:

1. Atmospheric condition, including air current and humidity.

2. Physical condition of the skin of the person who made the impression on the surface.
3. The type, nature, and condition of the surface whether it is porous absorbent, smooth, dusty, etc.
4. Exposure to heat, strong light, or any other destructive external physical forces

Ordinarily, latent fingerprint will remain for several days in a condition, in which it may be
really processed, but as time passes by from the instant of impression, its acceptance of powder
diminishes until a point is reached that it cannot be developed anymore.

Latent imprinted on the surface within the first 24or 36 hours will appear to make no
appreciable change in the receptivity to powder. It has been observed that latent print may be
developed by a powder to a better advantage an hour, two or several hours after it has been imprinted
than, if it is powdered immediately after being made.

The reasons for this are the following:

1. Free from visible particles of moisture which are usually presents in latent after or shortly after it is
made.
2. Better ridges are revealed after excess moisture has evaporated.
3. Excessive moisture in a fresh print holds an excessive amount of powder. Fresh print in construed
to mean a day or two.
56
 The life of the latent print is considered as that time in which the impression may be
processed or developed or developed to a point or usefulness from an investigative standpoint and
for purposes of evidence. In this connection, to prevent the print from becoming useless, it will be
developed and lifted as soon as possible before it is obliterated and affected by foreign substances,
and while the oily substances or perspiration still adhere to the surface.
Latent print should not be lifted if powdered by mecurizedwhite or mercury with chalk
powders because those materials blend into the rubber’s surface, that is if a rubber lifted is used.
And destroyed the impression.

In lifting latent fingerprint, it must be witnessed by at least two competent persons.

The fingerprint technician should not forget to record the date and time when the print is lifted.

KINDS OF LATENT PRINTS

There are three kinds of latent prints which are as follows:

1. Semi-visible or plastic prints – This kind of prints is found on plastic objects. Example of these
objects are melted paraffin from burning candle, plastelina, soap, pomade, tar, resin, paste on
envelope and stamps, patty pitch, fat, and butter.
2. Invisible (latent prints). As the name implies, the prints are not visible. However, if they are on
smooth surfaces, the technician may be able to see them with the strong indirect light.
There are two other classifications of latent prints, namely, smudges and fragmentary prints.
The former is caused by moving or sliding the finger at the time when it impress, while the later,
are prints which show only a portion of the pattern.

PHOTOGRAPHING LATENT PRINTS

Photography has a vital role in the preservation of any physical evidence, much more latent prints.
As pointed out earlier in this chapter, any visible print, even invisible only with the aid of strong light is
should be photograph before powdering it.
The reason for this is that there might be any chance of the powdering process to be unsuccessful or
maybe the evidence might be destroyed.
However, photographing the evidence may encounter difficulties and sometimes it is impossible to
do this. Maybe the print is impossible; the lighting condition is very poor which will result to a very poor
image of which the ridge detail cannot be determined with reasonable accuracy, and maybe the film used is
not suitable to the condition of the place and the source of light.
Since both methods are encounter difficulties or even impossible to works with either both of them.
The technician should study carefully the situation and select which method will give better result. If it is not
possible to take photograph, powdering and lifting the evidence is the only alternative or otherwise. But the
standing procedure to follow is that the visible latent prints shall be photographed first, then powder and lift
them up and transfer them into a piece of white paper intended for the purpose.

INVESTIGATION AT THE CRIME SCENE

The complete guidelines for the technician to follow in his investigation at the crime scene are as
follow

57
 1. No object should be removed from its original position or touched with the bare fingers while the
inspection is being conducted.
2. Persons who are not members of the household or business establishment must be excluded.
3. Secure first-hand information pertinent to the case.
4. Select a starting place which in case of a burglarized building could logically be the point of entry.
5. Beginning here, make a preliminary survey of the entire premises, note all the general conditions,
positions of all object and all other geographical features. At this stage, it is important to recognize
anything that may be unusual.
6. Make written notes describing the locations and objects, supplemented by sketches and photographs
to show everything as it was at that time.
7. After the survey, the technician returns to the suspected places of entry and again to cover the same
territory more methodically, with a clockwise direction.
8. All suspected surfaces should be examined for fingerprints.
9. Examine the objects that are centrally located, also at doors, windows and other possible point of
entry and exit.
10. Examine the underside of chairs and tables, the bottom and side of drawers that maybe pulled by
the malefactor.
11. In the case of stolen vehicle, examine the steering wheel, horn, button, gear shift knob, rear view
window, dash fixtures, door handles and the back part of the vehicle.
12. Object bearing fingerprints to be processed in the police laboratory must be carefully packed and
protected during transit.

Small portable objects bearing fingerprint evidence such as bottles, drinking glasses, etc. should be
taken to the laboratory where working conditions are more satisfactory and facilities are adequate.

TWO KINDS OF LIFTING DEVICES

The following are the two kinds of devices commonly used in lifting powdered impressions:

1. Transparent Tape
a. This is more advantageous than the adhesive cellophane scotch tape. The desired contrast can
be obtained by attaching the lifted tape bearing the print to any suitable surface such as paper
acetate sheeting or glass.
b. It provides positive images, and the correct contrast in color to the powder used, will facilitate
in immediate comparison with a known print which is an advantage over the tire patches.
c. It provides durable covering and a permanent protection for a lifted impression when it is sealed
between the tape and the mounting medium. It can be photographed, compared with, and
handled freely without damage. But care should be taken than the fingerprints of the technical
should not be left on the outer side of the tape, otherwise, the evidence will be obliterated.
2. Tire Patch Lifts
a. This is the original device used in lifting latent fingerprints. However, it is how being displaced
by transparent tape.
b. Tire patches are still used to a limited extent. They are moved versatile than transparent tape
when working on uneven surfaces.

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 c. Tire patches are commonly used to patch inner tubes of vehicle tires. They are available in three
colors, black, white, and red.
d. The preliminary steps are the same in both lifts.

The steps to follow are:

A latent is developed to the proper intensity and contrast with an appropriate powder-black for a white
rubber, and a light color for black rubber and when the image is ready, a patch is cut to the desired size and
the protective film is stripped off and laid to one side to be replaced later. The tacky side of the patch is
pressed against the powdered image and after good contrast is assured, the rubber sheet is pulled away from
the object. A powdered image of the latent is displayed on tacky surface and the lift is complete when the
transparent covering is replaced over the image. Particular care should be taken to expel air pockets. The
edges of the lift are trimmed to prevent separation of the rubber sheet from the film, The lifted images is
reversed, as seen through the film, it is being observed from the under-side, The effect is the same as looking
at the image in a mirror, or looking at an image on a sheet of a glass through the glass. The image must be
reversed photographically for comparison with a known impression. A photograph is taken of the lift and the
usual printing procedure is reversed, a contract or projection print is made with the emulsion side of the
negative away from the paper. For transparent lifts, the last steps are not necessary because in this device and
immediate comparison with a known print can be done.

TRANSPARENT AND TRANSLUCENTS LIFTS

In photography, the distinction between transparent and translucent lift is not so important because both
of them can transmit light and can be used as negative for making contract or projection prints.

Their differences are as follows:

1. Transparent sheeting is clear whereas translucent sheeting is like ground glass, it transmit light but it is
not transparent to the sight.
2. When a powdered image is attached to a transparent sheet, it may be stuck on either side, there is no
difference, but when translucent film is used, the lifts is affixed to the grained side of the sheet.
3. Translucent sheets have one practical advantage over transparent sheet, pencilled notation may be
made on the grained side of the former, and if the notes are covered with scotch tape, they become a
permanent record the same as ridge detail in a powdered fingerprint. When a fingerprint is lifted with
tape and placed on a sheet of film, the tape serves as a guide for determining the enlargement when a
projection print is made from the lift. The method is accurate. When a projection is made, both edges
of the tape are included in the enlargement they provide an accurate and quick means determining the
magnification.

Transparent and translucent lifts are particularly valuable from the stand point of versatility, lifting
does not alter or distort a powdered image in any way if the tape is applied properly. Latent developed by light
colored powder may be backed glossy paper and dark colored lifts may be placed on sheet film, or the lift may
be placed on a sheet of glass and used like an ordinary film in an enlarger. After it has served that purpose, the
tape bearing the print maybe removed from the glass and affixed to another surface as a permanent record.
Transferring the tape from one medium to another does not injure the image. Lifted prints on sheets of clear

59
film may be backed with paper of a contrasting color and the print may be examined like an inked impression.
A powdered image lifted with tapes retains details surprisingly well, a lifted powdered may be attached to the
different surfaces without damaging the image providing the surfaces are clean and the tape can be removed.
Transferring a lift is not recommended as a routine procedure, a lift should be manipulated as little as possible.

Transparent and translucent materials can be purchased from the photographic stores. The thickness
varies from 4/1000 to 20/1000. The Ace Tabs and the Acetate sheeting are most common to fingerprint
technician.

USING FINGERPRINT LIFTS AS NEGATIVES

The colors of the ridges of the latent prints are developed by black powder. If the developed prints are
lifted with transparent tape and then attached to transparent or translucent sheet they can now be used as
ordinary photographic negative. Either contract or projection prints can be made out of these negative.
In photography, the colors of the positive ridges and their background are reserved in the print or
developed photographic images. This may be clearly explained in the following manners:

1. A lifted fingerprint on a transparent sheet is a positive reproduction of the powdered image same
finger taken on a card with ink. If the image is reproduce on a photographic film by contact printing,
ridges and spaces are reversed in color, the image then becomes a negative. When a photographic
print on paper is made from the negative the result is once again is positive, it is true black and white
reproduction of the original.
2. When a photographic print is made directly from the dark powdered lift, the ridges of the fingerprint
are white and the background is dark. Reversal of colors make comparison difficult for some persons,
they prefer to compare black ridges with black, gray with gray or white with white. If an exhibit is
made for court purposes, ridge color should be the same in the known and questioned patterns to
avoid confusion in the minds of those inexperienced in fingerprint comparison.
3. When using fine aluminium lining, if the lift is used as a photographic negative for marking
photographic prints, the color of the gray ridges in the print may be very much like the lift in
appearance. The ridges in both are gray; the powder on the tape may transmit enough light to make
the ridges of the photographic print gray although the colors are reversed. The answer… gray is a
neutral color and it is still gray even when reversed. Powder like lamp black and ferric oxide are
sufficiently opaque to light that the lift is a positive and a print made from it will show the ridges in
reverse color-white ridges with black spaces.
4. Color reversal may be accomplished by placing the lift in contact with a photographic film, the
emulsion side of the film in contact with the tape of the lift. This operation should be done in a dark
room. The film is exposed to light through the lift. If orthochromatic film or colorblind film is used,
the job may be done under a read safelight; if a panchromatic film material is used reversal must be
done in total darkness, except for the actual exposure. Use of film materials like commercial of
contrast process ortho is preferable because one does not have to works in total darkness. By using
the above materials, one may develop by inspection under a red safelight to good advantage.
5. A suggested exposure is as follows: When using contrast process ortho film(Wiston,12), with the film
and lift in a printing frame, tape to emulsion, exposure may be made six feet from an open 15-watts
lamp for one-half second with the emulsion side of the film material toward the light. Develop and

60
 clear in the normal manner. No reflector is used with the globe. Increased light resulting from
reflector will shorten exposure time noticeably.
6. For persons familiar with photographic processes in a dark room, exposure may be made under the
light of an enlarger. Intensity of light may be controlled by the lens diaphragm. Either of the above
methods is satisfactory, it is a matter of choosing the more convenient one.
7. The technique of affixing lifted prints to acetate sheeting and using the lift like a photographic
negative speed up fingerprint work greatly. It saves much time in handling the evidence and the
fingerprints are well preserved and protected on sheeting. Prints may be removed from sheets if the
occasion requires. A lift once affixed to a paper base cannot be affectively removed and it cannot be
used as a negative. If anything further is done with it, the image has to be photographed.

DEVELOPMENT OF LATENT PRINTS ON PAPER

1. Factors affect paper development. Powders may be used on papers with good results. However,
there are which make this method less successful than on non-porous surfaces.
a. Nearly all papers absorb skin moisture resulting in loss of the image, especially the old latent.
b. Paper has the tendency to retain moisture and oil from the fingers and if several impressions
are superimposed, the results may be smudge which develops like a grease spots.
c. Impressions on paper are usually invisible whereas on hard objects latent may be visible and
the results of the development can be ascertained in advance by testing methods as explained
earlier.

Sometimes powder development on paper may show an excellent result, but if the document is very
important it would very difficult to restore it to its original condition. All of the powder cannot be removed
from the paper. Under this circumstance, the alternative is the chemical development the iodine funning
method.

2. Procedure of developing latent prints on paper. To properly develop latent print on paper is to
pour a quantity of powder on the surface suspected of having been touch by the subject, then slide
the powder across the latent. Never brush the powder over the latent. Brushing action will destroy
the ridge detail of the impression will remove much adhered powder from the ridges thereby
resulting in a loss of color contrast and the ridge become blurred. After sliding the powder, the
excess will be removed by shaking and tapping.
3. Powder useful for paper development. “A powder should be resistant to the paper and receptive to
the latent image”. The following powders are very effective for this purpose:
a. Manganese Dioxide. Excellent ridge detail was developed by the powder; the paper remained
usually clean after the powder was used. The powder had sufficient weight to cause adhesion
with the ridges. Color contrast is on the gray or metallic side but not glossy, the impression
photographs well. The powder shows little tendency to cling to the paper or to become lodged in
the fibers. It adheres to the ridges evenly and strongly.
b. Black Magnetic Iron Oxide. The powder affords very good contrast, it adheres nicely but
powder grains cling to the paper where no ridge structure is present to the extent that it detracts
from the appearance and usefulness of the image. Good ridge detail is revealed in most places
but the powder does not adhere as evenly throughout the pattern as in case of no. 1. Stray powder

61
 particles are visible, throughout the pattern area in the same manner as on the clear surrounding
surface of the paper. Dark spots are the result.
c. Ace Black. This powder has developed vivid and contrasting image. Intervening spaces between
ridges have been partially blocked out. A color cast is apparent over the entire surface of the
paper where the powder has made contact, the paper is slightly clouded by passage of the
powder.
d. Powder Metallic Antimony. Powdered metallic antimony which is generally considered to be
one of best powders for use on paper surfaces. By comparison it has not lived up to its
reputation, it has discoloured the paper slightly and it has produced a spotty effect throughout the
pattern area.

CASTING OF LATENT FINGERPRINTS

Casting is the process of pouring a synthetic material over a latent print found on a surface covered by
dust, flour, or any finely powdered materials, for the purpose of obtaining a negative mould or such print.
There are two commonly used synthetic materials for casting prints, namely plaster of paris which is melted it
is poured into the impression and then lifted after becoming solid again. The other materials are known as
moulage which is like a rubber. This may be melted with moderate heat, then pour into the impression. These
two synthetic materials can also be used in casting sole prints, tire marks, wounds, footprints, and other
purposes.

PROTECTION OF THE LATENT EVIDENCE

Sometimes objects bearing latent prints are transported to the crime laboratory for proper and
accurate examination and processing. The evidence should be protected properly so that it will not destroy
during its transit. In packing the object bearing the latent evidence, care should be taken with utmost regard to
avoid it from breaking. The objects listed below shall be protected in the following manner.

1. Bottles bearing prints shall be surrounded by a wooden crate which is fastened in a strong
cardboard or wooden box.
2. Glasses bearing prints are place in between two squares of wood and made firm by nailing each
square, and then the whole thing is fastened in a small cardboard box.
3. Pieces of glass are placed in a pasteboard box with the corners of the glass penetrating the sides of
the box. A string is tightened around the box in order to make the whole thing firm. Another way of
doing this is to place the pieces of glass in an upright position in a wooden box where they are
fastened with nails and slabs.
4. Knives and pistols are fastened to a board or piece of strong cardboard with string threaded in holes
made in the cardboard or board to keep the object in place.

FINGERPRINT POWDER FORMULAS

1. Scott’s Black Powder # 2: 2. Scott’s White Powder # 3:
10 parts lampblack 5 parts titanium oxide
4 parts Rosin 5 parts Basic Lead Carbonate
3 Parts Fuller’s earth 5 Parts Gum Arabic (Acasia)

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 3. Scott’s Gray Powder # 2
7 parts Basic Lead carbonate
1 parts Gum Arabic (Acasia)

DEVELOPMENT OF LATENT FINGERPRINT BY IODINE

The techniques and methods of powder development of latent fingerprints have been discussed in the
preceding title. Here, in this lesson, all about iodine development will be explained, including the physical
reaction of oily moisture with iodine vapour of fumes.

A. PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF IODINE DEVELOPMENT

The reaction between iodine vapors and moistures of latent fingerprint is not a chemical one, it appears
purely physical.

When oily fingerprint impression on the surface of a paper is clouded by iodine fumes they will react. The
area where the fingerprint is impressed will be discoloured by the fumes of iodine, thereby making the print
visible. The speed of reaction depends on the amount of iodine vapour and the oily impression. The more
pressure of the finger on the paper the more sweat will be smeared on it, and if clouding of iodine vapour is
concentrated on this area of the paper, fast and strong reaction will occur. When the paper is slightly touch by
the finger there is difficulty in the development, or the latent may not be developed into visibility because of
very slow or no more reaction between the finger moisture and the iodine vapours.

The color of the iodine-developed latent varies from light to dark brown depending upon the intensity
of the impression, concentration of vapour, and of exposure time. The color which made the latent visible will
remain on the surface of the paper for so many hours or even days.

Iodine crystalline shall be used in both cabinet and iodine fuming pipe development. Potassium iodine
has been mentioned by some authorities as a substitute for iodine. However, the results of the development of
the fingerprint are mostly unsatisfactory. So, if iodine is available, why used potassium iodine.

B. DEVELOPMENT OF OLD FINGERPRINT

With the passage of time the quality of the impression on the paper deceases until where the latent
print can no longer be developed. The duration of the latent print on paper is very short due to the fact that
moisture penetrates the papers and spreads slowly until the image become unrecognizable. Old print had been
construed to many days or weeks. It is difficult to develop latent after two weeks since they were made on the
surface of the paper. After a month the development becomes more uncertain although traces might be
observed, yet, do not serve the purpose of evidence.

C. IODINE FUMING CABINET

The iodine fuming cabinet is a box-shaped wooden receptacle with a glass front and top permitting
the operator to control the amount of fumes in the cabinet and observed the development of the latent
impressions. The procedure of developing latent prints on paper inside the iodine fuming is as follows:

63
 1. The paper bearing the latent prints is hung inside the cabinet by wooden clothes pins fastened to a
removable stick which is supported by wooden strips affixed near the top edges of the cabinet. The top
of the cabinet is removable to permit access.
2. Then the fumes of iodine are generated by placing small alcohol burner under an evaporating dish
containing the iodine crystals. This is set in a hole cut in the bottom of the cabinet.
3. As soon as the fumes begin to appear in sufficient amount, the burner is removed.
4. Iodine prints are not permanent and begin to fade once the fuming is stop. Therefore it is necessary for
the operator to photograph the iodine prints immediately.

The operator should handle the specimen with gloves or tweezers; the specimen bearing small
greasy areas which, in addition to any latent impression of a greasy nature, will also appear yellowish –
brown after exposure to iodine fumes.

D.IODINE FUMING
This iodine fuming gun has two essential parts which are namely, a tube placed at the end of the gun
through which the breath is blown. This tube contains a drying agent such as calcium chloride of which
function is to remove moisture from the breath. The breath and the saliva will condense at the end of the gun
if a drying agent like calcium chloride is not placed there. The other part is the second tube containing small
amount of iodine crystal. The heat of the breath and the warmth of the hand cupped around the second tube
will vaporized the crystal. The vapour is blown into the paper thereby comes in contact with the latent prints
which shall we developed into visibility. The calcium chloride and the iodine crystal are being held by the
glass wool in place.
No ill effects have been noted from contact with small amounts of iodine vapour but prolonged or
excessive contact will produce irritation of the skin and respiratory passage. To prevent gradual loss of the
chemical through evaporation and the corrosion of surrounding metal surface, iodine crystals should be kept
in an air-tight container when not being used.

E.THE IODINE FUMING

Iodine fuming pipe is similar to iodine fuming gun. Their only difference is that the former has many
parts. It is designed in this manner so that the drying agent and the vapours will be prevented from
deliquescing and escaping respectively.

The following are the essential parts of the iodine fuming pipe:

1. Short piece rubber tubing one foot long to the small end of the calcium chloride drying tube.
2. Pledget of glass wool which is to be tucked into the lower end of the bulb and a small quantity of
iodine crystals are dropped into the glass wool.
3. Second pledget of glass wool large enough to fill half of the bulb is tucked in on top of the iodine
crystal forming an iodine glass wool sandwich.
4. Remaining cylindrical portion of the tube is filled with a hydrous calcium chloride.

The procedure of iodine fuming pipe development is as follow:

1. The bulb containing iodine sandwich is held by the operator is his palm. The heat of the palm will
cause the iodine crystals to vaporize. This iodine vapour will be blow by the operator’s breath to the
calcium chloride. The breath moisture will be absorbed by the drying agent and the iodine vapours
64
 will be omitted from the tube’s end. While blowing in the rubber tube, the opposite end of the
fuming pipe is move slowly over the suspected area until the latent is fully developed.
2. If the color of the surface contrasts with the brown color of the iodine image, the latent may be
photographed. If no contrast, the image will be lifted with silver plate and then proceed with the
same method as that of the iodine silver transfer.

This method, like the iodine fuming gun, is appropriate on objects that cannot be removed from the
scene of the crime. The time development is only within, unlike that of the cabinet method which is
something reach until five minutes or even longer.

F. CAN IODINE DEVELOPED LATENTS BE DEVELOPED WITH POWDER?

The developed latent prints by iodine can be developed by powder. However, this is not advisable
because of the impression is strong enough; there is no need to use the powder. It can be developed with the
use of iodine crystals without difficulty. As a matter of fact, it has been observed that powder development on
papers is improper.

G. PHOTOGRAPHING IODINE DEVELOPED PRINTS

It has been pointed out in the previous topic that the iodine developed fingerprints are temporary in
nature. When expose to air, the color will gradually dis appear thus restoring the impressions to invisible
image. Because of this fact, the technician should photograph the developed latent prints immediately for
permanent recording and preservation of the evidence for future court presentation. The process or
commercial films are excellent for copying iodine images, with of course correct contract. The fingerprint
technician should not handle the specimen with bare hands. The surface bearing the iodine fumes is sensitive
and responsive to the touch of the fingers.

H. CLEARING AND RESTORING PAPER TREATED WITHOUT IODINE

The paper treated with iodine can be cleared and restored to its original appearance by either
spontaneous exposure to air or by chemical bleaching method. One could hardly detect that good quality paper
as treated with iodine vapors, after any of the above methods was done. Some kinds of paper exposed to
iodine fumes do not clear completely. If this happens the following chemicals shall be used:

1. Weak solution of hypo (sodium Thiosulphate) about 15 grams3 percent solution mixed with a pint of
water. The paper will be immersed into this solution until all traces are completely gone. Then wash
the paper in running water half dozen changes to water afterwards, dry it and iron between clean
blotters.
2. 3 percent mercuric nitrate in distilled water can also be used as a clearing bath. However, a
meticulous care should be taken as this chemical will easily precipitate which will discolour or
damage the paper.

The fingerprint technician should bear the following in mind: not all kinds of paper can be bleached with
the foregoing chemicals because some of them will disintegrate and loss their shape when wet. The ink
writing will also dissolve. So there must be some testing before bleaching. The hypo used in photography
is not good for this work because it is mixed with acetic acid. What is needed here is only hypo crystal
dissolve in water. The paper is immersed in the solution within few minutes only.

65
HOW MANY TIMES CAN FINGERPRINT BE DEVELOPED IN IODINE VAPORS?
There is no definite answer to this question. Experiments show that when the latent print on paper
responses strongly to the first treatment of iodine vapors it will response two or more times after clearing
spontaneously in between developments within a reasonable period of time. Mr. Walter Scott performed an
experiment by developing latent print on paper five times. He recorded the development time in the following
manner:

Developed and Redeveloped Date Time Elapse

1st time Jan. 23 0 day

2nd time Jan. 26 3 days

3rd time Feb. 1 9 days

4th time Feb. 7 15 days

5th time Feb. 9 17 days

Mr. observes that the clearness of the image decreased each time it was redeveloped. He noticed that it is
impossible to develop latent impression on paper by the iodine method after seventeen days if that impression
has not been developed soon after it was made. Therefore latent print on paper can be redeveloped by iodine
vapors after clearing it spontaneously in air, depending upon the intensity of the impression.

J. THE IODINE SILVER TRANSFER METHOD

The iodine-silver transfer method is based on the principle that silver will become silver iodine when
it is subjected to iodine vapors. Silver iodine will become dark when it is exposed to strong light or light with
high actinic qualities. Its color varies from dark brown to nearly black.

The steps to follow in transferring the iodine developed image to a silver sheet are as follows: First,
expose the area of the paper bearing latent prints to iodine vapors. When the impressions are already fully
developed determining if there is contrast and then take photographs. In the absence of contrast do not take
pictures, instead, transfer the iodine – developed image to a silver sheet by pressing the silver sheet against the
image for several seconds if the image is weak in intensity, or within a few seconds only if the image is
strong. Then expose the silver sheet bearing to the iodine developed image to sunlight or photoflood. When
the image becomes dark enough to provide contrast, photograph it. The method of photographing this
evidence is similar to that of the tire patch which has been explained in the earlier chapter.

DEVELOPMENT OF LATENT FINGERPRINT BY OTHER CHEMICALS

Aside from iodine crystals there are other chemicals which are very useful in latent fingerprint work.
As a matter of fact, the development of fingerprints on paper by means of iodine has been recently replaced by
newer chemicals process. The procedures of development with the use of these chemicals will be examined in
this chapter.

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DEVELOPMENT BY SILVER NITRATE
The development of latent fingerprints with the use of silver nitrate is based on the principles of
reaction between silver nitrate and sodium chloride. The salt that is present in the finger-sweat is the same to
the sodium chloride. Hence, when these two substances are mixed together silver chloride is formed and white
color. When silver chloride is expose to light it breaks down into silver chloride and its color becomes
instable. The latent impression developed by silver nitrate will have a color of reddish-brown. Fat oil will be
taken out from the paper if the latent is immersed in silver nitrate solution. Because of this fact, it is necessary
to subject the specimen to iodine fumes before treating it with silver nitrate, and then proceed to the method of
iodine silver transfer if the result does not show sufficient contrast.

The steps to follow in silver development are:

1. Prepare a 3% solution of silver nitrate. Dissolve for ounces of silver nitrate in one gallon of distilled
water. Small quantity may be prepared but the same proportion must be observed. For example the
corresponding proportion of one ounce of crystal is one quart of water. If the solution in 10-percent-
13 and 1/3ounces of crystal per gallon of water will be used.
If alcohol is used the solution is prepared in this manner: Mix four ounces of silver nitrate
Crystal, four ounces of distilled water and per gallon of 190 proof grain alcohol. This mixture is
preferred because alcoholic solution will less likely be blotted out. The only complaint in this
method is that the alcohol is very much and the intensity of the solution will be decreased by
evaporation.
2. The solution is place in a glass or enamelware tray side 18 by 12 by 5 inches, or the same size of the
tray used in photographic development.
3. Then immerse the paper to be treated into the solution. See to it that the entire area is completely
wet or moistened.
4. Take the paper out and remove excess solution by placing it in between blotters. The blotters shall
not be discarded after the first use because they can used many times if properly dried after each
use.
5. Then the specimen. This may be done with the use of electric hair dryer. Do not expose the
specimen to light when it is not yet dry because the latent prints will be developed while the paper is
still wet, thus necessitating drying in subdued light to prevent darkening .
6. When it is already dry, expose the specimen to light until the ridge detail is clearly visible. Then
remove the paper from the light because continued exposure will darken the paper and the contrast
will be lost.
The best light secure for this work is blue or violet. The day development is rapid under any of
these light sources. A 1,000 watts blue or daylight photographer’s lamp, a mercury arc, or carbon
arc is excellent for this purpose. Stronger solution shall be used for a weaker light source. Example,
for a 300 watts bulb the solution to be used is 10 Percent. Under a direct sunlight the development
of the latent impression is very fast. Even the light coming from outside through the window pane
will serve the purpose of developing latent prints.
7. The last step is photographing the silver nitrate – developed prints. If the camera is not yet ready,
the specimen will be kept in the dark, preferably, in a heavy envelope or drawer. Developed prints
are usually permanent. It has permanency of the image will even last for more than ten years if it
had been kept in absolute darkness. However, in some instances, immediate taking of photograph is
67
 necessary because the developed image will become illegible in a matter of hours only if eventual
cloudening occurs. Ordinarily, darkening of the background will appear gradually if the paper is
kept in complete darkness.

When the latent impressions be found on large objects that makes the dipping of the
specimen
into the solution difficult or impossible, paint brush may be used. Example of this objects are
cardboard,
cartoons, newspapers, raod-maps, large pieces of wrapping paper, smooth and unpainted woods
surfaces. The solution will be brushed over the surface bearing the latent impressions. Cardboard
boxes
may be slit down the edge and flattened out to print easy placement under the light. Wet or very
thin
paper shall be handled with extra care. The used of cotton swab or brush is may be the best of these
types of paper.

Fingerprint Technician should bear the following in mind:

1. A solution should be discarded after the first cast use because it can be used several times before it lost
its strength.
2. If he is in doubt as to the strength of the solution he can make a test development on other similar
surfaces.
3. He should keep the solution in brown bottles in cupboards to prevent deterioration.
4. Tap water should be used in the preparation of the solution. It shall partially neutralize the silver
nitrate because of the chemical it contains.
5. The actual development can be done in lighted room but never under direct sunlight.
6. He should wear rubber gloves or use tweezers in working the silver nitrate. The solution will cause
dark brown stains in clothing, skin, and on fingernails. The skin if it has been in contact with the
solution for a longer time will become dead and turns black and peel off.
If it is desired to remove the silver nitrate impressions from the paper, this can be done by the
following procedures:
1. Preparation of the solution. Two – thirds of one ounce of mercuric nitrate crystals is dissolved in one
quart of distilled water and add one – third of a fluidounce of nitric acid. The mixture should be shook
well.
2. Then the paper, from which the developed latent is to be removed, is immersed in the solution until all
traces disappear.
3. Then rinse thoroughly in water for the complete removal of mercuric nitrates. This must be done in
order to prevent the paper from deteriorating, bristling and crumbling. Distilled water shall be used for
rinsing. Tap water may be used but it needs several changing during the process.
4. The last step is drying the paper. It is laid out flat on a surface intended for the purpose.

In the removal process, the technician should always remember the following:

1. The prepared solution can also be used several times before it loses its strength.
2. The solution is not necessarily being kept in a dark bottle.

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 3. In ordinary drying, wrinkles may be observed by ironing with a moderately hot iron. Too hot will
cause the paper to scorch or wrinkle.
4. The bottom of the iron paper should be clean so that a removable smudges will not be left on the paper
or carton as the case may be.

The process of developing latent prints on paper or other object surfaces with silver nitrate is called
“Silvering”. The process of removing silver nitrate developed latent prints from the specimen is called
“Developing”.

B OSMIC AND DEVELOPMENT

Osmium (OS) is a gray–blue metal consisting of hexagonal crystal. Osmic acid is an inorganic chemical
formula OsO4- it is found in two forms: a yellow mass or colorless monoclinic crystal. It is soluble in carbon
tetrachloride (CO14), Phosphorus oxychloride (POC13) and very soluble in alcohol or others.

Osmic acid is obtainable from chemical supply as a yellowish amorphous solid one-half and one-gram
quantities in sealed glass ampoules. The gram size ampoule is about three inches long, slightly smaller than a
lead pencil. The chemical deteriorates with age and exposure. For development latent fingerprint it is used in
solution, about three percent.

The procedure of Osmic Acid development is that small quantity of the solution is place in a watch or a
pledget of cotton is saturated with the solution and placed in a glass jar together with the paper with the paper
suspected of bearing fingerprint evidence. Exposure may be for as long as is necessary for development which
maybe anywhere from one to several hours at room temperature, depending upon the many factors which
affect development.

This chemical method of development is not recommended as regular procedure in developing latent
impression. It has many disadvantages: The result is not convincing and tantamount for its sots ; the
development time is very much longer than any other method, the technique can only be performed effectively
in the laboratory; unless the technician is already experienced performing it outside, if other methods failed,
osmic acid cannot be used as an alternatives; and the solution is penetrating and obnoxious and harmful.

C LEAD OLEATE PASTE FORMULA

The formula of Lead Oleate Paste is known below

Lead Oleate Plaster, USP……………………………………………………………………200 parts

Ferric Chloride ………………………………………………………………………………....1 parts
Oil of Wintergreen …………………………………………………………………………….1 parts
Olsic acid …………………………………………………………………………………………… q. s.
(to make)

The above formula a one percent phenol is added for sanitary purposes. The paste must be smooth. This
can be done by mixing thoroughly lead oleate plaster and ferric chloride with sufficient olsic acid.
The formula of developing agent is as follows: 60% sodium sulphide (1 or 2 pills) is dissolved in one
once of water.

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 The paste is very simple to used, the fingers are pressed against the ink pad containing the oleate paste or
pressed onto the paste in jar. After this, the fingers are pressed on the paper to make invisible impressions.
Then a cotton swab or pencil sponge wet or moistened with an aqueous solution of sodium sulfide
(developing agent) is applied over the invisible impression until the ridges become visible in dark brown
color.
The reaction between sodium sulfide or ammonium sulfide and oleate paste is purely chemical the
impressions developed by this reaction are not permanent, they will fade away if exposed to light or air
scenting or performing is the use of small amount of winter green oil.
The indirect method of developing latent impressions is very useful: with the use of paper towel, all traces of
the paste can be easily removed or wiped off from the fingers; it does not discolour or stain the hands; and it is
very effective for the purpose.

D. NYNHYDRIN DEVELOPMENT

Nynhydrin is an organic chemical which is known also as 1, 2, 3, - crikahyrindene. Its development

process is based on the reaction between animo acid which is present in the finger sweat and nynhydrin. The
reaction forms purple color. Thus, if latent fingerprints impressions found on the surfaces of the paper are
subjected to nynhydrin solution, the ridges will become visible.
The process of developing latent impressions by nynhydrin is as follows:
Dissolve nynhydrin powder in any possible solvent. Spray the solution on the surface of the paper suspected
of the latent prints with the use of dentist’s spray.
The ridges will begin to appear in five to ten minutes. Then photograph.
The development time continues as long as-two to three months; developing action becomes faster if
heat is applied on the sprayed document; however the speed of development may be increased or decreased
depending upon the grade of the paper, pressure employed in touching the surface, amount of fingerprint
sweat on the surface treated, and the diet of the person who made the impression.
The nynhydrin method has been used since early 1960s. Its “particular advantage is that it works even better
an old fingerprint than it does on fresh ones.”
It has succeeded in revealing prints of more than ten years duration although it must be noted that such result
is generally exceptional.

E DIRECT AND INDIRECT DEVELOPMENT

“Chemical development of fingerprint is accomplished in two ways, direct or indirect development.”

Direct development is applicable only to latent fingerprint impressions found usually on surfaces mentioned
under iodine fuming, silver nitrate, osmic acid, and nynhyrin development. Indirect development, the person’s
fingers are covered with a paste or grease which responds to a certain developing agent like sodium sulfide or
ammonium sulfide. The process of development is exactly similar to that of the Lead Oleate Paste
Development Method.

……… DEVELOPMENT OF FINGERPRINT FOUND ON DIFFERENT SURFACES……….

As explained earlier, latent fingerprints found at the scene of the crime may be developed with the use
of fingerprint powders. Latent found on papers or documents are usually developed by means of chemicals.
But there are various surfaces on which latent impressions are difficult to develop without applying new or
additional techniques. These techniques and methods, which will be illustrated in this lecture, have to main
objectives: To recover fingerprint evidence without detracting from its value; and to improve the evidence.
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 A. FINGERPRINT ON ADHISIVE TAPE

Legible latent impression found on adhesive tape shall be photographed and no attempt to improve its
image by any of the methods of development shall be made. The taking of photograph shall be done in the
laboratory in order to obtain a legible and clear photographic image of the impression. In the laboratory,
lighting condition is much better than at the scene of the crime.

B. CLOTH SURFACE

If the latent impression is found on cloth surface, the method of developing it is follows:
1. Prepare 10 percent of silver nitrate and add to it 2 percent of acetic acid.
2. Immerse the cloth bearing the latent impression in the solution. In doing this, it must be in a dark room
lighted with red safe light.
3. Then expose treated with the solution to light or to bright sunlight.
4. When the ridges are already clear, photograph it in the same manner as explained in silver nitrate
development.
5. In fixing the developed image sodium thiosulfate may be used. If the impression is found on light
colored fabric, silver nitrate solution is used. But it is dark fabric use or applies fine calcium sulphate
powder for better result.

C. FINGERPRINT IN DUST

1. DUST ON WINDOW GLASS - If the latent impression is found on a dirty and dusty window glass
that application of powder is not possible; photography is the only appropriate method to use. The
techniques of photographing the evidence on this kind of surfaces are as follows:
a. A strong light beam must be concentrated at a low angle across and almost parallel to the glass,
or maybe done by illustrating the latent impression either from the back or front. Photoflood is
the best source of light, however, for this particular work, shelled light or strong spot light are
also good for this kind of work.
b. If the opposite side of the glass is dirty or dusty and there is no indication that it bears latent
prints, it should be wiped clean and a dark cloth placed some distance away in the background to
affect greater contrast between ridges and spaces for photographic purposes.
c. If prints are present are present on both sides of the glass an attempt should be made to develop,
lift or otherwise record the single prints on one side first. If the impression on the cleaner side is
recovered, the impression on the opposite side maybe photographed to good advantage.
d. If both sides are dirty and dusty and none of the prints can be developed by powder or developed
physically, the photographer may have to make the best situation as he finds it.
2. Fingerprint in the Fireclay dust and on Paper. The best method of preserving this evidence is
photography. The area is illuminated by cross lighting. Even in searching for latent evidence cross
lighting is of great advantage.

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 D. FINGERPRINTS ON GLASS

1. Superimposed Fingerprints. When two persons’ fingerprints are partially superimposed on a window
pane pattern types can still be identified and classified. This pattern can be better developed and
preserved by means of photography. In photographing them, back lighting technique should be
utilized.
2. Fingerprint on Embossed Glass-Fingerprints evidence found on a corrugated or embossed surface like
the surface on an embossed writing in a Pepsi-cola bottle, can be recovered and preserved by
photographing with careful positioning and of the photoflood light. The positioning of light was better
explained in the case of burglary were a bottle of coca cola bearing latent fingerprint on its embossed
writing was pick up and photograph.
The latent image was photographed careful positioning of the light. The light source was a number
photoflood in a deep reflector to shield the camera lens, the light was held as a wide angle to axis of the lens;
almost at right angles avoid highlights as much as possible. The light was placed in four different positions
and as many exposures were made on one film. Highlights were overcome effectively but not completely. A
camera with a packard shutter and air bulb was used to avoid movement of the camera or bottle while
checking and changing the position of the light. Before each exposure the surface of the glass was examined
for highlights from the angle of the camera lens. By carefully adjusting a manipulating the light, it was
possible to obtain almost continues ridges and both the high and low areas of the letters. A 12 second
exposures was made on process pan film at f.32 in 3 seconds intervals with a numbers one photofloods at
distance from nine to one inches.
Polarized may also be used effectively in overcoming high- light and reflections and may give the results
as describe above.
3. Fingerprint on a Hot Electric Light Globe. To recover or reproduce latent fingerprint evidence found
on a hot electric light globe photography is the means to use, although there is difficulty in doing this
work because of the spherical surfaces of light globe. If the evidence can be photographed, the area
should be illuminated with strong light beam with a black background. In some cases, it is also
advisable to photograph the latent impression on a lamp or lighted electric bulb. The lamp itself is used
as a light source, but the “voltage in the lamp with a rheostat” is reduced and the glass is frosted.
Photographing “powdered impressions on a lamp is done by placing a strong light immediately back of
the lamp” or by cutting a hole in a cardboard and lighting the lamp from the back through the hole.
If an attempt is made to powder and lift the print with an elastic tire patch and the attempt fails, the
evidence is lost, and if it is not lost it is distorted. Transparent tape cannot be used if the image is large. If the
only evidence found at the crime scene is a scorched fingerprint on a light globe, it is very important that it be
preserved at it best or improved by photography if possible. Other development procedures are questionable;
it is poor policy to proceed blindly under such circumstances, taking a chance on losing what little evidence
available. The result of spot illumination maybe determined in advance by making a test print under similar
circumstances. If circumstances under which the original impression was made van be duplicated, the final
result can be determined accurately.
Fresh impressions on cold glasses usually respond to dark powders and they may be photographed in
relief against an illuminated or white background.

4 Fingerprint on polished Metal. Latent Fingerprint on a polished metal can be developed by powders. The
powder that is best suited is aluminium lining with soft quill brush. The developed latent impression can be
used as negative from which enlargement is made.

E FINGERPRINT ON PAINT
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 Painted Window Frame – This can be developed by powder dusting. The color of course must be
selected to provide contrast with the surface. Grained wood surfaces may often result in some loss of ridge
detail because grain may interfere with the development process. However, this defect may be improved or
overcome by photography. Usually, the lens can pick up more detail than is seen by the eye. These details, of
course, must be present on the surface because the camera doesn’t record anything which does not exist.

F FINGERPRINT ON PLASTIC
When latent fingerprint is found on soap, fat, butter, tar, paraffin, or adhesive tape, technique of
photography with proper lighting, is the only appropriate means to use in recovering such evidence. However,
in the case of flat, butter and other solar substances, if the latent fingerprint is engraved, plaster cast may be
applied. Wood’s metal is also suited for this kind of work provided the surface does not have a low melting
point. A small amount of wood’s metal are heated to about 7 degree centigrade which is its melting point, and
then pour carefully on the latent print.

G LTENT PRINT ON HUMAN SKIN

To develop latent prints on human skin, iodine silver transfer methods appears to be the most logical
and practical methods to used. Silver sheets .005 inches to .010 inch thick are recommended for human skin
development because they conform to the skin surface than do thicker sheets; the sheets should be very
smooth and free from scratches, it may be used again by cleaning it with a little whiting or silver polish.
Strong light such as sun, photoflood, or ultraviolet light is needed; ordinary electric bulb is too weak to be
used. More iodine vapors shall be concentrated on the area suspected of latent amber, and shall be lifted and
transferred to the silver sheet and expose to the strong light.
When lifting the latent print from a skin an edge of the silver sheet is placed on the skin to one
side of the latent print. The silver sheet is then slowly rolled over the area on which the latent print appears
and then lifted from the skin in such a manner is to prevent it from slipping. The silver sheet, is thereby
smudging the print, appear to be greater when the second method is used. It has also been noted that extreme
pressure on the silver sheet will cause the skin to move. This also results in the latent being smudged.
In some instances a paint brown image is seen on the silver sheet when the silver sheet is lifted
from the skin. It should be noted however, that the absence of a visible image is no sign of failure. The latent
are normally not visible until the silver sheet has been exposed to the light.
If, after prolonged exposure to the light, the latent print is too weak to be identified, the complete
process may be repeated. Heavier fusing of the latent print area in the repeated process may increase the
intensity of the latent print. If the latent print is too strong, i. e., the shape of the finger is visible on the silver
sheet by adequate identifiable ridge detail is not visible due to many iodine fumes, a second lift may be visible
without further fuming. More identifiable ridge detail may be visible on the second lift.
The iodine-silver transfer method has been used successfully to develop identifiable latent prints on
the skin of embalmed deceased persons up to 45 hours after the skin was touched. Identifiable latent prints
have been developed on the skin of embalmed cadavers up to 5 days after the cadavers were touched. These
latent prints could possibly have been developed, touched with the permitting. After a longer period of time.
To date, identifiable latent prints on living skin have been developed up to one hour after the skin
was touched. It should be noted that there has been no noted after effect on the skin of an individual following
the use of iodine on the skin with the minimal residual staining of the skin. The residual staining is transient.

H. SURFACES AND THEIR RECOMMENDED PROCESSES

1. SMOOTH, NON-POROUS
This includes such surfaces as glass, paint, varnish and hard plastic moldings (metal are not
included). POWDERS can be used effectively on most of this surface. FLOURESCENSE
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 EXAMINATION. SMALL PARTICLE REAGENT and CYANNOACRYLATE can also be used on
these surfaces.
2. ROUGH, NON-POROUS:
Rough or gained plastic moldings are examples of this surface type. These surfaces are generally
unsuitable for effective use of POWDERS; therefore more success can generally be expected with
SMALL PARTICLE REAGENT and CYANOACRYLATE FUMING.
3. PAPER AND CARDBOARD:
Paper and cardboard (including plaster board) that has been waxed or plastic coated should be
treated with NYNHYDRIN. POWDERS may be used on smooth surface prior to treatment with
NYNHYDRIN, but POWDERS are generally insensitive to older fingerprints.
4. PLASTIC PACKAGING MATERIAL:
This includes such surfaces as polypropylene cellulose acetate and laminated paper. Small
particle reagent is being very effective in many cases.
5. VINYL (PVC), RUBBER AND LEATHER:
Simulated leather and cling film are examples of these surface types. Small particle reagent,
Cyanoacrylate and powders may be used on these surfaces.
6. METAL (UNTREAATED).
This applies to bear metal surfaces, not surfaces that have been painted or lacquered. Small
particle Reagent, Applicable powders types and Cyanoacrylate can be used on this type of surface.
7. RAW WOOD (UNTREATD):
Bear wooden surfaces that have not been painted or treated with ninhydrin. Smooth wood may
be treated with powders, while silver nitrate may be used on light woods.
8. WAX AND WAX SURFACES:
Articles made of wax (such as candle) and paper, cardboard and wood that have been coated
with wax can be treated by non-metallic powders and Cyanoacrylate.

LESSON – IX

PHILIPPINE AUTHORITATIVE OPINION

In 1939, Vicente Llamas, the acting official fiscal of Cavite, Cavite requested the opinion of the
Secretary of Justice Jose Abad Santos, regarding the fingerprinting of the arrested person.
The facts of the case to which the opinion requested was intended to be applied: “ The Commander of
the 17th Company of the Philippine Constabulary station at Indang, Cavite, ordered private Emilio Bergado
and Corporal Godofredo Quijano to take Pantaleon Casino’s fingerprint. Upon being informed of the
Soldiers’. Casino refused to be fingerprinted abs resisted by pushing the soldiers”.
The Secretary, in his letter to Llamas, dated October 25, 1939 gave the Opinion (Opinion No.204,
series 1939), stating that:

The authority of the peace officers to take fingerprints must be conceded.

1. If therefore, at the time of his refusal to be fingerprinted, Pantaleon Casino was under arrest
he may be persecuted for resistance and disobedience to the agent of a person in authority,
defined in and penalized by, Article 151 of the revised Penal Code,
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The Secretary’s Opinion was based on many cited cases such as follows:

1. In an Opinion of the Attorney-General, dated October22, 1927, it was held that the Constabulary
as police officers may compel persons arrested on charges of having committed crimes, to
stamps the suspect’s fingerprints on identification cards. He admonished however, that discretion
be used by the Constabulary in the exercise of such right in order not to give cause for
complaints. The reasoning was based on the authorities cited in an articles appearing in the
fingerprints and identification Magazine which cites several court decisions and a letter of Hon.
William H. Taft while acting as Attorney-General of the United States
2. In Barletta vs. McFeely (1930) 152 Art. 17, it was hold that a person under arrest charged with
crime, may lawfully be fingerprinted, measured, and photographed by police without consent.
3. Whether any prisoner should be fingerprinted, measured, and photographed is an administrative
question to be determined by the police.

“The court of Chancery of New Jersy, Speaking through vice chancellor Biglow, Supported its view, thus:

1. Counsel for the complainant contends that it is unlawful for the police in any case to photograph
or fingerprint an accused person before trial and conviction, except with the consent of the
prisoner. Biglow pointed out that this is not the law. The police are charged with the duty of
preserving crimes, apprehend criminals, and gathering evidence upon which may be brought to
trial. In the performance of this duty, they may use any apt and reasonable means which do not
invade the rights of the accused persons cannot be allowed to prevent the functioning of the
police and so to jeopardize the safety of the public.
2. There is a close analogy between searching the person of a prisoner and fingerprinting him. Both
acts have for their purpose the obtaining of evidence against him: in both his person subjected to
some handling beyond what is required for preventing escape.

LESSON-X
FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION AND EVIDENCE

Fingerprint evidence is valuable and infallible. It is valuable in sense in the sense that it can certainly
prove that the person to whom the fingerprint belongs had gone to the crime scene. It may be alibied but it
cannot be refuted or denied. It is infallible and it can never be wrong as to whom it belongs.

A. RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS
A person can positively be identified by his own fingerprints because no other person or persons have
the same fingerprints with that of his own. There is no duplication of any of his fingerprints. Two or more
persons may not have the same type of fingerprint pattern. When their fingerprints are compared at first
glance, they appear to be similar, but closer examination especially with the aid of a magnifying glass, reveals
that they are not identical. What makes them different? Certainly, the position and specific location of the
distinctive ridge characteristics of each pattern differ on from the rest.
As defined under the definition of terms, ridge characteristics are those little points of detail on the
formation of the ride patterns which are used in comparing one fingerprint with another to determine whether
or not both prints are impressed by the same finger of the same person.
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B. POSITION OF RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS
Actually, there are “two elements enter into proof of identity of fingerprints, namely, (1)
Characteristics.” To determine whether the latent print recovered from the crime scene belongs to the subject,
it will be compared with a standard fingerprints. The standard fingerprint may be taken from the suspect
himself if he is under police custody, from the suspect’s known inked impressions in police impression. The
identification of both impressions depends upon the ridge characteristics and the relatives positions of the
points in each pattern.
With respect to position, possibilities are limitless. Countless thousands of positions exist in every
fingerprint. Every characteristic has a particular position relationship to all others. When proving identity of
two persons, specific characteristics in definite positions are pointed out in one pattern and they are shown to
correspond to identical points and positions in another pattern. Several characteristics are selected, if it can be
shown that the same points appear in the same relative positions in both patterns and in the same relationship
to each other, and if they appear in sufficient number, the patterns are said to be identical, or that they were
made by the same finger.

C IDENTICAL AND SIMILAR FINGERPRINTS

As stated earlier, the terms identical and similar are not of the same meaning as used in fingerprint
identification. Two or more patterns are said to be similar if they are of the same type and have the same
looping ridges, but they have different ridge characteristics. Whereas, identical fingerprints refers to two or
more fingerprints which are absolutely in complete agreement in all details; they are all exactly alike in all
aspects.
Mr. Scott described identical fingerprint in the following manner: To be identified, two fingerprints must have
ridge alike, the same no. of ridges, the ridges must correspond in every detail, they must be of the same kind,
in the same position, and in the same relationship to one another with respect to position.
Fingerprint experts or technicians will base their testimony in courts on identical fingerprints, not on the
similarity of patterns.

D TWELVE POINTS IN FINGERPRINTS EVIDENCE

If the evidence is preserved for court presentation “twelve identical characteristics” having the same
relative positions be pointed out sufficiency of proof of positive identification. “Most expert” satisfy
themselves with eight or even six points of identity.” In the Philippines from eight to twelve identical points
are considered sufficient. In the United States, two criminal cases featured fewer than eight identical points:
Breeding vs. United States only five identical ridge characteristics; in Commonwealth vs. Walker, the expert
testified that he found four identical points. In both cases the courts accepted the fewer identical points in
evidence.
Scott, in his book fingerprint mechanics, stated the following:
There is no rule of evidence covering this point; it is a matter of proving beyond reasonable doubt or
beyond any mathematical possibility of error that prints are identical and were made by same finger. Prints
may be proven or loss, but 12 points are considered sufficient in any situation.

E TYPES OF FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE

The general classifications of fingerprint evidence are:
1. Impression made by Skin Moisture. Latent impressions are produced by natural moisture of the pores
of the papillary skin. This moisture can be readily seen when a print is newly made on a sheet of glass.
On the other hand, it may be completely invisible as on the white piece of paper.

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 2. Plastic Impression – As explained earlier, these impressions are those found in plastic or semi-plastic
materials. Examples of these materials are candles, soap, putty, jolly, tar, butter, paraffin, grease,
modelling clay, chocolate bars, and wax.
3. Dust Impressions – These are impressions found in dust or any dusty surface. As explained earlier in
the text, photography is the best method to recover this evidence. But if it is possible to bring the
object bearing the dust impressions to the laboratory, it must be done because evidence can be handled
to better advantage under favourable laboratory, conditions.
4. Impression by Contamination. The finger of the suspect might have been contaminated with foreign
substances such as dirt, grease, blood, paint, stain, rouge, or ink. Latent fingerprints on some of these
surfaces may be successfully developed by chemicals. Bur no need to apply chemicals anymore if the
latent impressions are already visible with suitable contrast. The methods of photography will take
good care of these prints.

F ELIMINATION OF FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE

“The most opportune time and place to get fingerprints for elimination at the crime scene and while the
investigation are underway”. The following are the fingerprints to be eliminated:
1. Fingerprints of a person who have legitimate access to the crime scene.
2. Fingerprints of police officers or other persons who work at the scene at any capacity.
The purpose of eliminating prints are to good up the investigative process, to narrow the search for the
guilty person or persons, to identify the latent and to learn whether they are foreign to the scene. Time is
important because the place might be used in the following day by the workers or employees. “It is
uneconomical from an investigative viewpoint to do tomorrow what should be done today in an
investigation”. When taking prints for elimination, the investigator should consider the possibility for an
inside job. Very often crimes are planned and carried out by persons who are thoroughly with the premises
and routines and who have legitimate access to the premises. An investigator cannot jump at a conclusion that
prints are of no value because they happen to belong to an employee.
LESSON XI

LEGAL ASPECT OF FINGERPRINTING

Fingerprinting has been universally adopted for the identification of criminals and non-criminal people.
The used and important of fingerprint for establishing personal identification depends upon the patterns which
unaltered form from cradle to graved; the remote possibility cannot be forged into perfection. Court of justice
is of the opinion and has come to agree that fingerprint is infallible and will be admitted as evidence. The legal
aspect of fingerprint evidence, based on decided cases in the United States and in the Philippines will be
discussed in this chapter.

A U.S. LEGAL OPINIONS AND DECISIONS

1. People vs. Jennings. In 1911, the first Appellate Court to pass upon the admissibility of fingerprint
evidence was the American Illinois Court. Fingerprint evidence was admitted as a means of
identification. The court held that expert may give their opinions as to whether the fingerprints found at
the scene of the crime are identical with those of the accused. From the time on, many court of justice
have passed upon the admissibility of fingerprint evidence.
In the case of Ocioke vs. Jennings-252 111. 534, 96 N 1077, 43 L.R.A. (N.S. 1206 191), the
appellate

77
 court of Illinois held that while the court of this country did not appear to have occasion to pass on
this
question as to whether enlarged the photographs of fingerprint of the suspect was properly admitted in
evidence, standard authorities contended that fingerprint science is reliable. It is admissible where the
witness has peculiar knowledge or experience not common to the world.

2. State vs. Gercielle. Following the Jennings’ case was the State vs. Gercielle in new Jersey. In this
case, fingerprint evidence was permitted to be introduced in the court. The court held: In principle,
fingerprint admission as legal evidence is based upon the theory that the evolution is practical affairs of
life whereby the progressive and scientific tendencies of the age are manifest in every other department
of human endeavour, cannot be ignored in legal procedure but that the law in its efforts to enforce the
justice by demonstrating the fact in issue, will allow evidence in these scientific process which are the
work of educated and skilful man in their various department, and apply them to the demonstration of
fact, leaving the right and effect to be given and its result entirely to the consideration of the jury.

3. State vs. Connors. The New Jersey Court reaffirmed its stand in the case of state vs. Connors (87
N.J.L. 419,94 Ati. 812 (1915) ), which explained “the principle of law involving the legal propriety of
fingerprint was the same, this case was being distinguished from the Gercielle case on facts.”

4. Gamble vs. State. This case happened in 1921, in which case fingerprint taken from an automobile
door were introduced in evidence. The “Court was of the opinion that it was not necessary to produce
the door evidence”.
Arguments was made that this testimony was incompetence because the door should have
been produced, but the court held the point had been passed on in the State vs. Connors where it was
competent to show by a photograph the fingerprints upon the columns or balcony part of a house without
producing the column in court.
5. Commonwealth vs. Albright. In this case, marked 101 Sup. Ct. 317 (1931), a witness testified that he
was the accused in the vicinity of the burglarized house in the night when the crime was committed.
The fingerprint expert also testified that the fingerprint recovered from the window pane which had
been broken to gain entrance was the same as of the accused. Based on the foregoing testimonies, the
court held:
Its (fingerprint) accuracy and reliability are too well established to require elaborate confirmation
at this time by courts of this state. It is well settled that the papillary line and marks on the fingers of
every man, woman and child possess an individual character different from those of any other person.

6. Police Authority to Take Fingerprints. Any “arrested person can be fingerprinted, measured, and
photograph by the police without his consent. Court of New Jersey stated that the police are charged
with the duty of preventing crimes, apprehending criminals, and gathering evidence upon which may
be brought to trial. In the performance of his duty, they may use any apt and reasonable means which
do not invade the rights of the accused or of other persons. Fanciful rights of accused person cannot be
allowed to prevent the functioning of the police and so to jeopardize the safety of the public.
Din 1935, the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals said that an injunction restraining of criminals is
Rendered so difficult, by reason of present condition with which law-abiding citizens are force to
cope, we
hold that a peace officer who had good cause to believe, and does believe, that a person is then
compounding a crime, for which the officer will be under duty to procure his arrest, may detain him,
take

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 his fingerprint, have him photographed and otherwise identify him for the protection of society
without
being liable for damages by reason of such official acts.
7. Offense of Misdemeanor. In the case of U.S. vs. Kelly, 1932, the dependant was accused of
misdemeanour and he was fingerprinted by the police. He protested that he should not be fingerprinted
on the ground that the offense filed against him was only misdemeanour. As a consequence, the U.S.
District Court of Eastern District of New York directed the United State Attorney to return the
dependant’s fingerprint records.
But the Circuit Court of Appeals for the second Circuit, through Judge Augustus N. Han, reversed
the
Decision of the lower court and stated the following brief: “As a means of identification it is just as
useful
and important where the offense is a misdemeanour, and we can see no valid reason for a
differentiation…
It is no more humiliation … fingerprinting is used in numerous branches of business and of civil
services,
and it’s not in itself a badge of crime”.

8. Courtroom Demonstration. In the case of Mon vs. State, the expert was called to demonstrate
fingerprint examination. The expert was introduced to go out the room while the members of the Jury
were making their fingerprint impression on the paper. When the expert returned to the room he
examined the inked impressions and identified all of them. The members of the Jury were also
permitted by the trial Judge to examined the fingerprint impressions of the accused in the courtroom
with the used of the magnifying lens. The Court stated that “such demonstration was held proper and
within the discretion of the trial court”.
9. Form of Expert Witness. Fingerprint expert can only testify as to his opinion and not to the ultimate
fact of the case. He cannot state that the “latent print was made” by the dependant himself because he
was not there and did not see the accused made it. Instead, he can safely say, “in my opinion, the print
could not have been made by any other person”. The probative value of the evidence remains for the
jury or the court to decide.

10. Admissibility of fingerprint Evidence.

a. Photograph of fingerprints Photographic fingerprints evidence if properly authenticated is generally
held that its admission evidence is competent to demonstrate latent fingerprint recovered from the
scene of the crime. In the case Gamble vs. State, the court held:
“Photographic enlargements of fingerprints were admitted as evidence without the
reproduction of the car where the latent prints were found”.
In the case of the People vs. Jennings, as cited earlier in this chapter, the court further held
that options as to whether the fingerprint found at the scene of the crime correspond with the case of
the photographs of such impressions made by the accused, there being no question as to the accuracy
and authenticity of the photographs.

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 b. Fingerprint Record Cards. Fingerprint record cards of the accused if duly authenticated, are
admitted in evidence in court of justice. The authentication is may be made by the certification of the
warden in the case of the prison fingerprint card records, or by the Chief of Police in the case of the
police fingerprints card records
In the case of the United State vs. Dresser, the lower court allowed the jury to examine and
compared the questioned prints with the standard fingerprint card. The jury was also permitted to
see
and examine the notation of criminal records of the accused. The higher court reversed the decision
of
the lower court on the ground that the previous criminal records of the dependant might have had a
prejudicial effect and should not have been permitted to reach the jury”.

LESSON XII
Chart preparation for Court presentation

A PREPARATION OF EVIDENCE
One of the duties of the latent fingerprint examiner after developing and lifting a latent impression
from an object the evidence for court presentation as the case may require. Before he testifies, the examiner
usually presents a chart to guide the court in his deliberation. This fingerprint charts are used purposely to
demonstrate how an examiner arrived at a conclusion. The examiner must be guided by some factors present
before he declares that two prints were made by the same finger. It must also be remembered that the
examiner’s responsibility is a grave one when it comes to testifying to the identity of two fingerprints. It is
here where the defendant’s liberty or even his very life is at stake.
According to our legal precepts, “an accused is innocent until he is proven guilty beyond reasonable doubt”. It
is incumbent upon the examiner to testify honestly because usually the courts are not familiar with the
fingerprint evidence. The examiner must always bear in mind that it is his public duty and obligation first to
convince himself that two fingerprints are identical before he testifies to that fact in court. He should present
facts truthfully. It is his paramount duty to find the facts and present them to the court for deliberation.
How should an examiner compare two fingerprints to determine identity or non-identity? What
elements or points of comparison must an examiner look for when examining two fingerprints to decide
whether or not both were made by same finger?
There are four important elements an examiner should keep in mind in comparing two fingerprints.
1. Prints must be of the same type of patterns.
2. The quality of the friction ridges must conform in both prints.
3. The number of charted ridge characteristics must correspond in both latent and ink prints.
4. Location, direction, and distances of friction ridges must be in agreement in both latent and ink
prints.
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 Identity can be declared when two fingerprints have similar ridges and the same number of ridges.
Ridges must correspond in every Galton detail and must be of the same kind in the same relative position.
In comparing two prints, the examiner should always mark each fingerprint chart as a latent print or a
questioned print and the other inked or record print. To secure effective examination of the prints, the
examiner should first carefully examined the latent impression with the aid of a magnifying glass trying to
pick out visible ridge characteristics. After he has sufficiently done that, he can then look at the record print to
find the same ridge characteristics in it. At this time, he then places the two prints down side by side for
comparison.
Sometimes the examiner may first look at the record print before he attempts to examine the latent or
questioned print. By doing so, he is bound to be influenced by the appearance of the ridge formations in it
because the record print is usually clearer than the latent or question print In this case, since the latent print is
obscured by powder in the process of development, the examiner after checking the latent print may
unconsciously see these ridge formations which were clearly visible in the inked print.
This occurs without the examiner’s intention. Therefore, the examiner’s first pick out the entire ridge
characteristics he can see in the questioned prints before he attempts to look at the inked impression. By doing
this, he is not influenced to read into the latent print any ridge formation he did not find there before.
A latent print examiner preparing to take the stand as an expert witness is confronted by the thought that
he is there to present proof of the identity of two fingerprints. He is there not for the purpose of demonstrating
the sufficiency of findings in the charts presented but to use the charts to visually aid the court in
understanding the nature of his testimony. The judge may know a little or have an incomplete knowledge of
fingerprints. He probably does not know how fingerprint identification are made or proved. Therefore, it is the
duty of the examiner to explain the whole thing to the court in words they can understand, and in such a
manner that he renders his testimony effectively.

There are few simple steps involved in preparing fingerprint enlargements for court use:
1. There is no law requiring enlargements of fingerprint charts. Each examiner or any agency may
have any size for their own use. The latent and inked records should be enlarged with the same
degree of magnification. Enlargement may be “8x10” r 12 x 14 inches. Enlargement smaller than
these are too small to show ridge characteristics for the court to see. There should be a space at the
margin of at least two or more inches around each print to number the points of comparison.
2. Mark off the latent print first. A latent print is usually fragmentary and the ridges are obscured. To
charts the record print first would result in repetition of work, you might number some clear details
shown which are not found in the latent impression.
3. The charted ridge characteristics in the latent print must bear the same number with those
characteristics in the record print.
4. Mark off and number only those characteristics that appear in both latent and record prints.
5. When marking the ridge characteristics, be sure that you are using enlarged photographs of the-
natural size prints for a better view. Do not attempt to mark of the ridge details on the natural size
prints. This will muddle your work because the ridge formations are so small.
6. Be sure that when placing the projection lines which point out the ridge characteristics none of
these lines cross each other. It is normal that they will cross or touch the friction ridges, but each
ink line must not cross another ink line.
7. Be careful not to place the projection lines in red ink so heavily that they will obscure the ridge
characteristics. Place each line up to the ridge characteristic only but not over it.

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 8. There is no set rule to follow in charting out the ridge characteristics for comparison, but it is a
general practice among examiners to start with the core if it is shown in the latent print. Mark the
core as number.
1. Then continue by placing the number consecutively on the remaining There is no law requiring
enlargements of fingerprint charts. Each examiner or any agency may have any size for their own
use. The latent and inked records should be enlarged with the same degree of magnification.
Enlargement may be “8x10” r 12 x 14 inches. Enlargement smaller than these are too small to show
ridge characteristics for the court to see. There should be a space at the margin of at least two or
more inches around each print to number the points of comparison.
2. Mark off the latent print first. A latent print is usually fragmentary and the ridges are obscured. To
charts the record print first would result in repetition of work, you might number some clear details
shown which are not found in the latent impression.
3. The charted ridge characteristics in the latent print must bear the same number with those
characteristics in the record print.
4. Mark off and number only those characteristics that appear in both latent and record prints.
5. When marking the ridge characteristics, be sure that you are using enlarged photographs of the-
natural size prints for a better view. Do not attempt to mark of the ridge details on the natural size
prints. This will muddle your work because the ridge formations are so small.
6. Be sure that when placing the projection lines which point out the ridge characteristics none of
these lines cross each other. It is normal that they will cross or touch the friction ridges, but each
ink line must not cross another ink line.
7. Be careful not to place the projection lines in red ink so heavily that they will obscure the ridge
characteristics. Place each line up to the ridge characteristic only but not over it.
8. There is no set rule to follow in charting out the ridge characteristics for comparison, but it is a
general practice among examiners to start with the core if it is shown in the latent print. Mark the
core as number.
1. Then continue by placing the number consecutively on the remaining characteristics in a
clockwise direction. The projection lines, which are the lines pointing the ridge characteristics
running out to the edge of the pattern, should all extend over the edge of the print about the
same distance so that they show and even appearance around the enlarge exhibits.
9. Do not tamper or make any unnecessary marks on the enlargement exhibits. Never, under any
circumstances, do anything also to the negatives of the evidence. The law of evidence requires that
all evidences must be in its original condition as circumstances will permit.
After marking off the characteristics on the latent and record prints and after numbering them the
same on both enlarged exhibit, make a list of the numbers and names of all the ridge characteristics. Mount
these two exhibits side by side on a piece of white cardboard with the latent print on the left and the record
print on the right. Provide a space between the exhibits wide enough to mount the list numbered ridge
characteristics. As neatly as possibly in an arranged order. After doing this, you can see that your evidence is
in one whole piece. You have now your master print.
When you go to court, bring with you all negatives involves in the case. Sometimes you will be told
by opposing counsel that you retouched or tampered with the evidence. You can politely show or produce the
negatives to prove that nothing was done to them.
In addition to the photographic exhibits and the negatives, you should also have with you the
complete notes you made at crime scene, the crime scene sketch which you made at the time of your
investigation, a full view photograph of the object or surface on which you found the latent print with the
impression still intact (if it was a portable article) or the lifted latent print, and the set of inked prints of the
defendant which you use for comparison.

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Source: Cooke, TG., A Study of fingerprints, Their Uses and Classification, Chicago, Illinois: Institute of
Applied Science, 27th Edition 1952.

MISCELLANEOUS STUDY OF DACTYLOSCOPY

1. In the case titled “People vs. Medina” the Philippine Supreme Court upheld the decision of the
lower court on the identification of the suspect by the developed latent print at the crime scene. That
the number of the ridge characteristics or points of identify to establish the identity of a person by
fingerprint be at least.
a. 6 homologous points c. 10 homologous points
b. 8 homologous points d. 12 homologous points
2. The ridge characteristics as a basic of comparison are the island ridge, bifurcation, ending ridge, dot
ridge or any other quality of the ridge, which are found in almost every fingerprint, palm print or sole
print. The most common is
a. Bifurcation c. Ending ridge
b. Island ridge d. Dot ridge
3. There are changes taking place on the epidermis skin of the finger and the thumb of the person upon
death. These changes
a. The pattern types c. Appearance of the ridge
b. The ridge characteristics d. Folding of the skin due to rigor mortis
4. A handgun found at the crime scene presumably used by the perpetrator in the commission of the
crime and suspected of bearing latent prints is collected by
a. Handkerchief
b. A handcuff or wire inserted into the trigger guard
c. Bare hand or with hand gloves
d. Inserting a pencil or ball pen in the barrel of the gun
5. It was found out by the authorities in dactyloscopy that 65% of fingerprint patterns are made up of
a. Whorls c. Loops
b. Arches d. Combination of arches and loops
6. While 30% of the patterns are classified as
a. Loops c. Arches
b. Whorls d. Worlds and arches
7. Fingerprint classification formula as adopted by the Philippine Law Enforcement agencies, such as
the National Bureau of Investigation and the Philippine National Police and by majority of English
speaking countries of the world is known a
a. Henry system c. Henry – Galton system with FBI modification
b. Galton system d. John Vucetich system

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8. To have a good impression of the inked fingerprint pattern, it is necessary that the finger be rolled
from one side to the other side forming an angle of
a. 160 degree c. 100 degree
b. 180 degree d. 140 degree
9. Portrait parley – Dr. Aphonso Bertillon consisted of describing the criminals by
a. Photograph c. Body, head and limps measurement
b. Scars of birthmarks d. Fingerprint
10. The forking or dividing of ridges into two or more branches.
a. Bifurcation c. Delta
b. Convergence d. Divergence
11. A person suspected of having committed a criminal offense maybe fingerprinted by a police man
or law enforcement officer.
a. Only in a presence of a counsel c. Only in the presence of a witness
b. Only with his own free will d. Even against his consent
12. A Fingerprints to be identical must…
a. Have a delta and Core c. Pattern are clearly shown
b. Must come from the sane hand d. Possessed at least 10 ridge characteristics
13. An allied science of fingerprint which deal with the identification of person by palm print is known
as…
a. Dactyloscopy c. Poroscopy
b. Podoscopy d. Chiroscopy
14. The process of obtaining a magnified photograph of a small object such as fingerprint or palm print
without the use of microscope by using a short focus lens and long below extension…
a. Photomicrography c. Infra-red photography
b. Ultra-violet photography d. Photomacrography
15. The color of the developed latent prints by fingerprint powder will depend upon
a. Color of the surface of the object c. Time of development
b. Color of the powder used d. Both A and B of the above
16. One of the apostle of Jesus Christ who practice fingerprinting among his laborers was..
a. St. John the Baptist c. St. Andrew
b. St. Peter d. St. Paul
17. The summation of all the numerical value assigned to whorls appearing in a fingerprint chart (10
fingerprints) which are expressed as numerators and denominators in the classification formula plus
the pre-established fraction of 1/1 is known as..
a. Secondary classification c. Sub secondary classification
b. Primary Classification d. Major Classification
18. This Classification is done by exhibiting the ridge count of the first loop at the extreme left of the
numerator in the classification line
a. Primary classification c. Final classification
b. Major classification d. Key classification
19. The classification is always in number and exhibited at the right extreme side of the classification
line.
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 a. Major classification c. Sub-secondary classification
b. Final Classification d. Secondary Classification
20. This refers to the individual type of fingerprint pattern coming from the two index fingers. The
symbol is exhibited in the classification line just after the primary classification
a. Key classification c. Sub secondary classification
b. Final classification d. Secondary classification

21. When one finger is amputed or missing, it is given the classification of…
a. Whorl with a ridge tracing of M (meeting) c. Plain or tented arch
b. Loop with a ridge count 12 d. As the opposite finger
22. When two opposite finger are amputed or missing, one classification shall be
a. Loop with ridge counts of 11 c. Plain arch
c. Plain whorl with a ridge tracing of M (meeting) d. None of the above
23. When a fingerprint pattern is made up of a combination of two different types such as a central
pocket loop and plain arch, it is classified as
a. Accidental whorl c. Central pocket loop
b. Plain arch d. None of the above
24. Center of the fingerprint pattern which may resemble a look spiral or rod.
a. Delta c. Ridge
b Core d. Whorl
25. A finger print pattern in which downward slant or ridge from the little finger towards the thumb
a. Ulnar Loop c. Arch
b. Radial Loop d. Whorl
26. The symbol of accidental whorl
a. A b. W c. X d. C
27. A fingerprint pattern with a single loop but has two deltas.
a. Accidental Loop c. Whorl
b. Double Loop d. Central Pocket Loop
28. Finger pattern in which two or more type of pattern are present in a single pattern area
a. Accidental Loop c. Whorl
b. Double Loop d. Central Pocket Loop
29. A distinct finger print pattern with two separate loop and has its respective shoulder and deltas
a. Accidental Loop c. Whorl
b. Double Loop d. Central Pocket Loop
30. All except one part of the body has papillary ridges.
a. Sole of the Foot c. Finger
b. Palm d. Elbow
31. A fingerprint pattern which one or more ridges enter on the other side of the impression by a
recurve, and terminate on the same side where the ridge has entered.
a. Loop b. Whorl c. Arch d. Plane Arch
32. Father of fingerprint who developed finger print classification which was adopted in London
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 a. Alphonse Bertillon b. Edward Richard Hendry c. Jones d. Heneroso Reyes
33. In primary classification what is the assigned numerical value of finger number five
a. 16 b. 8 c. 4 d. 2
34. Finger number 7 refers to:
a. Left thumb b. Right thumb c. Right Index d. Left Index
35. It is the sum total of the numerical value of the whorl type pattern
a. Primary Classification c. Sub secondary
b. Secondary d. Final
36. The following patterns are included in secondary small letter group except one
a. Plane Arch b. Tented Arch c. Radial Loop d. Ulnar Loop
37. A classification found at the left side of the secondary classification.
a. primary c. Major
b. Sub-secondary d. Key
38. In secondary classification, the numerators are;
a. Even Fingers c. Right Fingers
b. Odd Fingers d. Left Fingers
39. Fingers included in primary classification are;
a. Index Fingers c. Little Fingers
b. All Fingers d. Fingers no. 2,3,4,7,8 & 9
40. Ridge tracing will always start at
a. Left delta to tracing ridge c. Right delta to tracing ridge
b. Left delta to right delta d. Right delta to left delta

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