Sect

ion-b

11ans)Mi
ll
eri
ndi
ces 
for
m anot
ati
onsy
stem i
n cr
yst
all
ogr
aphy
 forpl
anesi
n cr
yst
al(
Brav
ais)
l
att
ices.
I
npar
ti
cul
ar,
afami
lyof
 l
att
icepl
anes 
isdet
ermi
nedbyt
hree 
int
eger
s h,
k,
  ℓ,
and  t Mi
he  l
leri
ndi
ces.

Theyarewr i
tten(hkℓ)
,anddenotethefamil
yofplanesor
thogonalt
o  ,where   ar
e
the 
basi
s ofthe r
ecipr
ocall
att
ice 
vector
s(notet
hatthepl
aneisnotalway
sorthogonalt
othel
inear

combi nati
onofdi r
ectl atti
cev ectors   becauset helatti
cev ect
orsneednotbemut ually
orthogonal).Byconv ent i
on, 
negat i
vei nt
egers arewritt
enwi t
habar ,asi
n 3 f
or 
−3.Thei ntegersare
usuallywritt
eninlowestt erms, i.
e.their
 gr
eat estcommondi v i
sor 
shoul
dbe 1.Mill
erindicesar e
alsousedt odesignat er ef
lectionsin X-raycry st
all
ography .Inthi
scasethei nt
eger
sar enot
necessar i
lyinl
owestt er ms, andcanbet houghtofascor respondingtoplanesspacedsucht hatthe
refl
ectionsfrom adjacentpl aneswoul dhaveaphasedi fferenceofexactl
yonewav elength( 2π),
regardlessofwhet hert hereareat omsonal ltheseplanesornot .
Ther
ear
eal
sosev
eralr
elat
ednot
ati
ons:
[
1]

 t
henot
ation{
hkℓ
}denot
est
hesetofal
lpl
anest
hatar
eequi
val
entt
o(hkℓ
)byt
hesy
mmet
ryof
t
hel
att
ice.
I
nthecont
extofcr
yst
aldi
  r
ect
ions 
(notpl
anes)
,thecor
respondi
ngnot
ati
onsar
e:

 [
hkℓ
],wit
hsquar
einsteadofroundbrackets,
denot
esadi
rect
ioni
nthebasi
soft di
he  r
ect
 l
att
ice
v
ector
sinst
eadofthereci
procall
att
ice;and

 si
mil
arl
y,t
henot
ati
on<hkℓ
>denot
est
hesetofal
ldi
rect
ionst
hatar
eequi
val
entt
o[hkℓ
]by
symmetr
y.
Mil
lerindiceswereintroducedi n1839byt heBr it
ishmi neralogi
st 
Wil
li
am Hall
owesMi ll
er,
alt
hough
analmosti denti
calsystem (Weissparamet er
s)hadal readybeenusedbyGer man
mineralogist 
Chr
isti
anSamuelWei ss 
since1817. [
 
2]
Themet hodwasalsohist
orical
lyknownasthe
Mil
leri
ansy st
em,andt heindicesasMi l
ler
ian, 
[
3]
al
t houghthisisnowrare.
TheMill
erindi
cesaredefi
nedwit
hrespecttoanychoi
ceofuni
tcel
landnotonl
ywi
thr
espectt
o
pri
mit
ivebasisvect
ors,
asissometi
messt at
ed.

12ans)A  comput er i

samachi net hatcanbei nstr
uct edtocar ry
out sequences  of 
arit
hmet ic 
or l
ogi cal 
operat
ionsaut omaticallyvi
a computerprogrammi ng.
Moder ncomput er
shav etheabi lit
yt ofollowgenerali
zedset sofoper ati
ons,
called pr
ogr ams.  
Thesepr ogramsenabl ecomput erst operform anextremelywider angeoftasks.
A" compl ete"comput erincludingt he hardware,t
he operati
ngsy st
em  (
main soft
ware),
and  peri
pher al
 equipmentr equiredandusedf or"f
ull"operationcanber ef
erredtoasa comput er
syst em.Thi sterm mayaswel lbeusedf oragroupofcomput erst
hatar econnectedandwor k
toget her
,inpar ti
culara 
comput ernet work or
 comput ercl
ust er.

Speed
Acomput
erwor
kswi
thmuchhi
gherspeedandaccur
acycompar
edt
ohumanswhi
le
perf
ormi ngmathemati
calcalcul
ati
ons.Computer
scanprocessmil
li
ons(
1,000,000)
ofinstruct
ionspersecond.Thet imet akenbycomput
ersf ort
hei
roperat
ionsi s
microsecondsandnanoseconds.

Accur
acy
Computersperf
orm calculat
ionswi
th100% accur
acy
.Er
ror
smayoccurduet
odat
a
i
nconsi
stencyorinaccuracy.

Di
li
gence
Acomput ercanper
for
m mill
ionsoft
asksorcal
cul
ati
onswit
hthesameconsi
stency
andaccuracy.I
tdoesn’
tfeelanyfat
igueorl
ackofconcent
rat
ion.I
tsmemor
yal so
makesitsuperi
ort
othatofhumanbeings.

Ver
sat
il
it
y
Versat
il
it
yref
erstothecapabili
tyofacomput
ert
oper
for
m di
ff
erentki
ndsofwor
ks
wit
hsameaccuracyandeffi
ciency.

Rel
iabi
li
ty
Acomputeri
srel
iabl
easitgi
vesconsi
stentr
esultf
orsi
mil
arsetofdat
ai.
e.,
ifwegi
ve
samesetofi
nputanynumberoft
imes,wewillgett
hesameresul
t.

Exampl
esofexi
tDev
ices

Moni tor
 –Thisisthemostcommon  comput
er 
output 
dev
ice.I
tcr
eatesav
isual
displaybytheuseofwhi chuserscanvi
ewprocesseddat
a. Moni
tor
scomein
varioussizesandresol
utions.
CommonTy pesofMonitors

Printer 
–thisdevi
cegeneratesahardcopyversi
onofprocesseddata,
li
ke
document sandphot ogr
aphs.The 
computer
 t
ransmitst
hei magedatato
the pri
nter
,whichthenphysi
call
yrecr
eatest
hei mage,t
ypical
lyonpaper.
TypesofPr int
ers

14ans)Hal
lef
fecti
sdef
inedast
hepr
oduct
ionofav
olt
agedi
ff
erenceacr
ossanel
ect
ri
cal
conduct
orwhi
chist
ransv
er setoanelect
ri
ccur r
entandwit
hr espectt
oanappl i
edmagnet
icf
iel
dit
i
sperpendi
cul
art
othecurrent.Edwi
nHalldiscover
edthi
seffectintheyear1879.
Hal
lfiel
disdef
inedast hefiel
ddevelopedacrosstheconductorandHallvol
tageisthe
cor
respondi
ngpotentialdi
ff
erence.Thispr
incipl
eisobservedinthechargesinv
olvedi
nthe
el
ectr
omagneti
cf i
elds.
ReadMor
e: 
Hal
lEf
fect
Hal
lEf
fectDer
ivat
ion
Consi
deramet
alwit
honetypechargecar
ri
ersthatareel
ectr
onsandi
sast eady
-st
atecondi
ti
on
wit
hnomovementofchar
gesinthey-axi
sdir
ection.Fol
lowi
ngi
stheder
ivati
onofHall
-ef
fect
:
eE_{H}
=Bev\fr
ac{
eV_{H}
}{d}
=BevV_{H}
=Bv d 
(atequi
li
bri
um,
for
cei
sdownwar
dsduet
omagnet
ic
fi
eldwhichi
sequalt
oupwardelect
ri
cforce)

Wher
e,

 VHi
sHal
lvol
tage

 EHi
sHal
lfi
eld

 vi
sthedr
if
tvel
oci
ty

 di
sthewi
dthoft
hemet
alsl
ab

 Bi
sthemagnet
icf
iel
d

 Bevi
saf
orceact
ingonanel
ect
ron
I
=-nevA
Wher
e,

 Ii
sanel
ect
ri
ccur
rent

 ni
sno.
ofel
ect
ronsperuni
tvol
ume

 Ai
sthecr
oss-sect
ionalar
eaoft
heconduct
or
V_{
H} =\
frac{
-Bi
}{
net
} 
\fr
ac{
E_{
H}}
{JB}
=-\
frac{
1}{
ne}
Where,
\
frac{E_{H}
}{JB}
:Hallcoef
fici
ent(RH)isdef
inedastherat
iobetweenthei
nducedel
ectr
icf
iel
dand
t
ot heproductofappli
edmagnet i
cf i
eldandcurr
entdensi
ty.I
n semi
conduct
ors,
RH 
isposi
ti
vefor
t
hehol eandnegativ
ef orf
reeelectr
ons.

R_{
H}=-\
frac{
1}{
ne}
 \mu_{
H}=\
frac{
v}{
E}=\
frac{
J}{
neE}
=\si
gmaR_{
H}=\
frac{
R_{
H}}
{\r
ho}
(v)

Wher
e,

 Ei
sanel
ect
ri
cfi
eld

 vi
sthedr
if
tvel
oci
ty

 RH i
sthe 
Hal
lcoef
fi
cient

 i
s 
H  t
hemobi
li
tyoft
hehol
e
\f
rac{
J_{y}
}{J_{
x}}
=\si
gma\fr
ac{
E_{
y}}{
J_{x}
}=\mu_{H}B_{z}
=\si
gmaR_{
H} B_{z}
Therati
obetweendensi
ty(
x-axi
sdi
rect
ion)andcur
rentdensi
ty(y
-axi
sdi
recti
on)isknownasHal
l
angl
ethatmeasur
est
heav
eragenumberofr
adi
ansduet
ocol
li
sionsoft
hepar
ti
cles.
R=\
frac{
V_{
H}}
{i
}=\
frac{
B}{
net
}

Wher
e,

 Ri
sHal
lresi
stance

17q)t ransi stor isa semiconductordevi

ce usedt o 
ampl i
fy 
or 
swi t
ch electroni
c si
gnals
and elect r
icalpower .Iti
scomposedof  
semi conductor 
materialusuallywi t
hatleast
three terminal s forconnectiontoanex t
ernalci r
cui
t.A vol
tage or 
current appli
edtoonepairofthe
transistor'
st ermi nalscontrolsthecurr
entthr oughanotherpairoftermi nals.Becausethecontr
oll
ed
(output )powercanbehi gherthanthecontrolli
ng(input
)power ,atransistorcanampl i
fyasignal.
Today , somet ransistorsarepackagedindividuall
y,butmanymor earef oundembedded
i
n  i
ntegr at
edci rcuit
s.

PNPTr
ans
ist
or
Defi
nit
ion: 
The t
ransist
or  
inwhichonen-t ypemat er
iali
sdopedwi t
htwop-t ype
materi
alssuchtypeoft ransi
storisknownasPNPt r
ansi
stor.I
tisa 
currentcontr
oll
ed
devi
ce.Thesmal lamountofbasecur r
entcont r
oll
edboththeemi t
terandcollect
or
curr
ent.ThePNPt ransistorhastwocr yst
aldiodesconnectedbacktoback.Thel ef
t
si
deoft hediodeinknownast heemi t
ter-basediodeandtherightsi
deoft hediodeis
knownast hecoll
ector-basedi ode.

ThesymbolofPNPt r
ansi
stori
sshowni nthefi
gurebel
ow.Thei
nwardarr
owshowst
hat
thedi
rect
ionofcur
renti
nPNPt ransi
stori
sfrom t
heemitt
ert
ocol
lect
or.

Cons
truc
ti
onofPNPTr
ans
ist
or
Theconstruct
ionofPNPt r
ansi
storisshowni nthefigurebelow.Theemi t
ter
-base
j
unctioni
sconnectedinforwar
dbiased, andthecoll
ector-basejuncti
onisconnectedin
rever
sebiased.Theemit
terwhichisconnectedinthef orwardbiasedatt
ract
stheelectr
ons
towardst
hebat t
eryandhenceconstit
utesthecurrenttoflowfrom emitt
ertocol
lector
.
NPNTr
ans
ist
or
Defi
nition: 
The t
ransistor
 i
nwhi chonep-t ypemat eri
alispl acedbet weentwon-t ype
materialsisknownas  NPNt ransist
or.TheNPNt r
ansist or 
amplifies t
heweak
si
gnal enterint
ot hebaseandpr oducesstrongampl i
fy signalsatt hecoll
ectorend.I
n
NPNt ransistor
,thedirect
ionof  
movementofanel ectron  i
sfrom the emitt
erto
coll
ector r
egionduet owhi chthecur r
entconsti
tutesint het r
ansistor.Suchtypeof
tr
ansistorismost l
yusedi ntheci r
cuitbecausetheirmaj ori
tychar gecarri
ersare
el
ectronswhi chhav ehighmobi li
tyascompar edtohol es.

Cons
truc
ti
onofNPNTr
ans
ist
or
TheNPNt r
ansi
storhast
wodi odesconnectedbackt
oback.Thedi odeont
hel ef
tsidei
s
call
edanemi t
ter
-basediode,andthediodesonthelef
tsidearecall
edcol
lect
or-base
diode.Thesenamesaregivenasperthenameoft heterminal
s.

TheNPNt r
ansist
orhasthreeterminals,
namelyemitter,
coll
ectorandbase.Themi ddlesect
ionoft
heNPNt r
ansist
orisli
ghtly
doped,anditisthemostimportantfact
orofthewor ki
ngofthetr
ansist
or.Theemi t
teris
moderatel
ydoped, andthecol
lectorisheavi
lydoped.
18ans)  TheACi nputv ol
tageac rosssecondar y
 
​s1 and s2 
changespol
​ ari
tyaft
er
eachhal fcy cle.Supposedur ingthefirsthalfcycleofi nputACsi gnal,the
terminal s1 
​i
sposi ti
ver el
ativetocentret apOand  s2 
​isnegat i
verelati
vetoO.
thendi ode D1 isf
​ orwar dbiasanddi ode D2 
​i
sr eversebi ased.Therefore
diode D1 
​ conductwhi lediode D2 
​ doesnot .
 
Innex thalfcy cle,
thetermi nal s1 i
snegat
​ iv
er elat
ivetocent r
et apOand  s2 
​ i
spositi
ver el
ati
vetoO.
thendi ode D2 isf
​ orwar dbiasanddi ode D1 
​i
sr eversebi ased.Therefore
diode D2 
​ conductwhi lediode D1 
​ doesnot .
 
Thedi rectionofcur rentinr esis
tance RL 
​ i
ssamef rom At oBf orbothhalfcycl
es.
hencef ori nputACsi gnaltheout putcurrentisacont i
nuousser iesof
unidi
rect i
onal pul
ses.

A halfwaverecti
fier i
sdefi
nedasa t
ypeofrecti
fier
 t
hatonl
yall
owsonehalf
-cycleofanAC  voltage 
wavef
ormtopass,blocki
ngt heot
herhal
f-cycl
e.
Half-waverecti
fi
er sareusedtoconver
tACv olt
aget oDCvol
tage,andonl
y
requireasi
ngle 
diode  t
oconst
ruct
.
Arecti
fierisadevi
cet hatconv er
tsalternat
ingcurrent(
AC)todir
ectcurrent
(DC).I
tisdonebyusi ngadi odeoragr oupofdiodes.Halfwaverect
if
iersuse
onediode, whi
leafullwaver ecti
fi
erusesmul ti
plediodes.
Thewor kingofahalfwav erectif
iertakesadvantageofthefactt
hatdiodes
onlyal
lowcur r
entt
of l
owinonedi r
ection.

Sect
ion-c
19ans)Cur
ieLawandCur
ieTemper
atur
e

Cur
ieLawandCur
iet
emper
atur
ear
eimpor
tantt
opi
csi
n I
ITJEE.Theset
opi
csusual
lyf
etchdi
rect
quest
ionsi
ntheexam andsoi
tbecomesv
italt
omast
ert
hem.Theset
opi
csi
ncl
udev
ari
ous
f
ormul
aewhi
chf
etchdi
rectnumer
ical
.Theyar
equi
teeasyanddon’
trequi
remuchpr
act
icebuti
tis
i
mpor
tantt
ocl
ari
fyt
heseconcept
s.
 
Cur
ieLaw
Thecur
iel
aw st
atest
hati
napar
amagnet
icmat
eri
al,t
hemat
eri
al’
smagnet
izat
ioni
sdi
rect
ly
pr
opor
ti
onalt
oanappl
iedmagnet
icf
iel
d.Butt
hecasei
snott
hesamewhent
hemat
eri
ali
sheat
ed.
Wheni
tisheat
ed,t
her
elat
ioni
srev
ersedi
.e.t
hemagnet
izat
ionbecomesi
nver
sel
ypr
opor
ti
onalt
o
t
emper
atur
e. 

Mat
hemat
ical
ly,
iti
swr
it
tenas

M =Cx(
B/T)
,wher
e

Mi
sthemagnet
izat
ion

Bi
sthemagnet
icf
iel
d,measur
edi
ntesl
as

Ti
sabsol
utet
emper
atur
e,measur
edi
nkel
vins

Ci
samat
eri
al-speci
fi
cCur
ieconst
ant

Thi
sconceptwasi
nit
ial
lypr
oposedbyFr
enchphy
sici
st,Pi
err
eCur
ieandt
heconcepthol
dsgood
f
orhi
gh  
temper
atur
esandweakmagnet
icf
iel
ds.Var
iousexper
iment
sbyPi
err
eCur
ieshowed
t
hatf
ormany 
subst
ancest
hesuscept
ibi
li
tyi
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onalt
otheabsol
utet
emper
atur
e T
  C/
χ=  T.
 
Thi
srel
ati
onshi
pisdef
inedast
heCur
ie’
slaw.Theconst
ant‘
C’i
scal
ledt
hecur
ieconst
ant
.The
abov
e equat
ionmayal
sobemodi
fi
edt C/(
oχ=  T −θ)
,wher
eθi
saconst
ant
.Thi
sequat
ioni
s
cal
ledt
heCur
ie 
–Wei
ssLawwhi
chwi
llbedi
scussedl
ater
.
Vi
ewt
hisvi
deoonCur
ieLaw
Nowweshal
ldi
scusssomeoft
hei
mpor
tantconcept
srel
atedwi
tht
hisl
aw:

 Oni
ncr
easi
ngt
emper
atur
e,t
hemagnet
icsuscept
ibi
li
tyofpar
amagnet
icmat
eri
alsdecr
eases
andv
icev
ersa.

 Themagnet
icsuscept
ibi
li
tyoff
err
omagnet
icsubst
ancesdoesnotchangeaccor
dingt
ocur
ie
l
aw.

 Cur
iet
emper
atur
e(TC)
:
üThet
emper
atur
eabov
ewhi
chaf
err
omagnet
icmat
eri
albehav
esl
ikeapar
amagnet
icmat
eri
ali
s
def
inedasCur
iet
emper
atur
e(TC)
.
üThemi
nimum t
emper
atur
eatwhi
chaf
err
omagnet
icsubst
ancei
sconv
ert
edi
ntopar
amagnet
ic
subst
ancei
sdef
inedasCur
iet
emper
atur
e.
üForv
ari
ousf
err
omagnet
icmat
eri
alsi
tsv
aluesar
edi
ff
erent
.e.
g.f
orNi
.
üAtt
hist
emper
atur
ethef
err
omagnet
ism oft
hesubst
ancessuddenl
yvani
shes.
Bel
ow t
heCur
iepoi
nt,say770degr
eeCel
sius,f
ori
ron,at
omst
hatactassmal
lmagnet
sal
ign
t
hemsel
vesi
nvar
iousmagnet
icmat
eri
als.I
nant
if
err
omagnet
icmat
eri
als,t
hemagnet
icf
iel
ds
canceleachot
herast
heat
omi
cmagnet
sal
ter
nat
einopposi
tedi
rect
ions. 
Thescenar
ioi
squi
te
di
ff
erenti
nfer
romagnet
icmat
eri
als.Af
ract
ionalr
einf
orcementofmagnet
icf
iel
doccur
sint
hem as
t
hei
mpul
siv
ear
rangementwhi
chi
sacol
lect
ionofbot
hpat
ter
ns,i
ncl
udest
wodi
ff
erentmagnet
ic
at
oms.

Cur
ieWei
ssLaw:
TheCur
ie–Wei
ssl
awdescr
ibest
hemagnet
icsuscept
ibi
li
tyχ 
  ofaf
err
omagneti
nthepar
amagnet
ic
r
egi
onabov
etheCur
iepoi
nt.
Mat
hemat
ical
ly,
iti
swr
it
tenas

Χ=C/(
T-TC)
,
Her
eCi
samat
eri
alspeci
fi
cCur
ieconst
ant

Ti
stheabsol
utet
emper
atur
emeasur
edi
nKel
vin

Tc 
ist
heCur
iet
emper
atur
emeasur
edi
nKel
vin.
Thi
slaw env
isagesasi
ngul
ari
tyi
nthesuscept
ibi
li
tyatT=Tc.butbel
ow t
hist
emper
atur
e,t
he
magnetwi
llhav
easpont
aneousmagnet
izat
ion

curi
etemper
ature 
(TC) ,
or  
Curi
epoint,
isthetemperat
ureabov
ewhichcert
ainmateri
alsl
ose
thei
r 
per
manentmagnet ic 
proper
ti
es,whichcan(i
nmostcases)berepl
acedby 
inducedmagnet
ism.
TheCuri
etemperaturei snamedaf t
er 
Pierr
eCuri
e,whoshowedthatmagneti
sm waslostata
cri
ti
calt
emperat
ure.[
1]

Theforceofmagnet ism i
sdeterminedbythe magneticmoment,a 
dipol
emoment  
wit
hinanatom
whichor i
ginat
esfrom t
he angul
armoment um  and 
spin 
ofel
ect
rons.Material
shavedif
fer
ent
st
ructuresofintr
insi
cmagnet i
cmoment sthatdependontemperat
ure;t
heCur iet
emperatur
eisthe
cr
it
icalpointatwhichamat eri
al'
sintr
insi
cmagnet icmomentschangedirecti
on.
Permanentmagnet i
sm i
scausedbyt healignmentofmagnet icmoment sandinducedmagnet ism
iscr
eatedwhendi sor
deredmagneti
cmoment sareforcedt oal i
gninanappl iedmagneti
cf i
eld.For
example,theorderedmagnet i
cmoment s(ferromagnet ic,
Figur e1)changeandbecomedi sordered
(par
amagnet i
c,Figure2)attheCuri
et emperature.Highertemper at
uresmakemagnet sweaker ,as
spontaneousmagnet ism onl
yoccur
sbel owt heCuriet emper ature.
 Magneticsuscept
ibi
li
ty 
abov e
theCurietemperaturecanbecalcul
atedf r
om t he 
Curie–Wei ssl aw,whichisderiv
edfrom Curie's
law.
Inanalogytof
err
omagnet icandpar amagneticmat eri
als,t
heCur iet
emperaturecanalsobeusedt o
descri
bethephasetransi
tionbet ween f
err
oelect
ricit
y and par
aelect
ri
cit
y.I
nt hi
scontext,
the or
der
parameter 
ist el
he  ectr
ic 
pol ar
izat
ion 
thatgoesfrom af ini
tevaluetozer
owhent hetemper at
ureis
i
ncreasedabovetheCur i
et emperature.
20ans)t
he 
fr
eeel
ect
ronmodel
 i
sasi
mpl
emodelf
ort
hebehav
iourof
 char
gecar
ri
ers 
in
a metall
ic sol
id.Itwasdev
elopedin1927,[
1]
 
pri
nci
pal
lyby 
Arnol
dSommerfel
d,whocombined
the 
classical 
Drudemodel 
with 
quantum mechanical
 Fer
mi–Dir
acst
ati
sti
cs 
andhencei
tisal
so
knownast he Drude–Sommerfel
dmodel .
Giveni
tssimpl
ici
ty,
iti
ssur
pri
singl
ysuccessf
uli
nexpl
aini
ngmanyexper
iment
alphenomena,
especi
all
y

 t
he 
Wiedemann–Fr
anzl
aw 
whi
chr
elat
es 
elect
ri
calconduct
ivi
ty 
and 
ther
malconduct
ivi
ty;

 t
het
emper
atur
edependenceoft
he 
elect
ronheatcapaci
ty;

 t
heshapeoft
heel
ect
roni
c densi
tyofst
ates;

 t
her
angeofbi
ndi
ngener
gyv
alues;

 el
ect
ri
calconduct
ivi
ti
es;

 t
he 
Seebeckcoef
fi
cient
 oft
he 
ther
moel
ect
ri
cef
fect
;

 t
her
malel
ect
ronemi
ssi
on 
and 
fi
eldel
ect
ronemi
ssi
on 
fr
om bul
kmet
als.
ci
[ t
ati
onneeded]

Thefreeel
ectr
onmodelsolvedmanyoft hei
nconsistenci
esrel
atedtotheDr
udemodelandgave
i
nsighti
ntosever
alot
herproperti
esofmetal
s.Thef r
eeelect
ronmodelconsider
sthatmetal
sar
e
composedofaquantum el
ectrongaswhere 
ions pl
ayalmostnorole.Themodelcanbevery
predi
cti
vewhenappli
edto 
alkali
 and 
nobl
emetals.

Free-el ectronmodelofmet als, insoli

d-stat e physics,
repr esentati
onofamet al
li
c solid asacont ainerf il
ledwi th
a gas  composedoff reeel ectrons( i.
e.,t
hoser esponsi bleforhi gh
elect r
icalandt her malconduct ivity)
.Thef reeel ectrons, consi der ed
ident i
caltot heout ermost ,orv alence,el
ect ronsoff r
ee  met al 
at oms,
arepr esumedt obemov i
ngindependent l
yofoneanot hert hroughout
theent i
recry st
al .Thef ree-elect ronmodelwasf i
rstpr oposedbyt he
Dut chphy sicist Hendr ikA.Lor ent z 
shortl
yaf t
er1900andwasr ef i
ned
in1928by  
Ar noldSommer f
eld ofGer many .Sommer feldint roduced
quant um-mechani calconcept s, mostnot abl ythe Paul iexclusi on
principle.Althought hemodelpr ov i
dedasat isfactoryexpl anat ionf or
certainpr oper t
ies( e.g.,conduct ivit
yandel ect r
oni cspeci fi
cheat )of
simpl emet alssuchassodi um, i
thadsomeser iousshor t
comi ngs.I t
didnot ,f
orexampl e, takeintoaccountt hei nteractionoff ree
el
ectr
onswiththemet alions.Researcher
ssoonrecognizedthata
br
oadersyst
em wasneededt oexpl ai
nthebehavi
ourofcompl ex
metal
sandsemi conductors.Bythemi d-1930st
hef r
ee-electr
on
modelwaslargel
ysuper sededbyt he 
bandtheor
y ofsol
ids.

21ans)A 
Zenerdi
ode 
isaspeci
alt
ypeof
 di
ode 
desi
gnedt
orel
iabl
yal
low 
cur
rent
 t
ofl
ow
"
backwar
ds"whenacer
tai
nsetr
ever
sev
olt
age,
knownast Zenervol
he  tage,
isr
eached.
Zenerdiodesar emanuf actur
edwi t
hagr eatv arietyofZenerv olt
agesandsomear eev envari
abl
e.
SomeZenerdi odeshav eashar p,highl
ydoped  p–nj uncti
on wi t
hal owZenerv olt
age,inwhichcase
thereverseconductionoccur sduet oelectron quant um tunnelli
ng intheshor
tspacebet weenpand
nregions−t hisisknownast he Zenereffect,after Cl
arenceZener .Di
odeswithahi gherZener
volt
agehav eamor egradualjunctionandt heirmodeofoper ationalsoinvol
ves aval
anche
breakdown.Bot hbreakdownt y
pesar epresenti nZenerdi odeswi ththeZenereffectpredominat
ing
atlowerv ol
tagesandav alanchebr eakdownathi ghervoltages.
Zenerdi
odesarewi del
yusedinelectronicequipmentofallki
ndsandar eoneoft hebasi
cbuil
ding
bl
ocksof 
electr
oniccir
cui
ts.Theyar eusedt ogenerat
elow-powerst abil
izedsupplyrai
lsfr
om a
hi
ghervolt
ageandt oprov
idereferencev ol
tagesforci
rcuit
s,especiallystabil
izedpowersuppl
ies.
Theyarealsousedtoprot
ectcircuit
sf r
om ov er
volt
age,especi
all
y electrostat
icdischar
ge 
(ESD).
Zenerdi odesarewidelyusedasvolt
agerefer
encesandas shunt 
r egulat
ors 
toregulatet
hev ol
tage
acrosssmal lci
rcui
ts.Whenconnectedinparall
elwi
thav ar
iabl
ev oltagesourcesot hati
tisrever
se
biased, aZenerdiodeconductswhent hevolt
agereachesthediode'sreversebreakdownv ol
tage.
From thatpoi nton,thelowimpedanceofthediodekeepsthevoltageacr ossthediodeatthat
value.
[8]

Inthiscir cuit
,aty pi
calvol t
agereferenceorregulat
or,aninputvol
tage,
 Uin,i
sregulat
eddownt oa
stableout putvol
tage Uout.Thebreakdownv ol
tageofdi odeDisstabl
eov erawi decurrentr
angeand
holds Uout 
approximat el
yconst anteventhought heinputvol
tagemayf l
uct uateoverawiderange.
Becauseoft helowi mpedanceoft hediodewhenoper atedli
kethis,
resistorR 
  i
susedt oli
mit
currentthr ought hecircuit.
Int
hecaseofthi
ssimpleref
erence,
thecur
rentfl
owi
ngi
nthedi
odei
sdet
ermi
nedusi
ngOhm'
slaw
andtheknownvol
tagedropacrosst
heresi
stor
 R;

Thev
alueof
 R 
mustsat
isf
ytwocondi
ti
ons:

1. R mustbesmal lenought hatthecur rentt

hroughDkeepsDi nr eversebreakdown.The
valueofthi scur rentisgiveni nt hedatasheetforD.Forexampl e, t
hecommon
BZX79C5V6[9]  dev ice,
a5. 6V0. 5W Zenerdiode,hasar ecommendedr eversecurrentof
5 mA.I fi
nsuf ficientcurrentexi stst
hroughD, t
hen Uout 
isunr egulatedandl essthanthe
nomi nalbreakdownv olt
age( thisdiff
ersfrom vol
tage-r egulatort ubes wheretheoutput
voltageishi ghert hannomi nalandcoul dri
seashi ghas  Uin)
.Whencal culati
ng R,
all
owancemustbemadef oranycur rentt
hroughtheext ernalload, notshowni nthi
s
diagram, connect edacross Uout.
 2. R mustbelar
geenoughthatthecur
rentthroughDdoesnotdest
royt
hedev
ice.I
fthe
curr
entthr
oughDi I
s D,
itsbr
eakdownv ol
tage VB 
andi
tsmaxi
mum power

di
ssi
pat
i Pmax 
on  cor
rel
ateassuch:
  .
Aloadmaybeplacedacr
ossthedi
odeinthi
srefer
encecircui
t,andaslongast heZenerstays
i
nr ev
ersebr
eakdown,
thedi
odeprovi
desastabl
ev ol
tagesourcetotheload.Zenerdiodesin
thi
sconfi
gur
ati
onareoft
enusedasstabl
eref
erencesformoreadv ancedvol
tageregulator
cir
cuit
s.
Shuntregulat
orsaresimple,butt
her equi
rementsthattheballastresistorbesmal lenoughto
avoidexcessi
vevoltagedropduri
ngwor st-caseoperat
ion(lowi nputv oltageconcurrentwi
th
highloadcurr
ent)tendstoleavealotofcurrentf
lowinginthedi odemuchoft heti
me, making
forafair
lywastef
ulregulat
orwithhighquiescentpowerdissipation,suitableonlyforsmall
er
l
oads.
Thesedev icesareal soencounter
ed,typicall
yinserieswi
thabase-emi t
terjuncti
on,in
tr
ansistorstageswher eselecti
vechoiceofadev i
cecenter
edont heavalancheorZenerpoint
canbeusedt ointroducecompensat i
ngt emper at
ureco-ef
fi
cientbal
ancingoft he
tr
ansistor 
p–nj uncti
on.Anexampl eoft hiskindofusewouldbeaDC  err
orampl i
fi
er 
usedi
n
a r
egulatedpowersuppl y ci
rcui
tfeedbackl oopsystem.
Zenerdi
odesar
eal
sousedi
n sur
gepr
otect
ors 
tol
imi
ttr
ansi
entv
olt
agespi
kes.
Anot
herappl
icat
ionoft
heZenerdiodeist
heuseof
 noi
se 
causedbyi
ts 
aval
anche
br
eakdown 
ina r
andom numbergener
ator
.