Nuclear Pharmacy

Modes of Radioactive Decay

and Types of Radiation
 Objective

To understands modes of radioactive

disintegration and types of radiation

To learn about basic atomic structure;

alpha, beta, and gamma decay; positron
emission; differences between gamma rays
and x-rays; orbital electron capture; and
internal conversion

2
 Content
Basic atomic structure and isotopes
Alpha, beta, and gamma decay
Decay spectra
Differences between gamma rays and x-rays
Positron emission
Orbital electron capture
Internal conversion

3
Radiopharmaceuticals
❖ Radiopharmaceuticals are medicinal

products that are radioactive.

❖ They are used for both diagnosis and therapy, principally in

the branch of medicine known as Nuclear Medicine.

❖ Radiopharmaceuticals vary from inorganic salts to large

organic molecules and complexes, and are prepared in a

variety of preparations, which include intravenous injections,

gases, aerosols, oral solutions and capsules.

4
 ❖ Radiopharmaceuticals, which contain

radionuclides with long half-lives, are

obtained from commercial suppliers.

❖ As the majority of radiopharmaceuticals in clinical use contain

radionuclides with short half-lives, commercial supply is often

impractical and such products are prepared in hospital

radiopharmacies and represent the largest area of

radiopharmaceutical work.

5
 Atomic Structure

proton neutron electron

6
Atomic Number (Z)

Hydrogen 1
Carbon 6
Cobalt 27
Selenium 34
Iridium 77
Uranium 92

7
 Isotopes

An isotope of an element has:

the same number of protons
a different number of neutrons

1H 2H 3H
 Isotopes

The number of protons

determines the element.
Elements with the same number
of protons but different numbers
of neutrons are called isotopes.
Some isotopes are radioactive.
 Radioactive Decay

Spontaneous changes in the nucleus of an

unstable atom

Results in formation of new elements

Accompanied by a release of energy, either

particulate or electromagnetic or both

Nuclear instability is related to whether the

neutron to proton ratio is too high or too low
10
The Line of Stability

N>Z

11
 Alpha Emission

Emission of a highly energetic helium nucleus

from the nucleus of a radioactive atom

Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too

low

Results in a decay product whose atomic

number is 2 less than the parent and whose
atomic mass is 4 less than the parent

Alpha particles are monoenergetic

12
Alpha Particle Decay

Alpha particle
charge +2

13
Alpha Particle Decay

14
 Alpha Decay Example

226
Ra decays by alpha emission

When 226Ra decays, the atomic mass decreases

by 4 and the atomic number decreases by 2

The atomic number defines the element, so the

element changes from radium to radon

226 222 4
88
Ra → 86
Rn + 2
He

15
 Beta Emission

Emission of an electron from the nucleus

of a radioactive atom ( n → p+ + e-1 )

Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too

high (i.e., a surplus of neutrons)

Beta particles are emitted with a whole

spectrum of energies (unlike alpha
particles)

16
Beta Particle Decay

Beta particle
charge -1

17
Beta Particle Decay

18
Beta Decay of 99Mo

19
Beta Spectrum

20
 Rule of Thumb

Average energy of a beta spectrum is about

one-third of its maximum energy or:

1
Eav = Emax
3

21
 +
Positron (Beta ) Emission

Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is

too low ( p+ → n + e+ )

Emits a positron (beta particle whose

charge is positive)

Results in emission of 2 gamma rays

(more on this later)

22
 +
Positron (Beta ) Emission

23
Positron Decay

24
Positron Decay

25
Positron Decay

26
Positron Annihilation

27
 Orbital Electron Capture

Also called K Capture

Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too

low

Form of decay competing with positron

emission

One of the orbital electrons is captured by

the nucleus: e-1 + p+1 → n

Results in emission of characteristic x-rays

28
Orbital Electron Capture

29
Orbital Electron Capture

30
 Ionization

ionized
atom ejected
+1 electron
-1

radiation
path
31
 X-Ray Production
electron fills
electron
vacancy
ejected

characteristic
x-rays

32
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

x- and γ-rays Ultra- Infra-

violet red
Visible

Increase in wavelength : decrease in frequency and energy

33
 Gamma Ray Emission

Monoenergetic radiations emitted from

nucleus of an excited atom following
radioactive decay

Rid nucleus of excess energy

Have characteristic energies which can be

used to identify the radionuclide

Excited forms of radionuclides often

referred to as “metastable”, e.g., 99mTc.
Also called “isomers”
34
Gamma Ray Emission

Gamma Radiation

35
Gamma Ray Emission

36
Photon Emission

Difference
Between
X-Rays and
Gamma Rays

37
 Internal Conversion

Alternative process by which excited

nucleus of a gamma emitting isotope rids
itself of excitation energy

The nucleus emits a gamma ray which

interacts with an orbital electron, ejecting
the electron from the atom

Characteristic x-rays are emitted as outer

orbital electrons fill the vacancies left by the
conversion electrons
38
 Internal Conversion

These characteristic x-rays can themselves

be absorbed by orbital electrons, ejecting
them.

These ejected electrons are called Auger

electrons and have very little kinetic energy

39
Internal Conversion

40
 Summary of Radioactive Decay Mechanisms

Characteristics Change in Change in

Decay of Parent Atomic Number Atomic
Mode Radionuclide (Z) Mass Comments

Alpha Neutron Poor -2 -4 Alphas Monoenergetic

Beta Neutron Rich +1 0 Beta Energy Spectrum

Positron Neutron Poor -1 0 Positron Energy Spectrum

Electron K-Capture; Characteristic

Neutron Poor -1 0
Capture X-rays Emitted
Excited
Gamma None None Gammas Monoenergetic
Energy State
Ejects Orbital Electrons;
Internal Excited
None None characteristic x-rays and
Conversion Energy State
Auger electrons emitted

41
 Alpha Decay Beta Decay

Occurs in nuclei with  Z > Occurs in nuclei with a

83. high neutron:proton ratio.

The loss of two protons and two A neutron is converted into a

neutrons moves the atom down proton inducing
and to the left toward the belt of a shift down and to the right on
stable nuclei. the stability plot.
 Positron Decay Electron Capture Decay

Occurs in nuclei with a low Electron capture is common in

neutron to proton ratio. heavier elements that have a low
neutron to proton ratio.

Gamma-ray Decay

Gamma-ray decay generally

accompanies another radioactive
A proton decays into a neutron and
an electron inducing a shift up and decay process because it carries
to the left in the nuclear stability off any excess energy within the
plot. nucleus resulting from the
radioactive decay.
 Balancing Nuclear Decay Reactions
Radioactive decay results in a redistribution of the basic
nuclear particles. The nuclear notation system keeps track of
where they are both before and after a nuclear transformation
has taken place.
To balance a nuclear decay reaction two rules must be followed.
1. Mass number is conserved in a nuclear decay reaction.
The sum of the mass numbers before the decay must equal
the sum of the mass numbers after the decay.

2. Electric charge is conserved in a nuclear decay reaction.

The total electric charge on subatomic particles and nuclei
before and after the decay must be equal.
Examples
Examples
 Summary

Basic atomic structure was described

Isotopes were defined
Modes of radioactive disintegration were
discussed (including alpha, beta, gamma,
positron emission, orbital electron capture,
and internal conversion)
Ionization was defined
X-ray production and the differences
between gamma rays and x-rays were
described
47
DECAY SERIES TIME SPAN

The next Question you

might consider asking
is how long does this decay
Theprocess
half life of U-238 istake?
about 4.5 billion
years which is around the age of the
earth so only about half of the uranium
Initially present when the earth formed has Decayed to date.

Which leads us into a discussion of Nuclear Half life

NUCLEAR HALF-LIFE

Unstable nuclei emit either an alpha, beta

or positron particles to try to shed mass or
improve their N/P ratio.
But can we predict when a nucleus will
Disintegrate?

The answer is NO for individual nuclei

But YES if we look at large #’s of atoms.

NUCLEAR HALF-LIFE

Every statistically large group of

radioactive
nuclei decays at a predictable rate.

This is called the half-life of the nuclide

Half life is the time it takes for half (50%) of the
Radioactive nuclei to decay to the daughter
Nuclide
NUCLEAR HALF-LIFE

The Half life of any nuclide is independent of:

Temperature, Pressure
or
Amount of material left
 Half Life Calculations
Another characteristic of a radioactive process is the half life.
The half life of a radioactive substance is the time required for
half of the initial number of nuclei to disintegrate.

Half
life
Rate of decay

Phosphorous-32 has a half life of 14.7 days

 Example
The half life of a specific element was calculated to
be 5200 years. Calculate the decay constant (k).
 Example
The half life of a specific element was calculated to
be 5200 years. Calculate the decay constant (k).
Recall: ln 2 = 0.693
So…
 Example
The half life of a specific element was calculated to
be 5200 years. Calculate the decay constant (k).
Recall: ln 2 = 0.693
So…
SUMMARY
HALF-LIFE
Amount of time it takes for
one half of a sample of
radioactive atoms to decay

56
MEDICAL APPLICATIONS
OF HALF-LIFE

Nuclide Half-Life Area of Body

I–131 8.1 days Thyroid
Fe–59 45.1 days Red Blood Cells
Sr–87 2.8 hours Bones
Tc–99 6.0 hours Heart
Na–24 14.8 hours Circulatory System

57
ACCURACY & PRECISION
 ACCURACY

Accuracy – Compares a measurement

to the true value
.
 EXAMPLE:
ACCURACY

Who is more accurate when measuring a book

that has a true length of 17.0 cm?
Susan:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm

Amy:
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm
 PRECISION
Precision = describes how closely measurements are to each other and how
carefully measurements were made
Which set is more precise?
18.2 , 18.4 , 18.35
17.9 , 18.3 , 18.85
16.8 , 17.2 , 19.44
 EXAMPLE: PRECISION

Who is more precise when measuring the

same 17.0 cm book?

Susan:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm

Amy:
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm
 ACCURACY VS. PRECISION
High Accuracy
High Precision
High Precision
Low Accuracy
 Can you hit the bull's-eye?

Three
targets with
three
arrows each
to shoot.
How do Both Precise Neither
they accurate but not accurate
compare? and accurate nor
precise precise

Can you define accuracy vs. precision?

 EXIT QUIZ: EVALUATE WHETHER
THE FOLLOWING ARE PRECISE,
ACCURATE OR BOTH.

High
Low Accuracy Low Accuracy Accuracy
Low Precision High Precision High
Precision
QUESTIONS??
?