Macedonia

• Macedonia was a great ancient kingdom located in Northern Greece.

• The Macedonians isolated themselves for centuries since they preferred to keep their distance from the
rest of Greece, as well as the hostilities that constantly took place between powerful Greek city-states and
their allies.
• This isolation ended when king Philip II of Macedonia sought to unite the warring city-states under his
rule
• The battle of Chaeronea 338BCE-Macedonians swiftly defeated the Greeks.
• In 336 BCE, Alexander III succeeded to the throne after the death of his father, King Philip II. At the
young age of 20, Alexander III became the king of a very powerful empire.
• Due to his extraordinary victories in battles, Alexander III was dubbed Alexander the Great.
• His Empire was divided among his three generals. Ptolemy ruled Egypt, Antigonus took Greece and
Asia Minor, and Seleucus governed Persia and Mesopotamia.
• Many of Alexander's lands preserved the Greek influence and some cities he built remain important
until today

Hellenistic Period
• Greek culture spread throughout the empire which, Alexander the Great expanded. This period was
known as the Hellenistic Age. The word Hellenistic was derived from the Greek word Hellazein, Which
means “to imitate Greeks.”
• The Emerging of Greek, Egyptian, Persian, and Indian cultures characterized Hellenistic culture.
• the City of Alexandria in Egypt became the center of Hellenistic culture from the time of Alexander's
death until the Roman conquest in 30 BCE.
• Scientists during this Hellenistic period discovered new important knowledge that is still being used
today.
• An astronomer named Aristarchus
• Eratosthenes- the earth is round: Father of Geography.
• Mathematics, Euclid- wrote a book entitled Elements
• Philosophy- Stoicism: believes that people need religion to be their guide to achieving happiness.
Epicurianism-which upholds that the aim of life is to seek pleasure and avoid pain.
• The Hellenistic Period opened the opportunity to trade not only products, but also Eastern and western
traditions and customs. As a result, Christianity spread Europe and the Greek language became an
Enduring language.

Roman Expansion
• Romans continued to expand their territory. • their expansion brought them conflict with another
Mediterranean power, the Carthaginians.
• Roman continued to expand their territory. • their expansion brought them conflict with another
Mediterranean power, the Carthaginians.
• Carthage is located in North Africa(Tunisia).
• It was founded by the Phoenicians around 800 BCE.
• Known to be great seafarers and traders.
• They controlled the trade in North Africa, Iberian, Peninsula, and west Mediterranean.
• Rome found Carthage a threat to its allies and territories in the south of Italy.
• They declared a war against the Carthaginian; the precipitating the Punic wars.

Punic Wars
• the word punic was derived from the Latin term, punici, which means “Phoenicians”

First Punic Wars (264-241BCE)

• started when Rome took control of the Rhegium and Messana, which sought protection against the
Carthaginians.
• The war was fought mainly at the sea.
• Rome defeated Carthage and was able to annex Sicily except for the Kingdom of Syracuse.

Second Punic Wars (219-202BCE)

• started when the Carthaginian general, Hannibal, conquered Sagutum, which is ally of Rome.
• They passed by Gaul and the people living there joined the Carthaginians in fighting Rome.
• In 216BCE, Hannibal's forces met the Roman army in the Battle of Cannae led by Publius Cornelius
Scipio, also called Scipio africanus.
• Four legions of Roman soldiers were killed in this battle.
• His forces were defeated by the Romans in the Battle of Zama in 202 BCE.
• the revival of Carthage alarmed Roman senator, Cato. Hence, the

Third Punic War commenced.

• The Romans eventually destroyed Carthage and sold the survivors as slaves.
Crisis in the Republic
• Despite the Roman victories and expansion, the republic faced economic and social crisis.
• The new estates were called latifundia and the new landowners or lessors bought slaves to work in their
properties.
• Because of the crisis, unemployment and slavery became widespread, violence escalated, and corruption
in the government became rampant among officials.
• Some government officials tried to solve the problem, including the Gracchus Brothers – Tiberius and
Gaius. They were aristocrats elected as tribunes.
• In 133BCE, Tiberius passed a law limiting land ownership of a person.
• He also called for the distribution of public land to farmers who were landless.
• These proposals earned him enemies, mostly from the Senate.
• Gauis – he helped the poor when he became a tribune in 123BCE.
• He continued the distribution of lands to landless farmers and worked on the rights of the middle class.
During his time, the tribune was given the right to use public funds to buy grains.

First Triumvirate
• Three military men formed an alliance, called the first Triumvirate, to run the state from 60-53BCE.
• Gnaeus Pompey,Marcus Linius Crassus and Julius Ceasar
First Triumvirate
-• Pompey was tagged as “the great”for his victories in his campaigns in the east.
• Became the governor of Spain
• Crassus was a rich man who triumphed against the revolt of Spartacus
• Caesar was a military hero and nephew of Gauis Marius.
• Crassus was friend of Caesar but not Pompey. Pompey convinced the two to create the alliance. All
three oppose the Senate but secretly jealous of each other
• Pompey –Became the governor of Spain.
• Crassus –Became the governor of Gaul at the end of his term as consul.
• Caesar – Became the governor of Gaul at the end of his term as a consu
• Caesar implemented several reforms, mostly favoring the plebeians.
• The masses loved him but some of the patrician senators were jealous and threatened by his popularity
• Hence, a plot to kill him was hatched by Marcus Brutus and Gaius Crassus. They assassinated Caesar on
15 March 44BCE at the Roman Senate, where he was brutally stabbed 23 times. That dreadful day
became known as the Ides of March.
Second Triumvirate
• Three followers of Caesar formed the second Triumvirate.
• Marcus Lepidus, Mark Antony, and Octavian(Caesars nephew and adopted son)
• The new triumvirate divide Rome into three provinces.
• Lepidus took Spain and Africa, Octavian took the West, and Antony took the East.
• Meanwhile, when Mark Antony was in the East, he had an affair with Cleopatra, the Queen of Egypt.
• Egypt was annexed by Rome as a province. Octavian's triumph marked the end of the Roman Republic.

Roman Empire
• To govern Rome better, he gave up his authoritative rule and involve the Senate and the people in the
state affairs.
• This initiative earned him(Octavian) in 27BCE, the title Princeps, which means “first citizen” of Rome.
• The Senate conferred him the title Augustus, which mean “his highness ”or “majesty”and imperator or
Emperor. He also took the honorary titile Caesar. From then on he became known as Augustus Caesar.
Reign of Augustus Caesar
• He took full control of the army.
• He gave veteran soldiers large bonuses and land in the provinces.
• He granted citizenship.
• He passed law punishing adultery and encourages couples to marry and start a family.
• The construction of roads and water systems, repair of public buildings, and other infrastructure projects
were ordered by him.
• His efforts as an emperor brought back peace and prosperity in Rome. This period was known as the
Pax Romana or Roman Peace, which lasted for 200years.
• Died in 14CE leaving Rome as a great Empire.

The Julio-Claudian Emperors

• The Roman Empire had no law on succession.
• Tiberius –he was capable leader but became a tyrant toward the end of his reign. • Caligula –his reign
was characterized by sadistic madness.
• Claudius –He suppressed the revolt in North Africa, and Britain became part of the empire.
• Nero –When a fire happened in Rome, he blamed the Christians and persecuted them.
The Flavian Emperors
• Vespasian –He reigned for ten years. He organized the army and restoration the administration in the
empire. He ordered the construction of a large amphitheater known as Colosseum for the people to enjoy.
• Titus –It was during his time when Mount Vesuvius erupted and covered the towns with lava.
• Domitian – An autocratic leader who fought the senators, imposed taxes, and confiscated costly
buildings.
The Five Good Emperors
• Rome was ruled by so-called “good emperors” from 96-186Ce,who made very valuable contributions in
the advancement of the empire.
• Nerva –He was remembered for helping to improve the lives of the poor and Purchased land for them.
Education for children.

•Trajan – a non-Roman native emperor. He expanded the Roman territories in the east. Gained the title
optimus as recognition for his effort.
• Hadrian –patron of literature and arts and became known for his toleration toward the Christian.
Compiled the best Roman laws in the Edictum Perpetuum or perpetual edict done by his jurist, Salvius
Julianus.
• Antoninus Pius –he was kind to his people and to the Christians.
• Marcus Aurelius –a philosopher and an emperor. He was not in favor or war. He wrote a book titled
Meditations, which outlined his Stoic philosophy.
Fall of the Roman Empire
• During the 2nd century Ce, Marcus Aurelius was succeeded by his son Commodus, whose reign was
marred with inability and corruption. Meanwhile, the succeeding emperors were extravagant and weak.
Because of this, the era of Pax Romana ended.
• The discipline of the army deteriorated and their loyalty became dependent on a certain military leaders.
• The civil war affected Roman politic and badly the economy.
• the Germanic tribes continued to attack the Roman boundaries.
• Protecting the empire entailed a huge amount and the empire could no longer hold out until Dioclatian
became the emperor in 284CE.

Reign of Diocletian and Constantine

• He strengthen the army and controlled the prices of commodities.
• He recognized that the immense size of the empire is one reason why it is difficult to govern it so he
decided to Split it into two.
• Latin Speaking west • Italy • Spain • Gaul • Britain • Diocletian handled the east •
Greek speaking east • Greece • Anatolia • Syria • Egypt • appointed General Maximian to administer the
west
• In the battle of Milvian bridge, Constantine emerged victorious and assumed emperorship
• Constantine continued the administrative reforms of Diocletian.
• Accepted Christianity. • Edict of Milan.
• He transfer the imperial capital from Rome to Byzantium, located in the western coast of Bosporus
Strait.
• The location of Byzantium was ideal for trade in Asia and Europe.
• The City was later renamed as Constantinople.
• The first Christian emperor in the Roman world.
His sons Honorious(W) and Arcadius(E) assumed leadership upon his death.
Legacy of the Roman
• language and literature • Latin • Virgil: Aeneid • Cicero: Orator • Ovid: Metamorphoses(collection of
verses in Greek mythology)
• Arts and Architecture • Colosseum: Flavian • Chariot racing: Circus Maximus • Pantheon: Temple •
Aqueduct: water channel • Public Baths • Arch
Byzantine Empire
• Constantine established the Byzantine Empire. • The Byzantine culture is a mixture of east and west
influences. • The emperors were successors of the Roman emperors.
• The peak of success of the Byzantine Empire happened during the time of Justinian I. • He regain
control of Africa, Sicily and southern Spain. • Justinian code: this Code of laws was used in the empire
for 900years • Hagia Sophia or Church of Wisdom
Arab Threat in Byzantium
• The greatest threat to the empire were the Arabs who followed the teaching of Islam.
• The Arabs failed in their massive attack against Constantinople. After being defeated by the Franks at
Tours, the Muslims decided to end their conquest in Europe.
Division of the Church
• Schism
• The church in Byzantine was called eastern Orthodox(correct teaching) while the western Church
became known as Roman Catholic (Universal)

Decline of the Byzantine Empire

• The Ottoman Turks, led by Sultan Mehmed II, invaded Constantinople.
• With the use of cannons, the Ottoman Turks seized the land. They changed the name of its capital from
Constantinople to Istanbul. This permanently ended the Byzantine Empire.
Contribution of the Byzantine Empire
• Their artworks have elaborate design designs, vivid colors, and religious themes. • Known for making
mosaics. • Cyrillic alphabet • Hagia Sophia
Africa
•Africa is the second largest continent in the world.
• It is divided into five religions: north, south east west, and central.
• Africa has four major climate zones:
• Tropical wet climate
• Tropical wet and dry
• Desert • Mediterranean
• Tropical wet climateit is only covers 8% of Africa that lies along the equator.
• Tropical wet and drythis climate prevails in the Savanna or grassland in Africa, which covers almost
half of the continent.
• Desert- A large portion of the continent o made up od deserts(40%).
• Notable desert is Sahara and Kalahari.
 • deserts experience hot and dry climate.
• Mediterranean- experienced in the northeast coast and southern tip of Africa. •During summer, it is hot
and dry while it is cool and moist during winter.