MA3151-Matrices and Calculus 01 - by LearnEngineering - in
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Krishna KumarMA3151-Matrices and Calculus 01 - by LearnEngineering - in
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Krishna Kumarwww.LearnEngineering.
in
MA3151- MATRICES AND CALCULUS
REG.2021
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UNIT 1 e eri
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By www.LearnEngineering.in
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1 Matrices
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1.1 Introduction
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The theory of matrices was first introduced by the well known
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mathematician, Arthur Cayley in the second half of the nineteenth century. For
more than 65 years after its introduction, the application of it was never felt by
e
any of the mathematicians. It’s validity was first felt by mathematicians when
gin
Heisenberg used the theory of matrices in quantum mechanics. Its applications
are plenty in the fields of almost all branches of science and engineering. One can
notice the use of matrices in Astronomy, Mechanics, Nuclear physics, Electrical
En
circuits, Differential equations, Computer graphics, Graph theory, Optimization
techniques and so on.
arn
Many research articles are noticed on the applications of the inverse of
the matrices and eigen value properties on the study of equilibrium analysis of
industrial organizations. A recent research paper in the year 2010 in one of the
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most popular research journals reveals a special class of Mk matrices which arise
from strategic behaviour in industrial organizations and by suggesting a new
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inverse, lead directly to closed form expressions of strategic equilibria for
arbitrary coalition structures in linear oligopolies, which include four classes of
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oligopoly equilibria, Bertrand equilibria for an arbitrary coalition structure,
Cournot equilibria for an arbitrary coalition structure, Bertrand and Cournot
equilibria with multi product firms which are previously unknown and now it will
be useful to scholars in industrial organization.
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2 Engineering Mathematics - II
Many applications of matrices can be cited on recent studies, for example
in environmental analysis, Thermosetting composite fibres and Polyester via
matrices. As matrices are widely used by engineers in industry, it is essential for
every engineering graduate to have a thorough knowledge about matrices. As you
are exposed already to the basic concepts of operations on matrices like addition,
.in
subtraction, scalar multiplication, multiplication of the matrices, let us now
concentrate on further analysis on matrices. In the lower classes you are aware of
the concepts of finding the inverse of a square matrix, solution of simultaneous
ng
equations using matrices, rank of a matrix. Let us concentrate on the evaluation
of eigen values and its applications and move further to know more on matrix
eri
theory.
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gin
1.2 Eigen values and Eigen vectors of a Real Matrix
Definition
En
Let A be a square matrix of order n. A number λ is called an eigen value
of A if there exists a nonzero column matrix X such that AX = λX. Then X is
called an eigen vector of A corresponding to λ.
arn
Note
If λ is an eigen value and X is an eigen vector corresponding to λ, then
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AX = λX ⇒ AX − λX = 0 ⇒ (A − λI)X = 0.
This is a homogeneous system of equations. It will have a nontrivial
w.
solution if |A − λI| = 0. This equation is called the characteristic equation.
|A − λI| is called the characteristic polynomial of A. It is an nth degree polynomial
ww
in λ. The roots of the characteristic equation are called the eigen values of A.
(Eigen in German means characteristic)
The following are simple ways to find the characteristic equation of a given
square matrix.
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Matrices 3
Results
1. If A is a 2 × 2 matrix, then the characteristic equation takes the form
λ2 − s1 λ + s2 = 0 where s1 = sum of the diagonal elements of A = trace of A
(tr(A)) and s2 = |A|.
.in
2. If A is a square matrix of order 3, then the characteristic equation
|A − λI| = 0 takes the form λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0 where
s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements of A.
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s2 = sum of the minors of the elements of the main diagonal.
s3 = |A|.
eri
3. Sum of the eigen values of a matrix A is equal to the trace of the matrix.
4. Product of the eigen values = |A|.
e
gin
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
1 −2
En
Example 1.1. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix .
−5 4
1 −2
Solution. Let A = .
arn
−5 4
Step 1. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 2 × 2 matrix, the characteristic equation takes the form
Le
λ2 − s1 λ + s2 = 0
w.
where s1 = sum of the diagonal elements of A = 1 + 4 = 5.
1 −2
s2 = |A| = = 4 − 10 = −6.
ww
−5 4
∴ (1) becomes
λ2 − 5λ − 6 = 0 ⇒ (λ − 6)(λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = −1, λ = 6.
∴ The eigen values are −1 and 6.
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4 Engineering Mathematics - II
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
Let X = be the eigen vector of A corresponding to λ.
x2
∴ (A − λI)X =0.
1 − λ −2 x1
.in
=0.
(1)
−5 4 − λ x2
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when λ = −1, (1) becomes
eri
2 −2 x1
= 0
(2)
−5 5 x2
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2x1 − 2x2 = 0 ⇒ x1 − x2 = 0.
gin
−5x1 + 5x2 = 0 ⇒ x1 − x2 = 0.
Both the equations are same. They are reduced to one single equation namely
x1 x2
x1 = x2 =⇒ = =⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 1.
En
1 1
1
∴ The eigen vector X1 corresponding to λ = −1 is .
1
arn
−5 −2 x1
When λ = 6, (1) becomes = 0.
−5 −2 x2
−5x1 − 2x2 = 0 ⇒ 5x1 + 2x2 = 0
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−5x1 − 2x2 = 0 ⇒ 5x1 + 2x2 = 0.
w.
We have the same situation as above. Both the equations are reduced to 5x1 = −2x2
x1 x2
=⇒ =
2 −5
ww
=⇒ x1 = 2, x2 = −5.
2
Hence, the eigen vector X2 corresponding to the eigen value λ = 6 is .
−5
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Matrices 5
4 1
Example 1.2. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix .
3 2
[Jan 1997]
4 1
Solution. Let A = .
3 2
Step 1. To find the eigen values
.in
Since A is a 2 × 2 matrix, the characteristic equation takes the form
λ2 − s1 λ + s2 = 0
ng
where, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements of A = 4 + 2 = 6.
4 1
eri
s2 = |A| = = 8 − 3 = 5.
3 2
The characteristic equation is λ2 − 6λ + 5 = 0 ⇒ (λ − 1)(λ − 5) = 0 ⇒ λ = 1, λ = 5.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
e
gin
x1
Let X = be the eigen vector of A corresponding to λ.
x2
∴ (A − λI)X =0
En
4 − λ 1 x1
=⇒ =0 (1)
3 2 − λ x2
arn
3 1 x1
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When λ = 1, the equation (1) becomes = 0
3 1 x2
x2 x1
i.e., 3x1 + x2 = 0 ⇒ x2 = −3x1 ⇒ =
w.
−3 1
=⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = −3.
1
ww
∴ The eigen vector corresponding to λ = 1 is X1 = .
−3
−1 1 x1
When λ = 5,(1) becomes = 0
3 −3 x2
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6 Engineering Mathematics - II
i.e., −x1 + x2 = 0
⇒ x1 = x2 = 1
1
Hence, the eigen vector X2 corresponding to the eigen value λ = 5 is X2 = .
.in
1
Note. In the above example in case (i), if we take x1 = k, we get x2 = −3k.
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k 1
The corresponding eigen vector is = k .
−3k −3
i.e., we get infinite number of eigen vectors corresponding to an eigen value.
eri
i.e., the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value is not unique.
e
Type-I: Evaluation of eigen vectors when all the eigen values are different.
gin
3 −4 4
Example 1.3. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix 1 −2 4.
En
1 −1 3
3 −4 4
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Solution. Let A = 1 −2 4.
1 −1 3
Step 1. To find the eigen values
Le
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation takes the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0
w.
s1 = tr(A) = 3 − 2 + 3 = 4.
ww
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements of A.
−2 4 3 4 3 −4
= + +
−1 3 1 3 1 −2
s2 = −6 + 4 + 9 − 4 − 6 + 4 = −2 + 5 − 2 = 1.
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Matrices 7
3 −4 4
s3 = |A| = 1 −2 4 = 3(−2) + 4(−1) + 4 = −6 − 4 + 4 = −6.
1 −1 3
The characteristic equation is λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
i.e., λ3 − 4λ2 + λ + 6 = 0.
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λ = −1 is a root.
By synthetic division,
−1 1 −4 1 6
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0 −1 5 −6
1 −5 6 0
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λ2 − 5λ + 6 = 0 ⇒ (λ − 2)(λ − 3) = 0 ⇒ λ = 2, λ = 3.
The eigen values are −1, 2, 3.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors e
gin
x1
Let X = x2 be an eigen vector corresponding to λ.
En
x3
∴ (A − λI)X = 0
arn
3 − λ −4 4 x1
−2 − λ 4 x2 = 0. (1)
1
1 −1 3 − λ x3
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When λ = −1, (1) becomes
4 −4 4 x1
w.
1 −1 4 x2 = 0
1 −1 4 x3
ww
The equations are
4x1 − 4x2 + 4x3 = 0
x1 − x2 + 4x3 = 0
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8 Engineering Mathematics - II
x1 − x2 + 4x3 = 0.
Taking the first two equations and on solving by the method of cross
multiplication, we obtain
x1 x2 x3
−4 4 4 −4
.in
−1 4 1 −1
ng
x1 x2 x3
= =
−12 −12 0
x1 x2 x3
eri
= =
1 1 0
⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 1, x3 = 0.
1
e
gin
⇒ X1 = 1 .
0
When λ = 2, (1) becomes
En
1 −4 4 x1
1 −4 4 x2 = 0
arn
1 −1 1 x3
The equations are
x1 − 4x2 + 4x3 = 0
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x1 − 4x2 + 4x3 = 0
x1 − x2 + x3 = 0.
w.
Taking the last two equations and on solving by the method of cross multiplication,
we obtain
ww
x1 x2 x3
−4 4 1 −4
−1 1 1 −1
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Matrices 9
x1 x2 x3
= =
0 3 3
x1 x2 x3
= =
0 1 1
⇒ x1 = 0, x2 = 1, x3 = 1.
.in
0
X2 = 1 .
1
ng
When λ = 3, (1) becomes
0 −4 4 x1
eri
1 −5 4 x2 = 0
1 −1 0 x3
e
−4x2 + 4x3 = 0 ⇒ x2 = x3
gin
x1 − 5x2 + 4x3 = 0 ⇒ x1 − x2 = 0
x1 = x2 ⇒ x1 = x2 = x3 = 1.
En
1
∴ X3 = 1
1
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1 0 1
∴ The eigen vectors are 1 , 1 and 1.
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0 1 1
1 2 1
w.
Example 1.4. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix 6 −1 0 .
−1 −2 −1
ww
[Jan 2013]
1 2 1
Solution. Let A = 6 −1 0 .
−1 −2 −1
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10 Engineering Mathematics - II
Step 1. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation takes the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0
where s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements of A
s1 = 1 − 1 − 1 = −1.
.in
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
−1 0 1 1 1 2
ng
= + +
−2 −1 −1 −1 6 −1
= 1 − 0 + (−1) + 1 + (−1 − 12)
eri
= 1 + 0 − 13
= −12.
1 2
1 e
gin
s3 = |A| = 6 −1 0
−1 −2 −1
En
= 1(1 − 0) − 2(−6 − 0) + 1(−12 − 1)
= 1 + 12 − 13
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= 0.
The characteristic equation is
λ3 + λ2 − 12λ = 0
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λ(λ2 + λ − 12) = 0
λ(λ + 4)(λ − 3) = 0
w.
λ = 0, −4, 3.
The eigen values are 0, −4, 3.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
ww
x1
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
x3
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Matrices 11
∴ (A − λI)X = 0
1 − λ 2 1 x1
i.e., 6 −1 − λ 0 x2 = 0. (1)
−1 −2 −1 − λ x3
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When λ = 0, (1) becomes
1 2 1 x1
ng
x2 = 0
6 −1 0
−1 −2 −1 x3
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i.e., x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0 (2)
6x1 − x2 = 0 (3)
e
−x1 − 2x2 − x3 = 0. (4)
gin
(3) can be written as
6x1 = x2
En
x2
x1 =
6
arn
⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 6.
Substituting in (2) we obtain, 1 + 12 + x3 = 0
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⇒ x3 = −13.
1
w.
∴ The eigen vector is X1 = 6 .
−13
ww
When λ = −4, (1) becomes
5 2 1 x1
x2 = 0
6 3 0
−1 −2 3 x3
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12 Engineering Mathematics - II
i.e., 5x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0 (5)
6x1 + 3x2 = 0 (6)
−x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 = 0. (7)
(6) can be written as
.in
6x1 = −3x2
x1 x2
=
−3 6
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x1 x2
=
1 −2
∴ x1 = 1, x2 = −2.
eri
Substituting in (5) we obtain
5 − 4 + x3 = 0
e
gin
⇒ x3 = −1.
1
∴ The eigen vector is X2 = −2.
En
−1
When λ = 3, (1) becomes
−2 2 1 x1
arn
6 −4 0 x2 = 0.
−1 −2 −4 x3
Le
i.e., − 2x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0 (8)
w.
6x1 − 4x2 = 0 (9)
−x1 − 2x2 − 4x3 = 0. (10)
ww
(9) can be written as
6x1 = 4x2
⇒ 3x1 = 2x2
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Matrices 13
x1 x2
⇒ =
2 3
∴ x1 = 2, x2 = 3.
Substituting in (8) we obtain
−4 + 6 + x3 = 0
.in
2 + x3 = 0
⇒ x3 = −2.
ng
2
eri
∴ The eigen vector is X3 = 3 .
−2
1 1 2
∴ The eigen vectors are 6 , −2 and 3 . e
gin
−13 −1 −2
Type-II: Evaluation of Eigen vectors when two of the eigen values are equal.
En
−2 2 −3
Example 1.5. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of 2 1 −6.[Jan 2009]
arn
−1 −2 0
−2 2 −3
Le
Solution. Let A = 2 1 −6.
−1 −2 0
Step 1. To find the eigen values
w.
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation takes the form
ww
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0
where s1 = tr(A) = −2 + 1 + 0 = −1.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements of A.
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14 Engineering Mathematics - II
1 −6 −2 −3 −2 2
= + +
−2 0 −1 0 2 1
s2 = 0 − 12 + 0 − 3 − 2 − 4 = −21.
−2 2 −3
s3 = |A| = 2 1 −6
.in
−1 −2 0
= −2(0 − 12) − 2(0 − 6) − 3(−4 + 1) = 24 + 12 + 9 = 45.
ng
The characteristic equation is λ3 + λ2 − 21λ − 45 = 0.
λ = −3 is a root. By synthetic division,
eri
−3 1 1 −21 −45
0 −3 6 45
1 −2
e −15 0
gin
=⇒ (λ + 3)(λ2 − 2λ − 15) = 0
(λ + 3)(λ − 5)(λ + 3) = 0 ⇒ λ = −3, λ = −3, λ = 5.
En
The eigen values are −3, −3, 5.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
arn
x1
Let X = x2 be an eigen vector corresponding to λ.
x3
Le
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
−2 − λ 2 −3 x1
w.
1 − λ −6 x2 = 0. (1)
2
−1 −2 0 − λ x3
ww
1 2 −3 x1
When λ = −3, (1) becomes 2 4 −6 x2 = 0.
−1 −2 3 x3
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Matrices 15
The above three equations are reduced to
x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = 0. (2)
Since two of the eigen values are equal, from (2) we have to get two eigen vectors
by assigning arbitrary values for two variables. First, choosing x3 = 0, we obtain
x1 x2
.in
x1 + 2x2 = 0 which implies x1 = −2x2 ⇒ = ⇒ x1 = 2, x2 = −1
2 −1
2
ng
∴ X1 = −1 .
0
eri
Also in (2) assign x2 = 0, we obtain x1 − 3x3 = 0,
x1 x3
which implies x1 = 3x3 ⇒ = ⇒ x1 = 3, x3 = 1.
3 1
e
gin
3
X2 = 0 .
1
En
−7 2 −3 x1
arn
When λ = 5, (1)=⇒ 2 −4 −6 x2 = 0.
−1 −2 −5 x3
The equations are
Le
−7x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = 0
(A)
2x1 − 4x2 − 6x3 = 0
−x1 − 2x2 − 5x3 = 0.
w.
Taking the first two equations and on solving by the method of cross
multiplication, we obtain
ww
x1 x2 x3
2 −3 −7 2
−4 −6 2 −4
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16 Engineering Mathematics - II
x1 x2 x3
= =
−12 − 12 −6 − 42 28 − 4
x1 x2 x3
= =
−24 −48 24
x1 x2 x3
= = .
.in
1 2 −1
=⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = −1.
ng
The values of x1 , x2 , x3 satisfy the last equation in (A).
eri
1
∴ X3 = 2 .
e −1
gin
2 3 1
∴ The eigen vectors are −1 , 0 and 2 .
En
0 1 −1
2 2 1
arn
Example 1.6. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of 1 3 1.
1 2 2
[Jun 2010, Jan 2007]
Le
2 2 1
Solution. Let A = 1 3 1.
w.
1 2 2
Step 1. To find the eigen values
ww
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation takes the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements of A
= 2 + 3 + 2 = 7.
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Matrices 17
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements of A.
3 1 2 1 2 2
= + +
2 2 1 2 1 3
= (6 − 2) + (4 − 1) + (6 − 2)
=4+3+4
.in
= 11.
2 2 1
ng
s3 = |A| = 1 3 1
1 2 2
eri
= 2(6 − 2) − 2(2 − 1) + 1(2 − 3)
=8−2−1
= 5. e
gin
The characterstic equation is λ3 − 7λ2 + 11λ − 5 = 0.
λ = 1 is a root.
By synthetic division we have
En
1 1 −7 11 −5
arn
0 1 −6 5
1 −6 5 0
λ3 − 6λ + 5 = 0
Le
(λ − 1)(λ − 5) = 0
λ = 1, 5.
w.
The given eigen values are 1, 1, 5.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
ww
x1
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x3
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18 Engineering Mathematics - II
∴ (A − λI)X = 0
2 − λ 2 1 x1
3−λ 1 x2 = 0. (1)
1
1 2 2 − λ x3
.in
When λ = 1, (1) becomes
1 2 1 x1
ng
1 2 1 x2 = 0.
1 2 1 x3
eri
All the three equations are reduced to one single equation
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0 (2)
e
Since two of the eigen values are equal, from(2), we have to get two eigen vectors
gin
by assigning arbitrary values for two variables.
First, choosing x3 = 0, we obtain x1 + 2x2 = 0
x1 = −2x2
En
x1 x2
=
−2 1
arn
⇒ x1 = −2, x2 = 1
−2
Le
∴ One eigen vector is X1 = 1 .
0
Assign x2 = 0, (2) becomes
w.
x1 + x3 = 0
ww
x1 = −x3
x1 x3
=
1 −1
⇒ x1 = 1, x3 = −1.
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Matrices 19
1
∴ The second eigen vector is X2 = 0 .
−1
When λ = 5, (1) becomes
−3 2 1 x1
1 −2 1 x2 = 0.
.in
1 2 −3 x3
The equations become
ng
−3x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0
(A)
x1 − 2x2 + x3 =0
eri
x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = 0.
All the three equations are different.
e
Taking the first two equations and applying the rule of cross multiplication we
gin
obtain
x1 x2 x3
2 1 −3 2
En
−2 1 1 −2
arn
x1 x2 x3
= =
2+2 1+3 6−2
x1 x2 x3
= =
4 4 4
Le
⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 1, x3 = 1.
1
w.
The eigen vector is X3 = 1.
1
ww
−2 1 1
∴ The eigen vectors are 1 , 0 , 1.
0 −1 1
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20 Engineering Mathematics - II
3 10 5
Example 1.7. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A = −2 −3 −4.
3 5 7
[May 2000]
3 10 5
Solution. Given A = −2 −3 −4.
.in
3 5 7
Step 1. To find the eigen values
ng
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation takes the form
λ3 − S 1 λ2 + S 2 λ − S 3 = 0.
eri
Now, S 1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 3 − 3 + 7 = 7.
e
gin
S 2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements of A.
−3 −4 3 5 3 10
= + +
5 7 3 7 −2 −3
En
= −21 + 20 + 21 − 15 + (−9 + 20)
= −1 + 6 + 11
arn
= 16.
S 3 = |A|
Le
3 10 5
= −2 −3 −4
w.
3 5 7
= 3(−21 + 20) − 10(−14 + 12) + 5(−10 + 9)
ww
= −3 + 20 + (−5)
= 20 − 8
= 12.
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Matrices 21
The characteristic equation is λ3 − 7λ2 + 16λ − 12 = 0.
λ = 2 is a root.
By synthetic division, we have
2 1 −7 16 −12
0 2 −10 12
.in
1 −5 6 0
λ2 − 5λ + 6 = 0
ng
(λ − 2)(λ − 3) = 0
eri
λ = 2, 3.
The eigen values are 2, 2, 3.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
e
gin
x1
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x3
En
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
3 − λ 10 5 x1
arn
−2 −3 − λ −4 x2 = 0. (1)
3 5 7 − λ x3
When λ = 2, (1) becomes
Le
1 10 5 x1
−2 −5 −4 x2 = 0.
w.
3 5 5 x3
The equations becomes
ww
x1 + 10x2 + 5x3 = 0
2x1 + 5x2 + 4x3 = 0
3x1 + 5x2 + 5x3 = 0.
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22 Engineering Mathematics - II
Since all the three equations are different, we will get only one eigen
vector. Since we need two eigen vectors corresponding to the twice repeated eigen
value 2, the two eigen vectors are the same.
Taking the first two equations and using the rule of cross multiplication
we obtain
.in
x1 x2 x3
10 5 1 10
5 4 2 5
ng
x1 x2 x3
= =
40 − 25 10 − 4 5 − 20
x1 x2 x3
eri
= =
15 6 −15
x1 x2 x3
= =
5 2 −5
∴ x1 = 5, x2 = 2, x3 = −5 e
gin
5 5
The two eigen vectors are X1 = 2 , X2 = 2 .
En
−5 −5
When λ = 3, (1) becomes
0 10 5 x1
arn
−2 −6 −4 x2 = 0.
3 5 4 x3
The equations are
Le
10x2 + 5x3 = 0
w.
2x1 + 6x2 + 4x3 = 0
3x1 + 5x2 + 4x3 = 0.
ww
From 10x2 + 5x3 = 0 we obtain
10x2 = −5x3
2x2 = −x3
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Matrices 23
x2 x3
=
1 −2
∴ x2 = 1, x3 = −2.
Substituting this in the second equation we obtain
2x1 + 6 − 8 = 0
.in
2x1 − 2 = 0
ng
2x1 = 2
eri
x1 = 1.
1
∴ The eigen vector is X3 = 1 .
e
gin
−2
5 5 1
The eigen vectors are 2 , 2 , 1 .
En
−5 −5 −2
Type-III: Evaluation of eigen vectors when all the eigen values are equal.
arn
6 −6 5
Example 1.8. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A = 14 −13 10.
Le
7 −6 4
[Dec 1998]
6 −6 5
w.
Solution. Given A = 14 −13 10.
7 −6 4
ww
Step 1. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation takes the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
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24 Engineering Mathematics - II
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 6 − 13 + 4
= −3.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
−13 10 6 5 6 −6
= + +
−6 4 7 4 14 −13
.in
= −52 + 60 + 24 − 35 + (−78 + 84)
ng
= 8 − 11 + 6
= 3.
eri
6 −6 5
s3 = |A| = 14 −13 10
7 −6 4
e
gin
= 6(−52 + 60) + 6(56 − 70) + 5(−84 + 91)
= 6(8) + 6(−14) + 5(7) = 48 − 84 + 35
= 83 − 84
En
= −1.
The characteristic equation is
arn
λ3 + 3λ2 + 3λ + 1 = 0.
(λ + 1)3 = 0
Le
∴ λ = −1, −1, −1.
The eigen values are −1, −1, −1.
w.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
ww
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x3
∴ (A − λI)X = 0
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Matrices 25
6 − λ −6 5 x1
14 −13 − λ 10 x2 = 0 (1)
7 −6 4 − λ x3
when λ = −1, (1) becomes
7 −6 5 x1
.in
14 −12 10 x = 0.
2
7 −6 5 x3
The above three equations are reduced to one single equation
ng
7x1 − 6x2 + 5x3 = 0.
eri
With this single equation, we must get three different eigen vectors, which can be
achieved by assigning arbitrary values to x1 , x2 & x3 .
e
0
gin
x2 x3
x1 = 0 ⇒ −6x2 + 5x3 = 0 ⇒ = ∴ X1 = 5 .
5 6
6
En
5
x1 x3
x2 = 0 ⇒ 7x1 + 5x3 = 0 ⇒ = ∴ X2 = 0 .
−5 7
arn
−7
6
x1 x2
x3 = 0 ⇒ 7x1 − 6x2 = 0 ⇒ = ∴ X3 = 7 .
Le
6 7
0
w.
−5 −5 −9
Example 1.9. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A = 8 9 18 .
−2 −3 −7
ww
−5 −5 −9
Solution. Given A = 8 9 18 .
−2 −3 −7
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26 Engineering Mathematics - II
Step 1. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation takes the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements.
= −5 + 9 − 7
.in
= 9 − 12 = −3.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
ng
9 18 −5 −9 −5 −5
= + +
−3 −7 −2 −7 8 9
eri
= −63 + 54 + 35 − 18 + (−45 + 40)
= −9 + 17 − 5 = 3.
−5 −5 −9
e
gin
s3 = |A| = 8 9 18
−2 −3 −7
= −5(−63 + 54) + 5(−56 + 36) − 9(−24 + 18)
En
= −5(−9) + 5(−20) − 9(−6)
= 45 − 100 + 54 = −1.
arn
The characteristic equation is
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0
λ3 + 3λ2 + 3λ + 1 = 0
Le
(λ + 1)3 = 0
λ = −1, −1, − 1.
w.
The eigen values are −1, −1, −1.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
ww
x1
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x3
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Matrices 27
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
−5 − λ −5 −9 x1
9−λ 18 x2 = 0. (1)
8
−2 −3 −7 − λ x3
.in
When λ = −1, (1) becomes
−4 −5 −9 x1
ng
8 10 18 x2 = 0
−2 −3 −6 x3
eri
The equations are
−4x1 − 5x2 − 9x3 = 0
e
gin
8x1 + 10x2 + 18x3 = 0
−2x1 − 3x2 − 6x3 = 0.
En
The above three equations are reduced to two equations
4x1 + 5x2 + 9x3 = 0
arn
2x1 + 3x2 + 6x3 = 0.
Le
Using the rule of cross multiplication we get
x1 x2 x3
w.
5 9 4 5
3 6 2 3
ww
x1 x2 x3
= =
30 − 27 18 − 24 12 − 10
x1 x2 x3
= =
3 −6 2
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28 Engineering Mathematics - II
3
The only eigen vector is X = −6.
2
3
.in
In this case X1 = X2 = X3 = −6.
2
ng
Exercise I(A)
eri
I. Find the characteristic equation, eigen values and eigen vectors of the following
matrices.
e
gin
1 1
1 −2 2. .
1. .
3 −1
−5 4
En
II. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the following matrices.
arn
6 −2 2 1 −1 0 1 1 2
8 −6 2
3. −2 3 −1 6. 1 9. 0 2 2
2 1
1. −6 7 −4
Le
2 −1 3 −1 2 −1 −1 1 3
2 −4 3
−2 2 −3 2 0 −1 2 1 2
w.
4. 2 7. 0 2 −2 10. 0 2 −1
1 −6
−1 −2 0 1 −1 2 0 0 2
ww
1 0 −1 2 1 0 3 −1 3 4 2 3
2. 1 2 1 5. 0 2 1 8. −1 5 1 11. 0 4 0.
2 2 3 0 0 2 3 1 5 0 5 4
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Matrices 29
1.3 Properties of Eigen values and Eigen vectors
Property 1.1. A square matrix A and its transpose AT have the same eigen values.
Proof. The eigen values of the matrix A are the roots of its characteristic equation
|A − λI| = 0.
.in
Now, (A − λI)T = AT − (λI)T = AT − λI T = AT − λI.
Also, |(A − λI)T | = |A − λI| ⇒ |AT − λI| = |A − λI|.
ng
This implies that the characteristic polynomial of A and AT are equal.
⇒ The characteristic equations of A and AT are equal.
eri
⇒ A and AT have the same eigen values.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍
e ✌
gin
−1 2 −2
√ √
Example 1.10. 1, 5 and − 5 are the eigen values of the matrix 1 1 .
2
En
−1 −1 0
−1 1 −1
Write down the eigen values of the matrix 2 2 −1.
arn
−2 1 0
−1 2 −2 −1 1 −1
Solution. Let A = 1 1 and B = 2 2 −1.
Le
2
−1 −1 0 −2 1 0
B is the transpose of A.
w.
By the above property, A & B have the same eigen values.
√ √
∴ The eigen values of B are 1, 5 and − 5.
ww
2 2 0
Example 1.11. If 1, 3 and −4 are the eigen values of the matrix 2 1 1 , what
−7 2 −3
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30 Engineering Mathematics - II
2 2 −7
are the eigen values of the matrix 2 1 2 ?
0 1 −3
2 2 0 2 2 −7
Solution. Let A = 2 1 1 and B = 2 1 2 .
.in
−7 2 −3 0 1 −3
B is the transpose of A.
By the above property, A and B have the same eigen values.
ng
∴ The eigen values of B are 1, 3 and −4.
eri
Property 1.2. Sum of the eigen values of a square matrix A is equal to the sum of
the elements on its main diagonal.
Proof. Let A be a square matrix of order n.
e
gin
The characteristic equation is |A − λI| = 0.
It is of the form λn − s1 λn−1 + s2 λn−2 + · · · + (−1)n sn = 0 (1)
where, s1 = sum of the elements of the leading diagonal.
En
Let λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn be the roots of (1).
From the theory of equations,
coeff. of λn−1
arn
Sum of the roots = − .
coeff. of λn
i.e., λ1 + λ2 + · · · + λn = −(−s1 ) = s1 = tr(A).
i.e., Sum of the eigen values = sum of the main diagonal elements of A.
Le
Property 1.3. Product of the eigen values of a square matrix A is equal to |A|.
w.
Proof. For the square matrix A , the characteristic equation is |A − λI| = 0.
It is of the form λn − s1 λn−1 + s2 λn−2 + · · · + (−1)n sn = 0, (1)
where sn = |A|.
ww
Let λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn be the roots of (1).
From the theory of equations, we have
constant term
Product of the roots = (−1)n .
coeff. of λn
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Matrices 31
i.e., λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn = (−1)n (−1)n sn = (−1)2n |A|.
i.e., Product of the eigen values = |A|.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Example 1.12. Find the sum and product of the eigen values of the matrix
−2 2 −3
.in
1 −6. [Dec 1999]
2
−1 −2 0
ng
Solution. Sum of the eigen values = tr(A) = −2 + 1 + 0 = −1.
−2 2 −3
Product of the eigen values = 2 = −2(−12) − 2(−6) − 3(−3) = 45.
eri
1 −6
−1 −2 0
Example 1.13. Find the sum and product of the eigen values of the matrix
−1 1 1
e
gin
1 −1 1 . [March 1996]
1 1 −1
En
Solution. Sum of the eigen values = Sum of the elements along the main
diagonal
arn
= −1 − 1 − 1 = −3.
−1 1 1
Product of the eigen values = |A| = 1 −1 1
Le
1 1 −1
= −1(1 − 1) − 1(−1 − 1) + 1(1 + 1)
w.
= −1 × 0 + 2 + 2 = 4.
ww
6 −2 2
Example 1.14. The product of the two eigen values of the matrix A = −2 3 −1
2 −1 3
is 16, find the third eigen value. [Jan 2003,2012]
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32 Engineering Mathematics - II
Solution. Let λ1 , λ2 , λ3 be the eigen values.
Given λ1 λ2 = 16.
6 −2 2
But, product of eigen values = −2 3 −1
2 −1 3
.in
i.e., λ1 λ2 λ3 = 6(8) + 2(−4) + 2(−4)
16λ3 = 48 − 8 − 8 = 32
ng
∴ λ3 = 2.
2 0 1
eri
Example 1.15. If 2 and 3 are the eigen values of 0 2 0, find the value of x.
x 0 2
2 0 1
e
gin
Solution. Let A = 0 2 0.
x 0 2
Let λ1 , λ2 , λ3 be the eigen values of A.
En
We know that, λ1 + λ2 + λ3 = tr(A) = 6.
2 + 3 + λ3 = 6
arn
λ3 = 1.
Also, product of the eigen values = |A|.
Le
2 0 1
λ1 λ2 λ3 = 0 2 0
w.
x 0 2
2.3.1 = 2(4) − 0(0) + 1(0 − 2x)
ww
6 = 8 − 2x
2x = 2
x = 1.
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Matrices 33
a 4
Example 1.16. Find the values of a and b, such that the matrix has 3 and
1 b
−2 its eigen values. [May 2011]
Solution. Sum of the eigen values = tr(A) = a + b
3−2=a+b
⇒a+b=1 (1)
.in
Product of the eigen values = |A|
a 4
ng
i.e., 3 × (−2) = = ab − 4
1 b
−6 = ab − 4
eri
ab = −6 + 4 = −2
e
2
b=− .
a
gin
Substituting in (1) we get
2
a− =1
a
En
a2 − 2 = a
a2 − a − 2 = 0
arn
(a − 2)(a + 1) = 0
a = 2, −1.
Le
When a = 2, b = −1.
When a = −1, b = 2.
w.
Example 1.17. If the sum of two eigen values and trace of a 3 × 3 matrix A are
ww
equal, find the value of |A|.
Solution. Let the eigen values be λ1 , λ2 , λ3 .
We know that λ1 + λ2 + λ3 = tr(A).
But, given that λ1 + λ2 = tr(A).
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34 Engineering Mathematics - II
∴ tr(A) + λ3 = tr(A).
=⇒ λ3 = 0.
Now, |A| = product of the eigen values = λ1 × λ2 × 0 = 0.
Property 1.4. If λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn are the non zero eigen values of a square matrix A of
1 1 1
order n, then , , . . . , are the eigen values of A−1 .
λ1 λ2 λn
.in
Proof. Let λ be a non zero eigen value of A. Then, there exists a non zero column
matrix X such that
ng
AX = λX. (1)
eri
Since all the eigen values are non zero, A is non-singular. Hence, A−1 exists.
Premultiplying both sides of (1) by A−1 we get,
e
A−1 (AX) = A−1 λX
gin
(A−1 A)X = λ(A−1 X)
IX = λA−1 X
En
1
X = A−1 X.
λ
arn
1
⇒ is an eigen value of A−1 .
λ
This is true for all eigen values of A.
1 1 1
∴ , ,..., are the eigen values of A−1 .
Le
λ1 λ2 λn
Property 1.5. If λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn are the eigen values of A, then
(i) cλ1 , cλ2 , . . . , cλn are the eigen values of cA where c , 0.
w.
(ii) λm m m m m
1 , λ2 , λ3 , . . . , λn are the eigen values of A where m is a positive integer.
ww
Proof. Let λ be an eigen value of A.
Then, there exists a column matrix X such that
AX = λX. (1)
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Matrices 35
(i). Let c , 0.
Multiply (1) by c we get, c(AX) = c(λX)
(cA)X = (cλ)X.
⇒ cλ is an eigen value of cA.
.in
This is true for all eigen values of A.
∴ cλ1 , cλ2 , . . . , cλn are the eigen values of cA.
(ii) We have
ng
AX = λX
eri
=⇒ A(AX) = A(λX)
=⇒ (AA)X = λ(AX)
e
A2 X = λ(λX)
gin
=⇒ A2 X = λ2 X.
=⇒ λ2 is an eigen value of A2 .
En
A(A2 X) = A(λ2 X)
arn
=⇒ (AA2 )X = λ2 (AX)
=⇒ A3 X = λ2 λX = λ3 X.
Le
=⇒ λ3 is an eigen value of A3 . Proceeding like this, we arrive at Am X = λm X.
⇒ λm is an eigen value of Am .
w.
This is true for all eigen values of A.
∴ λm m m m
1 , λ2 , . . . , λn are the eigen values of A .
ww
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36 Engineering Mathematics - II
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
−1 0 0
Example 1.18. Given 2 −3 0. Find the eigen values of A2 . [Jan 2010]
1 4 2
Solution. The given matrix is triangular.
.in
Hence, the eigen values are the elements along the leading diagonal.
The Eigen values of A are −1, −3, 2.
ng
∴ The Eigen values of A2 are (−1)2 , (−3)2 , 22 .
i.e., 1, 9, 4.
eri
3 10 5
Example 1.19. If 2 and 3 are the eigen values of A = −2 −3 −4, find the eigen
3 5 7
values of A−1 and A3 . e
[Dec 2000]
gin
Solution. Let λ be the third eigen value.
we know that, sum of the eigen values = tr(A).
En
2+3+λ=3−3+7
5 + λ = 7 ⇒ λ = 2.
arn
The Eigen values of A are 2, 2, 3.
1 1 1
The Eigen values of A−1 are , , .
2 2 3
Le
The Eigen values of A3 are 23 , 23 , 33 (i.e) 8, 8, 27.
2 2 1
w.
Example 1.20. Two of the eigen values of the matrix A = 1 3 1 are equal to 1
1 2 2
each. Find the eigen values of A−1 .
ww
[Dec.2002]
Solution. Let λ1 , λ2 , λ3 be the eigen values of A.
Given λ1 = λ2 = 1.
∴ λ1 + λ2 + λ3 = sum of the elements along the main diagonal
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Matrices 37
1 + 1 + λ3 = 2 + 3 + 2
2 + λ3 = 7
λ3 = 5.
∴ The eigen values of A are 1,1,5
1
∴ Eigen values of A−1 are 1, 1, .
5
.in
3 −1 1
Example 1.21. Two of the eigen values of the matrix A = −1 5 −1 are 3 and
ng
1 −1 3
6. Find the eigen values of A−1 . [May 2002]
eri
Solution. Let λ1 , λ2 andλ3 be the eigen values of the given matrix A.
∴ λ1 + λ2 + λ3 = sum of the elements along the main diagonal
3 + 6 + λ3 = 3 + 5 + 3
e
gin
9 + λ3 = 11
λ3 = 2.
The eigen values of A are 3, 6, 2.
En
1 1 1
∴ The eigen values of A−1 are , , .
3 6 2
arn
1 −2
Example 1.22. Find the eigen values of the matrix . Hence, find the
−5 4
matrix whose eigen values are 16 and −1. [Jan 2001]
Le
1 −2
Solution. Let A = .
−5 4
The characteristic equation is |A − λI| = 0.
w.
This is of the form λ2 − s1 λ + s2 = 0.
ww
s1 = tr(A) = 1 + 4 = 5
1 −2
s2 = = 4 − 10 = −6.
−5 4
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38 Engineering Mathematics - II
The characteristic equation is λ2 − 5λ − 6 = 0 ⇒ (λ − 6)(λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = −1, 6.
1 1
We know that, the matrix whose eigen values are and is A−1 .
−1 6
1 T −1 4 2
∴ A−1 = A = .
|A| c
6 5 1
.in
3 2 1
Example 1.23. Find the eigen values of ad j(A) if A = 0 4 2
0 0 1
ng
3 2 1
Solution. Given A = 0 4 2
eri
0 0 1
Since A is triangular, the eigen values are the elements along the main diagonal.
∴ The eigen values are 3, 4, 1.
e
gin
1
We have A−1 = ad j(A)
|A|
⇒ ad j(A) = |A| A −1
1 1
The eigen values of A−1 are , , 1
En
3 4
1 1
∴ The eigen values of ad j(A) are |A| × , |A| × , |A| × 1
3 4
3 2 1
arn
Now, |A| = 0 4 2 = 3 × 4 × 1 = 12.
0 0 1
1 1
∴ Eigen values of ad j(A) are 12 × , 12 × , 12 × 1
Le
3 4
i.e., 4, 3, 12.
2 0 1
w.
Example 1.24. Find the eigen values of ad j(A) if A = 0 2 0.
1 0 2
ww
Step 1. To find the eigen values of A
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
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Matrices 39
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 2 + 2 + 2 = 6.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
2 0 2 1 2 0
= + +
0 2 1 2 0 2
.in
=4−0+4−1+4−0
= 4 + 3 + 4 = 11.
ng
s3 = |A|
2 0 1
eri
= 0 2 0
1 0 2
= 2(4 − 0) − 0 + 1(0 − 2) = 8 − 2 = 6. e
gin
The characteristic equation is
λ3 − 6λ2 + 11λ − 6 = 0.
En
λ = 1 is a root.
arn
By synthetic division, we have
1 1 −6 11 −6
0 1 −5 6
Le
1 −5 6 0
λ2 − 5λ + 6 = 0
w.
(λ − 3)(λ − 2) = 0
ww
λ = 2, 3.
The eigen values of A are 1, 2, 3.
We know that ad j(A) = |A| A−1 .
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40 Engineering Mathematics - II
1 1 1
∴ The eigen values of ad j(A) are |A| × , |A| × , |A| ×
1 2 3
1 1
i.e.,6 × 1, 6 × , 6 ×
2 3
i.e.,6, 3, 2
Property 1.6. If λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn are the eigen values of A, then
(i) λ1 − k, λ2 − k, . . . , λn − k are the eigen values of A − kI.
.in
(ii) a0 λ21 + a1 λ1 + a2 , a0 λ22 + a1 λ2 + a2 , . . . , a0 λ2n + a1 λn + a2 are the eigen values of
a0 A2 + a1 A + a2 I.
ng
Proof. (i) let λ be an eigen value of A.
eri
Then, there exists a column matrix X such that AX = λX.
Since X , 0 is a column matrix, we have
AX − kX = λX − kX
e
⇒ (A − kI)X = (λ − k)X.
gin
⇒ λ − k is an eigen value of A − kI.
This is true for all eigen values of A.
En
∴ λ1 − k, λ2 − k, . . . , λn − k are the eigen values of A − kI.
(ii) We have
AX = λX ⇒ A2 X = λ2 X ⇒ a0 (A2 X) = a0 (λ2 X)
arn
=⇒ (a0 A2 )X = (a0 λ2 )X.
a1 (AX) = a1 (λX) ⇒ (a1 A)X = (a1 λ)X.
Le
(a0 A2 )X + (a1 A)X = (a0 λ2 )X + (a1 λ)X.
Add a2 X both sides we get,
w.
(a0 A2 + a1 A + a2 I)X = (a0 λ2 + a1 λ + a2 )X
ww
⇒ a0 λ2 + a1 λ + a2 is an eigen value of a0 A2 + a1 A + a2 I.
This is true for all eigen values of A.
∴ a0 λ21 + a1 λ1 + a2 , a0 λ22 + a1 λ2 + a2 , . . . are the eigen values of a0 A2 + a1 A + a2 I.
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Matrices 41
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
3 1 4
Example 1.25. If A = 0 2 6, find the eigen values of A2 − 2A + I.
0 0 5
Solution. Since the given matrix is triangular, the eigen values are 3, 2, 5.
.in
Therefore, eigen values of A2 − 2A + I are 32 − 2(3) + 1, 22 − 2(2) + 1 and 52 − 2(5) + 1.
i.e., 4, 1, 16.
ng
Example 1.26. Form the matrix whose eigen values are α − 5, β − 5 and γ − 5 where
−1 −2 −3
eri
α, β and γ are the eigen values of A = 4 5 −6. [Jan 2001]
7 −8 9
Solution. Using (i) of Property 1.6, we obtain the matrix whose eigen values are
α − 5, β − 5 and γ − 5 is A − 5I. e
gin
∴ The required matrix is
En
−1 −2 −3 1 0 0 −6 −2 −3
A − 5I = 4 5 −6 − 5 0 1 0 = 4 0 −6 .
7 −8 9 0 0 1 7 −8 4
arn
1 7 5
Example 1.27. What is the sum of the squares of the eigen values of 0 2 9.
Le
0 0 5
[Jan 2001]
Solution. The given matrix is triangular.
w.
∴ Eigen values are 1, 2, 5.
Sum of squares of eigen values = 12 + 22 + 52 = 30.
ww
1 1 −1
Example 1.28. Find the eigen values of the matrix. A = 0 −1 4 . Find also
0 0 2
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42 Engineering Mathematics - II
the sum of the cubes of the eigen values.
Solution. Since A is triangular, the eigen values are the elements along the
leading diagonal.
∴ The eigen values are 1, −1 and 2.
Sum of the cubes of the eigen values = 13 + (−1)3 + 23
.in
= 1 − 1 + 8 = 8.
Example 1.29. Find the sum of the fourth powers of the eigen values of the matrix
ng
1 0 0
A = −1 2 0 .
eri
0 3 −2
Solution. Since the matrix A is triangular, the eigen values are the elements
along the leading diagonal.
∴ The eigen values are 1, 2 and − 2. e
gin
Sum of the fourth powers of the eigen values = 14 + 24 + (−2)4
= 1 + 16 + 16
En
= 33.
4 5 4
Example 1.30. If is an eigen vector of the matrix , find the corresponding
arn
1 1 2
eigen value.
5 4 4
Solution. Let A = and X = . Let λ be the corresponding eigen value.
Le
1 2 1
Now, (A − λI)X = 0.
w.
5 − λ 4 4
i.e., = 0
1 2 − λ 1
ww
4(5 − λ) + 4 = 0 ⇒ 5 − λ = −1 ⇒ λ = 6.
Also, 4 + 2 − λ = 0 ⇒ λ = 6.
Hence, the eigen value corresponding to the given eigen vector is 6.
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Matrices 43
1 1 1 1
Example 1.31. If and are the eigen vectors of the matrix A = , find
−3 1 3 −1
the corresponding eigen values.
1
Solution. Let λ1 be the eigen value corresponding to the eigen vector X1 = .
−3
.in
∴ (A − λ1 I)X1 = 0.
1 − λ1 1 1
ng
= 0.
3 −1 − λ1 −3
eri
i.e., 1 − λ1 − 3 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = −2.
Also the second equation is
3 − 3(−1 − λ1 ) = 0
e
gin
3 + 3 + 3λ1 = 0
3λ1 = −6
En
λ1 = −2.
1
Let λ2 be the eigen value corresponding to the eigen vector X2 = .
arn
∴ (A − λ2 I)X2 = 0.
Le
1 − λ2 1 1
= 0
3 −1 − λ2 1
w.
⇒ 1 − λ2 + 1 = 0
ww
λ2 = 2.
Also 3 − 1 − λ2 = 0 ⇒ λ2 = 2
∴ The eigen values of A are −2 and 2.
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44 Engineering Mathematics - II
Definition [Linearly dependent and independent vectors]
(i) The vectors X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn are said to be linearly dependent if there exist real
numbers c1 , c2 , . . . , cn not all zero such that c1 X1 + c2 X2 + · · · + cn Xn = 0.
(ii) The vectors X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn are said to be linearly independent if they are not
linearly dependent.
.in
Results
ng
(i) If the vectors X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn are linearly independent and satisfying the
relation c1 X1 + c2 X2 + · · · + cn Xn = 0, then c1 = c2 = · · · = cn = 0.
(ii) If the vectors X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn are linearly dependent, then any one vector can
eri
be written as the linear combination of all the other vectors.
Note e
gin
1 0 0
(i) The eigen values of the unit matrix 0 1 0 are 1, 1, 1, and the
0 0 1
En
1 0 0
corresponding eigen vectors are 0 , 1 , 0. These vectors are linearly
arn
0 0 1
independent.
λ1 a b
Le
(ii) The eigen values of the triangular matrix 0 λ2 c are λ1 , λ2 , λ3 .
0 0 λ3
i.e., In a triangular matrix, the eigen values are the elements in the main
w.
diagonal.
(iii) The eigen values of A, A2 , . . . , Am are λ, λ2 , . . . , λm . which are all different.
ww
But they all have the same eigen vector X.
(iv) λ and a0 λ2 +a1 λ+a2 are the eigen values of A and a0 A2 +a1 A+a2 I respectively.
But they have the same eigen vector X.
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Matrices 45
Exercise I(B)
1 2 −2
1. Find the sum and product of the eigen values of the matrix 1 3 .
0
−2 −1 −3
.in
3 −1
2. If α and β are the eigen values of , form the matrix whose eigen
−1 5
values are α3 and β3 .
ng
1 2
3. Prove that and −3A−1 have the same eigen values.
2 1
eri
8 −6 2
4. Two of the eigen values of the matrix −6 7 −4 are 3 and 15. Find the
e
gin
2 −4 3
third eigen value.
2 2 1
En
5. Two eigen values of the matrix A = 1 3 1 are equal to unity each. Find
1 2 2
the eigen values of A−1 .
arn
1 0 0
6. If the product of two of the eigen values of the matrix A = 0 3 −1is 2,
Le
0 −1 3
find the third eigen value.
w.
a 4
7. Find the constants a and b such that the matrix has 3 and −2 as eigen
1 b
values.
ww
4 6 6
8. Two eigen values of A = 1 3 2 are equal and are double the third.
−1 −5 −2
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46 Engineering Mathematics - II
Find the eigen values of A2 .
1 1 3 −1
9. If the matrix A = 1 5 1 has an eigen vector 0 , find the corresponding
3 1 1 1
eigen value of A.
.in
1 1 3
10. If the eigen values of the matrix A = 1 5 1 are −2, 3, 6, find the eigen
ng
3 1 1
values of AT .
eri
1.4 Cayley Hamilton Theorem
e
Statement. Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
gin
Example. If the characteristic equation of a square matrix A is λ3 − 6λ2 + 5λ + 3 = 0,
then we have, A3 − 6A2 + 5A + 3I = 0.
Results. Cayley Hamilton theorem is useful for
En
(i) finding the inverse of a non-singular matrix,and
(ii) finding the higher powers of A.
arn
The above results are demonstrated in the following examples.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Le
1 0 0 0
√
2 + i −1 0 0
Example 1.32. If the matrix A = where i = −1, then using
w.
−3 2i i 0
4 −i 1 −i
Cayley Hamilton theorem, prove that A4 = I.
ww
[Jun 2011]
Solution. A is a triangular matrix.
The eigen values of A are 1, −1, i, −i.
The characteristic equation is
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Matrices 47
(λ − 1)(λ + 1)(λ − i)(λ + i) = 0
(λ2 − 1)(λ2 − i2 ) = 0
(λ2 − 1)(λ2 + 1) = 0
λ4 − 1 = 0
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, A4 − I = 0 ⇒ A4 = I.
.in
1 0
Example 1.33. If A = , express A3 interms of A and I, using Cayley Hamilton
4 5
theorem. [Jan 2001]
ng
Solution. Since A is a 2 × 2 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ2 − s1 λ + s2 = 0.
eri
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements = 1 + 5 = 6.
1 0
s2 = |A| =
4 5
e
= 5 − 0 = 5.
gin
The characteristic equation is λ2 − 6λ + 5 = 0.
By Cayley Hamilton theorem we get
A2 − 6A + 5I = 0.
En
(1)
Premultiplying by A, we get
A3 − 6A2 + 5A = 0
arn
A3 = 6A2 − 5A
= 6(6A − 5I) − 5A [ by (1)]
Le
= 36A − 30I − 5A
= 31A − 30I.
w.
1 2
Example 1.34. Find the value of A4 if A = , using Cayley Hamilton
2 −1
ww
theorem. [Jan 2003]
Solution. Since A is a 2 × 2 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ2 − s1 λ + s2 = 0.
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48 Engineering Mathematics - II
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 1 + (−1) = 0.
1 2
s2 = |A| = = −1 − 4 = −5.
2 −1
The characteristic equation is
.in
λ2 − 5 = 0.
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, A2 − 5I = 0.
ng
i.e., A2 = 5I
Now, A4 = A2 .A2
eri
1 0 25 0
= 5I.5I = 25I = 25 = .
0 1 0 25
e
gin
1 4
Example 1.35. Using Cayley Hamilton theorem, find the inverse of .
2 3
[Jan 2003]
En
1 4
Solution. Let A = .
2 3
Since A is a 2 × 2 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
arn
λ2 − s1 λ + s2 = 0.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements = 1 + 3 = 4.
s2 = |A| = 3 − 8 = −5.
Le
The characteristic equation is λ2 − 4λ − 5 = 0.
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, we have
w.
A2 − 4A − 5I = 0.
Multiplying by A−1 we get,
ww
A−1 A2 − 4A−1 A − 5A−1 I = 0
A − 4I − 5A−1 = 0
5A−1 = A − 4I
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Matrices 49
1
A−1 = [A − 4I]
5
1 1 4 1 0 1 −3 4
. = .
= − 4
5 2 3 0 1 5 2 −1
1 4
Example 1.36. Verify Cayley Hamilton theorem for the matrix A = and
.in
2 3
find its inverse. Also express A5 − 4A4 − 7A3 + 11A2 − A − 10I as a linear polynomial
in A. [Jun 2009]
ng
Step 1. To find the characteristic equation
1 4
eri
Let A = .
2 3
Since A is a 2 × 2 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
e
λ2 − s1 λ + s2 = 0.
gin
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements = 1 + 3 = 4.
s2 = | A | = 3 − 8 = −5.
The characteristic equation is
En
λ2 − 4λ − 5 = 0.
arn
Step 2. Verification of Cayley Hamilton theorem
By cayley Hamilton theorem, we have
Le
A2 − 4A − 5I = 0.
1 4 1
4 9 16
Now, A2
= A.A = =
.
w.
2 3 2
3 8 17
9 16 4
16 5 0
A2 − 4A − 5I = −
−
ww
8 17 8 12 0 5
0 0
= = 0.
0 0
∴ Cayley Hamilton theorem is verified.
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50 Engineering Mathematics - II
Step 3. To find A−1
we have
A2 − 4A − 5I = 0.
Multiplying by A−1 we get,
.in
A−1 A2 − 4A−1 A − 5A−1 I = 0
A − 4I − 5A−1 = 0
ng
5A−1 = A − 4I
1 1 1 4 1 0 1 −3 4
eri
A−1 = [A − 4I] = − 4 = .
5 5 2 3 0 1
5
2 −1
Step 4. To find A5 − 4A4 − 7A3 + 11A2 − A − 10I
e
gin
Consider the polynomial λ5 − 4λ4 − 7λ3 + 11λ2 − λ − 10.
Divide by λ2 − 4λ − 5 we get,
λ5 − 4λ4 − 7λ3 + 11λ2 − λ − 10 = (λ2 − 4λ − 5)(λ3 − 2λ + 3) + λ + 5.
En
Replacing λ by A we get,
A5 − 4A4 − 7A3 + 11A2 − A − 10I = (A2 − 4A − 5I)(A3 − 2A + 3I) + A + 5I
arn
= 0 + A + 5I [ Using Cayley Hamilton theorem]
= A + 5I.
Le
2 −1 1
w.
Example 1.37. Verify Cayley Hamilton theorem for the matrix A = −1 2 −1.
1 −1 2
Find A−1 and A4 .
ww
[Jan 2009]
Solution.
Step 1. To find the characteristic equation
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
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Matrices 51
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0. (1)
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 2 + 2 + 2 = 6.
s2 = sum of the minors of the elements of the main diagonal
2 −1 2 1 2 −1
.in
= + +
−1 2 1 2 −1 2
ng
=4−1+4−1+4−1
=3+3+3
eri
= 9.
2 −1 1
s3 = |A| −1 2 −1 = 2(3) + 1(−1) + 1(−1) = 6 − 1 − 1 = 4.
e
gin
1 −1 2
The characteristic equation is λ3 − 6λ2 + 9λ − 4 = 0.
Step 2. Verification of Cayley Hamilton theorem.
En
2 −1 1
A = −1 2 −1
arn
1 −1 2
2 −1 1 2 −1 1
2
A = A · A = −1 2 −1 −1 2 −1
Le
1 −1 2 1 −1 2
4 + 1 + 1 −2 − 2 − 1 2 + 1 + 2 6 −5 5
w.
= −2 − 2 − 1 1 + 4 + 1 −1 − 2 − 2 = −5 6 −5
2 + 1 + 2 −1 − 2 − 2 1 + 1 + 4 5 −5 6
ww
6 −5 5 2 −1 1
A3 = A2 × A = −5 6 −5 −1 2 −1
5 −5 6 1 −1 2
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52 Engineering Mathematics - II
12 + 5 + 5 −6 − 10 − 5 6 + 5 + 10 22 −21 21
= −10 − 6 − 5 5 + 12 + 5 −5 − 6 − 10 = −21
22 −21
10 + 5 + 6 −5 − 10 − 6 5 + 5 + 12 21 −21 22
22 −21 21 6 −5 5 2 −1 1 1 0 0
3 2
A − 6A + 9A − 4I = −21 22 −21 − 6 −5 6 −5 + 9 −1 2 −1 − 4 0 1 0
.in
21 −21 22 5 −5 6 1 −1 2 0 0 1
0 0 0
ng
= 0 0 0 = 0.
0 0 0
eri
∴ Cayley Hamilton theorem is verified.
Step 3. To find A−1
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, we have A3 − 6A2 + 9A − 4I = 0.
e
gin
Multiplying by A−1 we get,
A2 − 6A + 9I − 4A−1 = 0.
En
⇒ 4A−1 = A2 − 6A + 9I.
arn
1
⇒ A−1 = [A2 − 6A + 9I].
4
2 −1 1 2 −1 1 6 −5 5
Le
A2 = −1 2 −1 −1 2 −1 = −5 6 −5
1 −1 2 1 −1 2 5 −5 6
w.
6 −5 5 12 −6 6 9 0 0 3 1 −1
1 1
∴ A−1 = −5 6 −5 − −6 12 −6 + 0 9 0 .A−1 = 1 3 1 .
ww
4 4
5 −5 6 6 −6 12 0 0 9 −1 1 3
Step 4. To find A4
Consider λ4 . Dividing λ4 by λ3 − 6λ2 + 9λ − 4 we get,
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Matrices 53
λ4 = (λ + 6)(λ3 − 6λ2 + 9λ − 4) + 27λ2 − 50λ + 24.
Replacing λ by A we get,
A4 = (A + 6I)(A3 − 6A2 + 9A − 4I) + 27A2 − 50A + 24I.
= 27A2 − 50A + 24I [ By Cayley Hamilton theorem].
86 −85 85
.in
= −85 86 −85 .
85 −85 86
ng
1 2 −2
Example 1.38. If A = −1 3 0 , verify Cayley Hamilton theorem and hence
eri
0 −2 1
find A−1 . [Jan 2005]
Solution.
e
gin
Step 1. To find the characteristic equation
Since A is 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
En
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
=1+3+1=5
arn
s2 = sum of the minors of the elements of the main diagonal
3 0 1 −2 1 2
= + +
Le
−2 1 0 1 −1 3
=3−0+1−0+3+2
w.
=3+1+5=9
1 2 −2
ww
s3 = |A| = −1 3 0
0 −2 1
= 1(3 − 0) − 2(−1 − 0) − 2(2 − 0) = 3 + 2 − 4 = 1.
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54 Engineering Mathematics - II
The characteristic equation is λ3 − 5λ2 + 9λ − 1 = 0.
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, we have A3 − 5A2 + 9A − I = 0.
Step2. Verification of Cayley Hamilton theorem
1 2 −2 1 2 −2 −1 12 −4
A2 = A.A = −1 3 0 = −4 7
0 −1 3 2
.in
0 −2 1 0 −2 1 2 −8 1
ng
−1 12 −4 1 2 −2 −13 42 −2
A3 = A2 .A = −4 7 0 = −11 9
2 −1 3 10
2 −8 1 0 −2 1 10 −22 −3
eri
−13 42 −2 −1 12 −4 1 2 −2 1 0 0
Now A3 − 5A2 + 9A − I = −11 9
e
10 − 5 −4
7 2 + 9 −1 3
0 − 0 1 0
gin
10 −22 −3 2 −8 1 0 −2 1 0 0 1
0 0 0
= 0 0 0 = 0.
En
0 0 0
Hence, Cayley Hamilton theorem is verified.
Step 3. To find A−1
arn
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, we have A3 − 5A2 + 9A − I = 0.
Multiplying by A−1 we get
A2 − 5A + 9I − A−1 = 0
Le
3 2 6
∴ A−1 = A2 − 5A + 9I = 1 1 2 .
w.
2 2 5
ww
Example 1.39. Find the matrix A8 − 5A7 + 7A6 − 3A5 + 8A4 − 5A3 + 8A2 − 2A + I if
2 1 1
A = 0 1 0, using Cayley Hamilton theorem. [Jun 2009]
1 1 2
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Matrices 55
Solution.
Step 1. To find the characteristic equation
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation takes the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
.in
=2+1+2=5
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
ng
1 0 2 1 2 1
= + + = 2 + 3 + 2 = 7.
1 2 1 2 0 1
eri
2 1 1
s3 = |A| = 0 1 0 = 2(2 − 0) − 1(0 − 0) + 1(0 − 1) = 4 − 1 = 3.
1 1 2
e
gin
The characteristic equation is λ3 − 5λ2 + 7λ − 3 = 0.
By Cayley Hamilton theorem we get A3 − 5A2 + 7A − 3I = 0.
En
Step 2. To find the value of given matrix expression
Consider the polynomial λ8 − 5λ7 + 7λ6 − 3λ5 + 8λ4 − 5λ3 + 8λ2 − 2λ + 1.
Divide this polynomial by λ3 − 5λ2 + 7λ − 3 we get
arn
λ8 − 5λ7 + 7λ6 − 3λ5 + 8λ4 − 5λ3 + 8λ2 − 2λ + 1 = (λ5 + 8λ + 35)(λ3 − 5λ2 + 7λ − 3)
+127λ2 − 223λ + 106.
Le
Replacing λ by A we get
A8 − 5A7 + 7A6 −3A5 + 8A4 − 5A3 + 8A2 − 2A + I
w.
= (A5 + 8A + 35I)(A3 − 5A2 + 7A − 3I) + 127A2 − 223A + 106I
= 127A2 − 223A + 106I [ By Cayley Hamilton theorem].
ww
295 285 285
= 0 0 .
10
285 285 295
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56 Engineering Mathematics - II
1 0 0
Example 1.40. If A = 1 0 1 then show that An = An−2 + A2 − I for n ≥ 3. Hence
0 1 0
find A50 . [Jan 2006]
Solution. Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
.in
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
ng
=1+0+0=1
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
eri
0 1 1 0 1 0
= + +
1 0 0 0 1 0
= 0 − 1 − 0 + 0 = −1.
e
gin
1 0 0
s3 = |A| = 1 0 1
0 1 0
En
= 1(0 − 1) = −1.
∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 − λ2 − λ − 1 = 0.
arn
By Cayley Hamilton theorem we have,
A3 − A2 − A + I = 0
Le
A3 − A2 = A − I
A4 − A3 = A2 − A
w.
A5 − A4 = A3 − A2
············
ww
An − An−1 = An−2 − An−3
Adding all these equations we get, An − A2 = An−2 − I.
∴ An = An−2 + A2 − I
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Matrices 57
An−2 = An−4 + A2 − I.
∴ An = An−4 + 2(A2 − I).
An−4 = An−8 + 2(A2 − I).
∴ An = An−8 + 4(A2 − I).
An−8 = An−16 + 4(A2 − I).
.in
An = An−16 + 8(A2 − I).
n−2 2
ng
If n is even, An = An−(n−2) + (A − I)
2
n−2 2
= A2 + (A − I)
eri
2
n−2 2 n−2
= A2 + A − I
2 2
n n−2
An = A2 −
2
e 2
I.
gin
When n = 50, we have
A50 = 25A2 − 24I.
Now, A2 = A · A
En
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
= 1 0 1 1 0 1 = 1 1 0
arn
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
50
A = 25 1 1 0 − 24 0 1 0
Le
1 0 1 0 0 1
25 0 0 24 0 0
w.
= 25 25 0 − 0 24 0
25 0 25 0 0 24
ww
1 0 0
= 25 1 0 .
25 0 1
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58 Engineering Mathematics - II
1 2
Example 1.41. If n is a positive integer, find An for the matrix A = using
4 3
Cayley Hamilton theorem. [Jan 2005]
Solution. Since A is a 2 × 2 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ2 − s1 λ + s2 = 0.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
.in
= 1 + 3 = 4.
1 2
ng
s2 = |A| =
4 3
eri
= 3 − 8 = −5.
The characteristic equation is
λ2 − 4λ − 5 = 0.
(λ − 5)(λ + 1) = 0.
e
gin
The eigen values are −1, 5.
By Cayley Hamilton theorem we get, A2 − 4A − 5I = 0.
Dividing λn by λ2 − 4λ − 5, let Q(λ) be the quotient and R(λ) be the remainder.
En
Since we are dividing by λ2 − 4λ − 5, R(λ) is of degree atmost 1.
∴ Let R(λ) = aλ + b.
arn
Hence, we can write λn as
λn = (λ2 − 4λ − 5)Q(λ) + aλ + b. (A)
Le
When λ = −1, we get
−a + b = (−1)n (1)
w.
When λ = 5, we get
5a + b = 5n (2)
ww
1
(2) − (1) ⇒ 6a = 5n − (−1)n . ⇒ a = [5n − (−1)n ].
6
Substituting in (1) we get
1 1
b = a + (−1)n = [5n − (−1)n ] + (−1)n = [5n + 5(−1)n ].
6 6
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Matrices 59
Replacing λ by A in (A) we get
An = (A2 − 4A − 5I)Q(A) + aA + bI
= aA + bI [ by C.H Theorem]
1 1
= [5n − (−1)n ]A + [5n + 5(−1)n ]I.
6 6
.in
1 2
Example 1.42. If A = find An in terms of A and I. [Jun 2003]
2 −1
ng
Solution. Since A is a 2 × 2 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ2 − s1 λ + s2 = 0.
eri
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 1 − 1 = 0.
s2 = |A| =
1 2
e
gin
2 −1
= −1 − 4 = −5.
The characteristic equation is λ2 − 5 = 0
En
i.e., λ2 − 5 = 0
√
arn
=⇒ λ = ± 5.
By Cayley Hamilton theorem we get A2 − 5I = 0.
Le
Dividing λn by λ2 − 5, let Q(λ) be the quotient and R(λ) be the remainder.
Since we are dividing λn by λ2 − 5, R(λ) is of degree atmost 1.
w.
∴ R(λ) = aλ + b.
ww
∴ λn = (λ2 − 5)Q(λ) + aλ + b. (1)
√ √ √
When λ = 5, we get( 5)n = a 5 + b. (2)
√ √ √
When λ = − 5, we get (− 5)n = − 5a + b (3)
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60 Engineering Mathematics - II
√ √ √
(2) − (3) ⇒ 2 5a = ( 5)n − (− 5)n
√
= ( 5)n [1 − (−1)n ]
√ [1 − (−1)n ]
a = ( 5)n−1 .
2
substituting in (2) we get
√ √
b = ( 5)n − a( 5)
√ √ [1 − (−1)n ]
= ( 5)n − ( 5)n
.in
2
√ n [2 − 1 − +(−1)]n
= ( 5)
2
√ n [1 + (−1)n ]
ng
b = ( 5) .
√ n−1 2 √ √
n 2 5 n ( 5)n + (− 5)n
∴ λ = (λ − 5)φ(λ) + [1 − (−1) ]λ + .
2 2
eri
Replacing λ by A we get
√
n ( 5)n−1 √ [1 + (−1)n ]
A = [1 − (−1)n ]A + ( 5)n .
2
e 2
gin
Exercise I(C)
13 −3 5
En
1. Verify Cayley Hamilton theorem find the inverse of A = 0 0 .
4
−15 9 −7
arn
2 2 0
2. Verify Cayley Hamilton theorem for the matrix −2 1 1 . Hence find its
Le
−7 2 −3
inverse.
w.
2 1
3. Using Cayley Hamilton theorem find the inverse of A = .
1 −5
ww
4. Using Cayley Hamilton theorem, find the inverse of the following matrices.
2 0 −1
5 4
(i) (ii)
0 2 2
1 3
1 −1 2
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Matrices 61
0 c −b
5. Show that the matrix −c 0 a satisfies Cayley Hamilton theorem.
b −a 0
−1 0 3
6. Verify Cayley Hamilton theorem for the matrix A = 8 1 −7.
.in
−3 0 8
2 −1 2
ng
7. Using Cayley Hamilton theorem find A4 for the matrix A = −1 2 −1.
1 −1 2
eri
8. Find the characteristic equation of the matrix A and hence Compute
1 0 2
2A8 − 3A5 + A4 − 4I where A is 0 −1 1.
e
gin
0 1 0
7 3
9. If A = , find An interms of A and I using Cayley Hamilton theorem.
En
2 6
Hence find the value of A3 .
1 2
arn
10. If A = , find An interms of A and I.
0 2
1 3 1 3
, prove that An = 7n−1
Le
11. If A =
.
2 6 2 6
3 −4 1 + 2n −4n
w.
12. If A = , prove that An = .
1 −1 n 1 − 2n
ww
0 0 2
13. If A = 2 1 0, using Cayley Hamilton theorem obtain the value of
−1 −1 3
A6 − 25A2 + 122A.
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62 Engineering Mathematics - II
1.5 Diagonalization of Matrices - Similarity Transformation
Similar matrices. Let A and B be square matrices of order n. A is similar to B if
there exists a nonsingular matrix P such that A = P−1 BP.
The transformation which transforms B into A is called a similarity
transformation. The matrix P is called a similarity matrix.
.in
Results.
1. If A and B are similar then |A| = |B|.
ng
2. If A and B are similar, then they have the same eigen values.
Diagonalisation of a square matrix
eri
A square matrix A is said to be diagonalizable, if there exists a nonsingular matrix
P such that P−1 AP = D where D is a diagonal matrix. The matrix P is called the
e
modal matrix of A. D is also called as the spectral matrix of A.
gin
Working rule to diagonalize a matrix
Step 1. Find the eigen values λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn .
En
Step 2. Find the linearly independent eigen vectors X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn , corresponding to
λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn .
arn
Step 3. Form the modal matrix P = [X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ].
Step 4. Find P−1 .
Le
λ1 0 . . . 0
−1 0 λ2 . . . 0
Step 5. Find P AP = D = . .. .. .
w.
.. . .
0 0 . . . λn
ww
Note. P is possible only when A has n linearly independent eigen vectors.
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Matrices 63
Computation of powers of a square matrix using similarity
transformation
we have D = P−1 AP
PDP−1 = P(P−1 AP)P−1
= (PP−1 )A(PP−1 )
.in
= IAI = A
∴ A = PDP−1
ng
A2 = A · A
= (PDP−1 )(PDP−1 )
eri
= PD(P−1 P)DP−1
= PDIDP−1
A2 = PD2 P−1
e
gin
In the same way we get A3 = PD3 P−1 .
λn 0 . . . 0
1
n
0 λ2 . . . 0
En
n n −1
In general A = PD P , where D = . .. ..
.. . .
0 0 . . . λnn
arn
Properties of eigen values of similar matrices
Property 1.7. If A and B are similar matrices, they have the same characteristic
Le
equation.
Proof. Since A and B are similar, there exists a matrix P such that
w.
B = P−1 AP
∴ B − λI = P−1 AP − λI
ww
= P−1 AP − P−1 λIP
= P−1 (AP − λIP)
= P−1 (A − λI)P
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64 Engineering Mathematics - II
Hence, | B − λI | = |P−1 (A − λI)P |
= | P−1 | | A − λI | | P |
= | P−1 | | P | | A − λI |
= | P−1 P | | A − λI |
= | I | | A − λI |
.in
= | A − λI |.
The characteristic equations of A and B are respectively |A − λI| = 0 and
ng
|B − λI| = 0. Hence, they are equal.
Corollary. Two similar matrices have the same eigen values.
eri
Property 1.8. If A and B are n × n matrices and B is a non singular matrix, then
A and B−1 AB have the same eigen values.
e
gin
Proof. The characteristic polynomial of B−1 AB is
| B−1 AB − λI | = | B−1 AB − B−1 (λI)B |
= | B−1 (A − λI)B |
En
= | B−1 | | A − λI | | B |
= | B−1 | | B | | A − λI |
arn
= | B−1 B | | A − λI |
= | I | | A − λI |
Le
= | A − λI |.
= Characteristic polynomial of A.
w.
⇒ B−1 AB and A have the same characteristic equation.
⇒ They have the same eigen values.
ww
Result
If we are asked to find f (A), then f (A) can be evaluated by f (A) = P f (D)P−1
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Matrices 65
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
−19 7
Example 1.43. Reduce the matrix A = to the diagonal form.
−42 16
−19 7
Solution. Let the matrix be A = .
.in
−42 16
Step 1. To find the eigen values
ng
s1 = tr(A) = −19 + 16 = −3.
−19 7
s2 = |A| =
−42 16
eri
= −304 + 294 = −10.
The characteristic equation is
e
gin
λ2 − s1 λ + s2 = 0
i.e., λ2 + 3λ − 10 = 0
En
(λ + 5)(λ − 2) = 0
λ = 2, −5.
arn
The eigen values are λ1 = 2, λ2 = −5.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
Le
x1
Let X = be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x2
w.
∴ (A − λI)X = 0
−19 − λ 7 x1
ww
i.e. = 0
−42 16 − λ x2
(−19 − λ)x1 + 7x2 = 0
(A)
−42x1 + (16 − λ)x2 = 0.
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66 Engineering Mathematics - II
case(i) When λ = 2, (A) become
−21x1 + 7x2 = 0
−42x1 + 14x2 = 0.
Both the equations are reduced to one single equation
.in
3x1 = x2
x1 x2
ng
= .
1 3
1
∴ The eigen vector corresponding to λ = 2 is X1 = .
eri
3
case(ii) When λ = −5, (A) reduces to
e
−14x1 + 7x2 = 0
gin
−42x1 + 21x2 = 0.
Both the equations are reduced to one single equation
En
−2x1 = −x2
x1 x2
arn
=
1 2
1
∴ The eigen vector corresponding to λ = −5 is X2 = .
2
Le
Step 3. To form the modal matrix P
The modal matrix P is obtained with X1 , X2 as columns.
w.
1 1
.
∴ P = X1 X2 =
3 2
ww
Step 4. To find P−1
a b 1 d −b
−1
We know that if A = , then A =
.
c d ad − bc −c a
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Matrices 67
1 2 −1 −2 1
Hence P−1 = = .
−1 −3 1 3 −1
Step 5. To find P−1 AP
−2 1 −19 7 1 1
P−1 AP =
3 −1 −42 16 3 2
.in
−2 1 −19 + 21 −19 + 14 −2 1 2 −5
=
=
3 −1 −42 + 48 −42 + 32 3 −1 6 −10
ng
−4 + 6 10 − 10 2 0
= =
6 − 6 −15 + 10 0 5
eri
which is the required diagonal form of A.
1
Example 1.44. Reduce the matrix A = 1
e
2 −2
1 to the diagonal form. Hence
gin
2
−1 −1 0
find A4 .
En
Solution.
Step 1. To find the eigen values
arn
s1 = tr(A) = sum of the elements along the main diagonal = 1 + 2 + 0 = 3.
s2 = sum of the minors of the elements of the main diagonal
Le
2 1 1 −2 1 2
= + + = 0 + 1 + 0 − 2 + 2 − 2 = −1.
−1 0 −1 0 1 2
w.
1 2 −2
s3 = |A| = 1 2 1 = 1(0 + 1) − 2(0 + 1) − 2(−1 + 2) = 1 − 2 − 2 = −3.
ww
−1 −1 0
The characteristic equation is
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ + s3 = 0
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68 Engineering Mathematics - II
i.e., λ3 − 3λ2 − λ + 3 = 0
λ = 1 is a root.
By synthetic division we have
1 1 −3 −1 3
.in
0 1 −2 −3
1 −2 −3 0
ng
∴ The characteristic equation becomes
(λ − 1)(λ2 − 2λ − 3) = 0
eri
(λ − 1)(λ − 3)(λ + 1) = 0
e
λ = −1, 1, 3.
gin
The eigen values are λ1 = −1, λ2 = 1, λ3 = 3.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
En
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x3
arn
∴ (A − λI)X = 0
1 − λ 2 −2 x1
Le
i.e. 1 2 − λ 1 x2 = 0.
−1 −1 −λ x3
w.
(1 − λ)x1 + 2x2 − 2x3 = 0
x1 + (2 − λ)x2 + x3 (A)
=0
ww
−x1 − x2 − λx3 =0
case(i) When λ = −1, (A) become
2x1 + 2x2 − 2x3 = 0. (1)
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Matrices 69
x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 0. (2)
−x1 − x2 + x3 = 0. (3)
The above three equations are reduced to the following two equations.
x1 + x2 − x3 = 0
.in
x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 0.
ng
By the rule of cross multiplication we have,
x1 x2 x3
1 −1 1 1
eri
3 1 1 3
x1 x2 x3
= =
x1 x2 e
1 + 3 −1 − 1 3 − 1
x3
gin
= =
4 −2 2
x1 x2 x3
= = .
2 −1 1
En
2
∴ X1 = −1 .
arn
1
case(ii) When λ = 1, (A) become
(4)
Le
2x2 − 2x3 = 0
x1 + x2 + x3 = 0 (5)
w.
−x1 − x2 − x3 = 0. (6)
The above three equations are reduced to
ww
x2 = x3
and x1 + x2 + x3 = 0.
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70 Engineering Mathematics - II
let x3 = 1 ⇒ x2 = 1.
Hence x1 = −2
−2
∴ X2 = 1 .
1
.in
case(iii) When λ = 3, (A) become
ng
−2x1 + 2x2 − 2x3 = 0 (7)
x1 − x2 + x3 = 0 (8)
eri
−x1 − x2 − 3x3 = 0. (9)
The above three equations are reduced to the following two equations.
e
gin
x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0.
En
By the rule of cross multiplication we have
x1 x2 x3
arn
−1 1 1 −1
1 3 1 1
Le
x1 x2 x3
= =
−3 − 1 1 − 3 1 + 1
x1 x2 x3
w.
= =
−4 −2 2
x1 x2 x3
= = .
2 1 −1
ww
2
∴ X3 = 1 .
−1
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Matrices 71
Step 3. To form the modal matrix P
The modal matrix P is formed with the eigen vectors X1 , X2 , X3 as columns.
2 −2 2
i.e, P = X1 X2 X3 = −1 1 1 .
1 1 −1
.in
Step 4. To find P−1
2 −2 2
ng
|P| = −1 1 1
1 1 −1
eri
= 2(−1 − 1) + 2(1 − 1) + 2(−1 − 1)
= 2(−2) + 2(0) + 2(−2) = −4 + 0 − 4 = −8.
1 1
e
gin
cofactor of 2 = + = −1 − 1 = −2.
1 −1
−1 1
cofactor of −2 = − = −(1 − 1) = 0.
En
1 −1
−1 1
cofactor of 2 = + = −1 − 1 = −2.
1 1
arn
−2 2
cofactor of −1 = − = −(2 − 2) = 0.
1 −1
Le
2 2
cofactor of 1 = + = −2 − 2 = −4.
1 −1
2 −2
w.
cofactor of 1 = − = −(2 + 2) = −4.
1 1
−2 2
ww
cofactor of 1 = + = −2 − 2 = −4.
1 1
2 2
cofactor of 1 = − = −(2 + 2) = −4.
−1 1
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72 Engineering Mathematics - II
2 −2
cofactor of −1 = + = 2 − 2 = 0.
−1 1
−2 0 −2
∴ Pc = 0 −4 −4 .
−4 −4 0
.in
−2 0 −4
1 T −1
P−1 = P = 0 −4 −4 .
ng
|P| c
8
−2 −4 0
Step 5. To find P−1 AP
eri
−2 0 −4 1 2 −2 2 −2 2
−1
P−1 AP =
8
0 −4 −4 1
e
2
1 −1 1
1
gin
−2 −4 0 −1 −1 0 1 1 −1
−2 + 0 + 4 −4 + 0 + 4 4 + 0 + 0 2 −2 2
−1
= 0 − 4 + 4
0 − 8 + 4 0 − 4 + 0 −1 1 1
En
8
−2 − 4 + 0 −4 − 8 + 0 4 − 4 + 0 1 1 −1
2 0 4 2 −2 2
arn
−1
= 0 −4 −4 −1 1
1
8
−6 −12 0 1 1 −1
Le
4 + 0 + 4 −4 + 0 + 4 4 + 0 − 4
−1
= 0 + 4 − 4
0−4−4 0 − 4 + 4
8
−12 + 12 + 0 12 − 12 + 0 −12 − 12 + 0
w.
8 0 0 −1 0 0
−1
= 0 −8 0 = 0 1 0
ww
8
0 0 −24 0 0 3
which is the required diagonal form.
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Matrices 73
Step 6. To find A4
By similarity transformation, D = P−1 AP.
−1 0 0
∴ D = 0 1 0
0 0 3
.in
Hence
1 0 0
ng
4
D = 0 1 0
0 0 81
eri
Now A4 = PD4 P−1
2 −2 2 1 0 0 −2 0 −4
=
−1
−1 1
e
1 0 1 0 0 −4 −4
gin
8
1 1 −1 0 0 81 −2 −4 0
2 + 0 + 0 0 − 2 + 0 0 + 0 + 162 −2 0 −4
−1
En
=
−1 + 0 + 0 0 + 1 + 0 0 + 0 + 81 0 −4 −4
8
1 + 0 + 0 0 + 1 + 0 0 + 0 − 81 −2 −4 0
arn
2 −2 162 −2 0 −4
−1
= −1 1
81 0 −4 −4
8
1 1 −81 −2 −4 0
Le
−4 + 0 − 324 0 + 8 − 648 −8 + 8 + 0
−1
= 2 + 0 − 162 0 − 4 − 324 4 − 4 + 0
8
w.
−2 + 0 + 162 0 − 4 + 324 −4 − 4 + 0
−328 −640 0 41 80 0
−1
ww
= −160 −328 0 = 20
41 0
8
160 320 −8 −20 −40 1
Result. A simple way to find the inverse of a 3 × 3 matrix.
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74 Engineering Mathematics - II
a1 a2 a3
Let A = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
Step1. Rearrange the elements in the following way
.in
b2 b3 b1
c2 c3 c1
a2 a3 a1
ng
Step2. Attach the first column as the 4th column
eri
b2 b3 b1 b2
c2
ec3 c1 c2
gin
a2 a3 a1 a2
Step3. Attach the first row as the 4th row
En
b2 b3 b1 b2
arn
c2 c3 c1 c2
a2 a3 a1 a2
b2 b3 b1 b2
Le
Step4. The matrix Ac formed by the Cofactors of the elements of A is given by
w.
A1 A2 A3
ww
Ac = B1 B2 B3 .
C1 C2 C3
Ais , Bis and Cis are calculated as follows, similar to the rule of Cross multiplication.
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Matrices 75
b2 b3 b1 b2
A1 A2 A3
c2 c3 c1 c2
B1 B2 B3
.in
a2 a3 a1 a2
C1 C2 C3
ng
b2 b3 b1 b2
eri
b2 c3 − b3 c2 b3 c1 − b1 c3 b1 c2 − b2 c1
Ac = c2 a3 − c3 a2 c3 a1 − c1 a3 c1 a2 − c2 a1
a2 b3 − a3 b2 a3 b1 − a1 b3 a1 b2 − a2 b1
e
gin
1 T
Now A−1 = A .
|A| c
Example. Consider the previous example.
To find P−1 we have
En
2 −2 2
P = −1 1
1
arn
1 1 −1
1 1 −1 1
Le
1 −1 1 1
w.
−2 2 2 −2
1 1 −1 1
ww
−2 0 −2
Pc = 0 −4 −4
−4 −4 0
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76 Engineering Mathematics - II
1 T
P−1 = P .
|P| c
2 0 −4
1
= − 0 −4 −4
8
−2 −4 0
Note. We shall apply this procedure to find the inverse of any 3 × 3 matrix here
.in
after.
2 −2 3
ng
Example 1.45. Diagonalize the matrix A = 1 1
1
1 3 −1
eri
2 −2 3
Solution. Given A = 1 1
1
1 3 −1
Step 1. To find the eigen values
e
gin
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
En
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 2 + 1 − 1 = 2.
arn
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
1 1 2 3 2 −2
= + +
3 −1 1 −1 1 1
Le
= −4 − 5 + 4 = −5.
2 −2 3
w.
s3 = |A| = 1 1 1
1 3 −1
ww
= 2(−1 − 3) + 2(−1 − 1) + 3(3 − 1)
= −8 − 4 + 6
= −6.
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Matrices 77
The characteristic equation is
λ3 − 2λ2 − 5λ + 6 = 0.
λ = 1 is a root.
By synthetic division we have
.in
1 1 −2 −5 6
0 1 −1 −6
ng
1 −1 −6 0
λ2 − λ − 6 = 0
eri
(λ − 3)(λ + 2) = 0
e
λ = −2, 3.
gin
The eigen values are 1, −2, 3.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
En
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x3
arn
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
2 − λ −2 3 x1
Le
1−λ 1 x2 = 0. (1)
1
1 3 −1 − λ x3
w.
When λ = 1, (1) becomes
1 −2 3 x1
1 x2 = 0.
1 0
ww
1 3 −2 x3
The equations become
x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 = 0 (2)
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78 Engineering Mathematics - II
x1 + x3 = 0 (3)
x1 + 3x2 − 2x3 = 0. (4)
(3) ⇒ x1 = −x3
x1 x3
=
−1 1
⇒ x1 = −1, x3 = 1.
.in
Substituting in (2) we get
−1 − 2x2 + 3 = 0
ng
2 = 2x2
x2 = 1.
eri
−1
∴ X1 = 1 .
When λ = −2 (1) becomes
1
e
gin
4 −2 3 x1
1 3 1 x = 0.
2
1 3 1 x3
En
The above equations are reduced to
4x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 = 0
arn
x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 0.
By the rule of cross multiplication, we obtain
x1 x2 x3
Le
−2 3 4 −2
3 1 1 3
w.
x1 x2 x3
ww
= =
−2 − 9 3 − 4 12 + 2
x1 x2 x3
= =
−11 −1 14
∴ x1 = 11, x2 = 1, x3 = −14
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Matrices 79
11
∴ X2 = 1 .
−14
When λ = 3, (1) becomes
−1 −2 3 x1
.in
1 −2 1 x2 = 0.
1 3 −4 x3
ng
The above equations are reduced to
−x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 = 0 (5)
eri
x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0 (6)
e
gin
x1 + 3x2 − 4x3 = 0. (7)
All the three equations are different.
Taking (5) & (6) and by the rule of cross multiplication we obtain
En
x1 x2 x3
−2 3 −1 −2
arn
−2 1 1 −2
Le
x1 x2 x3
= =
−2 + 6 3 + 1 2 + 2
x1 x2 x3
w.
= =
4 4 4
∴ x1 = x2 = x3 = 1
ww
1
X3 = 1 .
1
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80 Engineering Mathematics - II
Step 3. To form the modal matrix P
The modal matrix P is formed with the eigen vectors X1 , X2 , X3 as columns.
−1 11 1
i.e., P = X1 X2 X3 = 1 1 1 .
1 −14 1
.in
Step 4. To find P−1
−1 11 1
ng
|P| = 1 1 1
1 −14 1
eri
= −1(1 + 14) − 11(1 − 1) + 1(−14 − 1)
= −15 + 0 − 15
= −30.
e
gin
To find Pc
1 1 1 1
−14 1 1 −14
En
11 1 −1 11
1 1 1 1
arn
15 0 −15
Pc = −25 −2 −3
10 2 −12
Le
1 T
P−1 = P
|P| c
15 −25 10
w.
1
= − 0 −2 2
30
−15 −3 −12
ww
−15 25 −10
1
= 0
2 −2
30
15 3 12
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Matrices 81
Step 5. To find P−1 AP
−15 25 −10 2 −2 3 −1 11 1
1
−1
P AP =
0
2 −2 1 1 1 1 1 1
30
15 3 12 1 3 −1 1 −14 1
−15 25 −10 −1 11 1
1
.in
= 0 −4 4 1
1 1
30
45 9 36 1 −14 1
ng
30 0 0
1
= 0 −60 0
30
eri
0 0 90
1 0 0
= 0 −2 0 .
e
gin
0 0 3
which is the required diagonal form.
6 −2 2
En
Example 1.46. Diagonalize the matrix −2 3 −1.
2 −1 3
arn
6 −2 2
Solution. Let A = −2 3 −1.
2 −1 3
Le
Step 1. To find the eigen values
s1 = tr(A) = 6 + 3 + 3 = 12.
w.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diogonal elements.
3 −1 6 2 6 −2
ww
= + +
−1 3 2 3 −2 3
= 9 − 1 + 18 − 4 + 18 − 4
= 8 + 14 + 14 = 36.
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82 Engineering Mathematics - II
6 −2 2
s3 = |A| = −2 3 −1
2 −1 3
= 6(8) + 2(−4) + 2(−4)
= 48 − 8 − 8 = 32.
.in
The characteristic equation is
ng
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0
i.e., λ3 − 12λ2 + 36λ − 32 = 0.
eri
λ = 2 is a root.
By synthetic division we have
e
gin
2 1 −12 36 −32
0 2 −20 32
En
1 −10 16 0
Hence, the characteristic equation becomes
arn
(λ − 2)(λ2 − 10λ + 16) = 0
(λ − 2)(λ − 2)(λ − 8) = 0
Le
λ = 2, 2, 8.
∴ The eigen values are λ1 = 2, λ2 = 2, λ3 = 8.
w.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
ww
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x3
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
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Matrices 83
6 − λ −2 2 x1
−2 3 − λ −1 x2 = 0.
2 −1 3 − λ x3
(6 − λ)x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0
−2x1 + (3 − λ)x2 − x3 = 0 . (A)
.in
2x1 − x2 + (3 − λ)x3 = 0
case(i) when λ = 2, (A) reduces to
ng
4x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0
eri
−2x1 + x2 − x3 = 0
2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0.
e
gin
The above three equations are reduced to the single equation
2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0.
En
Since λ = 2 is a repeated root, we have to find two eigen vectors by assigning a
particular value to two variables, one at a time.
arn
Assigning x3 = 0, we obtain
2x1 = x2
x1 x2
Le
=
1 2
1
w.
∴ X1 = 2 .
0
ww
Assigning x2 = 0, we obtain
2x1 = −x3
x1 x3
= .
−1 2
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84 Engineering Mathematics - II
−1
∴ X2 = 0 .
2
case(ii) when λ = 8, (A) reduces to
−2x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0 (1)
.in
−2x1 − 5x2 − x3 = 0 (2)
2x1 − x2 − 5x3 = 0. (3)
ng
Since all the three equations are different, we can consider the the first two
equations and solve for x1 , x2 , &, x3 by the method of cross multiplication
eri
x1 x2 x3
−2 2 −2 −2
−5 −1
e −2 −5
gin
x1 x2 x3
= =
2 + 10 −4 − 2 10 − 4
En
x1 x2 x3
= =
12 −6 6
x1 x2 x3
= =
2 −1 1
arn
∴ x1 = 2, x2 = −1, x3 = 1.
x1 , x2 , x3 satisfy (3).
Le
2
∴ X3 = −1 .
1
w.
Step 3. To form the modal matrix P
P can be obtained by considering X1 , X2 , X3 as columns.
ww
1 −1 2
∴ P = 2 0 −1
0 2 1
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Matrices 85
Step 4. To find P−1
1 −1 2
|P| = 2 0 −1
0 2 1
.in
= 1(0 + 2) + 1(2 − 0) + 2(4 − 0) = 2 + 2 + 8 = 12.
To find Pc
ng
0 −1 2 0
2 1 0 2
eri
−1 2 1 −1
0 −1 2 0
e
2 −2 4
gin
Pc = 5 1 −2
1 5 2
En
1 T
P−1 = P .
|P| c
2 5 1
arn
1
= −2 1 5 .
12
4 −2 2
Step 5. To find P−1 AP
Le
2 5 1 6 −2 2 1 −1 2
w.
1
P−1 AP = −2 1 5 −2 3 −1 2 0 −1
12
4 −2 2 2 −1 3 0 2 1
ww
12 − 10 + 2 −4 + 15 − 1 4 − 5 + 3 1 −1 2
1
= −12 − 2 + 10 4 + 3 − 5 −4 − 1 + 15 2 0 −1
12
24 + 4 + 4 −8 − 6 − 2 8+2+6 0 2 1
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86 Engineering Mathematics - II
4 10 2 1 −1 2
1
= −4 2 10 2 0 −1
12
32 −16 16 0 2 1
4 + 20 + 0 −4 + 0 + 4 8 − 10 + 2
1
=
−4 + 4 + 0
4 + 0 + 20 −8 − 2 + 10
12
.in
32 − 32 + 0 −32 + 0 + 32 64 + 16 + 16
24 0 0 2 0 0
1
ng
= 0 24 0 = 0 2 0
12
0 0 96 0 0 8
eri
which is the required diagonal form.
3 1
Example 1.47. Find eA and 4A if A = .
1 3
e
gin
Solution.
Step 1. To find the eigen values
En
s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements.
= 3 + 3 = 6.
arn
3 1
s2 = |A| = = 9 − 1 = 8.
1 3
The characteristic equation is
Le
λ2 − s1 λ + s2 = 0
w.
λ2 − 6λ + 8 = 0
(λ − 2)(λ − 4) = 0
ww
λ = 2, 4.
The eigen values are λ1 = 2, λ2 = 4.
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Matrices 87
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
Let X = be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x2
∴ (A − λI)X = 0
3 − λ 1 x1
.in
i.e. = 0.
1 3 − λ x2
ng
(3 − λ)x1 + x2 = 0
(A)
x1 + (3 − λ)x2 = 0.
eri
case(i) when λ = 2, (A) reduces to one single equation
x1 + x2 = 0
e
gin
i.e.x1 = −x2
x1 x2
= .
−1 1
En
−1
∴ X1 = .
1
case(ii) when λ = 4, (A) reduces to
arn
−x1 + x2 = 0
Le
x1 − x2 = 0
Both the equations are reduced to one single equation
w.
x1 = x2
ww
x1 x2
= .
1 1
1
∴ X2 = .
1
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88 Engineering Mathematics - II
Step 3. To form the modal matrix P
P is obtained by taking X1 , X2 as columns.
−1 1
∴ P = .
1 1
Step 4. To find P−1
.in
−1 1
ng
|P| = = −1 − 1 = −2.
1 1
1 1 1 −1 1 −1 1
eri
P−1 = PT = = .
|P| c −2 −1 −1 2 1 1
Step 5. To find P−1 AP
e
gin
1 −1 1 3 1 −1 1
P−1 AP =
2 1 1 1 3 1 1
1 −3 + 1 −1 + 3 −1 1
En
=
2 3 + 1 1 + 3 1 1
1 −2 2 −1 1
=
arn
2 4 4 1 1
1 2 + 2 −2 + 2
=
2 −4 + 4 4 + 4
Le
1 4 0 2 0
= = .
2 0 8 0 4
w.
Step 6. To find eA and 4A
ww
By similarity transformation
2 0
−1 .
D = P AP =
0 4
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Matrices 89
e2 0
Let f (A) = eA , then f (D) = eD = .
4
0 e
Now, eA = P f (D)P−1
−1 1 e2 0 1 −1 1
=
1 1 0 e4 2 1 1
.in
1 −e2 e4 −1 1
=
2 e2 e4 1 1
ng
1 e2 + e4 −e2 + e4
eA = .
2 −e + e 2 4 2
e +e 4
eri
Replacing e by 4, we get
e
1 42 + 44 −42 + 44
A
4 =
gin
2 −42 + 44 42 + 44
1 16 + 256 −16 + 256
=
2 −16 + 256 16 + 256
En
1 272 240 136 120
= = .
2 240 272 120 136
arn
Exercise I(D)
Le
1. Find a nonsingular matrix P such that P−1 AP is in a diagonal form where A
is given by
w.
0 0 1
−2 2 0 1
i. ii. iii. 0 1 0
2 −5 1 0
1 0 0
ww
0 2 0 2 0 2 4 6 6
iv. 2 0 2 v. 0 2 0 vi. 1
3 2
0 2 0 2 0 2 −2 −4 −3
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90 Engineering Mathematics - II
2. Reduce the following matrices to the diagonal form using similarity
transformation.
√
−1 2 −2 −1 − 3 0 7 −2 −2
√
i. 1 1 ii. − 3 0 iii. −2 1
2 1 4
−1 −1 0 0 0 0 −2 4 1
2 2 0 −15 4 3 2 −1 0
.in
1 −2
iv. 2 1 1 v. 10 −12 6 vi. vii. 9 6 .
4
−5 4
−7 2 −3 20 −4 2 −8 0 −3
ng
5 3
3. Reduce the matrix A = to the diagonal form and hence evaluate An and
eri
1 3
A4 .
3 −1 1
4. Find A4 if A = −1 5 −1
e
gin
1 −1 3
1 −1 2
En
5. Reduce the matrix A = 0 2 −1 to the diagonal form by similarity
0 0 3
arn
transformation. Hence find A3 .
1.6 Diagonlization by orthogonal transformation
Le
A real square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AAT = AT A = I.
w.
Result. A real square matrix A is orthogonal if AT = A−1 .
ww
Normalized eigen vector
a
Let X = b be an eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ. Then the
c
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Matrices 91
X
normalized eigen vector of X is defined as √ .
a2 + b2 + c2
Example
1 √1
6
If X = −1 is an eigen vector, then its normalised eigen vector is −1 √ .
6
2
√2
6
.in
Diagonalization by orthogonal transformation
A real square matrix A is said to be orthogonally diagonalizable, if there exists an
orthogonal matrix N such that N −1 AN = D ⇒ N T AN = D. This transformation
ng
which transforms A into D is called an orthogonal transformation or orthogonal
reduction.
eri
Symmetric Matrices
A real square matrix A is said to be symmetric if AT = A.
Working rule for orthogonal reduction
e
gin
Step 1. Find the eigen values λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn .
Step 2. Find eigen vectors X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn which are pairwise orthogonal.
En
Step 3. Form the normalised modal matrix N with the normalised eigen vectors
arn
as columns.
λ1 0 . . . 0
0 λ . . . 0
Le
2
Step 4. Find N T and N T AN = D = . .
. .
.. .. ..
0 0 . . . λ
n
w.
Definition 1.1. If Xi , X j , i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n are orthogonal, then XiT X j = 0, i , j.
ww
Properties of eigen values of orthogonal matrices
Property 1.9. The eigen values of a real symmetric matrix are real.
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92 Engineering Mathematics - II
Proof. Let λ (real or complex) be an eigen value of A.
Let X be the eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
∴ AX = λX. (1)
Let X̄ be the Complex conjugate of X.
.in
Premultiply (1) by X̄ T we get
X̄ T AX = λX̄ T X
ng
X̄ T AX = λX̄ T X
i.e., X T ĀX̄ = λ̄X T X̄.
Since A is a real symmetric matrix, Ā = A & AT = A.
eri
∴ X T AX̄ = λ̄X T X̄.
Taking transpose on both sides we get e
gin
T T
X T AX̄ = λ̄X T X̄
X̄ T AT X = X̄ T X λ̄T = λ̄X̄ T X
En
X̄ T AX = λ̄X̄ T X
X̄ T λX = λ̄X̄ T X
arn
λX̄ T X = λ̄X̄ T X.
Now X is an n × 1 matrix and X̄ T is a 1 × n matrix.
Hence, X̄ T X is a 1 × 1 matrix, which is a positive real.
Le
⇒ λ = λ̄.
⇒ λ is a real number.
w.
Property 1.10. The eigen vectors corresponding to distinct eigen values of a real
symmetric matrix are orthogonal. [Dec.2002]
ww
Proof. By property 1.9, we know that, if A is a real symmetric matrix, then its
eigen values are real.
Let λ1 and λ2 be two real eigen values such that λ1 , λ2 .
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Matrices 93
Let X1 and X2 be the eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen values λ1
and λ2 respectively.
∴ AX1 = λ1 X1 (1)
AX2 = λ2 X2 . (2)
Premultiplying (1) by X2T we get
.in
X2T AX1 = X2T λ1 X1 = λ1 X2T X1 .
ng
Taking transpose both sides we get
T T
X2T AX1 = λ1 X2T X1
eri
⇒ X1T AT X2 = λ1 X1T X2
i.e., X1T AX2 = λ1 X1T X2 [since, A is symmetric, AT = A]. (3)
Premultiplying (2) by X1T we get
e
gin
X1T AX2 = X1T λ2 X2 = λ2 X1T X2 . (4)
En
From (3) and (4) we get
λ1 X1T X2 = λ2 X1T X2
arn
i.e., λ1 X1T X2 − λ2 X1T X2 = 0
(λ1 − λ2 )X1T X2 = 0.
Le
Since λ1 , λ2 , λ1 − λ2 , 0.
∴ X1T X2 = 0
w.
⇒ X1 and X2 are orthogonal.
ww
1
Property 1.11. If λ is an eigen value of an orthogonal matrix, then is also its
λ
eigen value.
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94 Engineering Mathematics - II
Proof. Let A be an orthogonal matrix.
⇒ AT = A−1 . (1)
We know that A and AT have the same eigen values.
1
Also we know that if λ is an eigen value of A, then is an eigen value of A−1 .
λ
1
.in
From (1), we get is an eigen value of AT .
λ
1
⇒ is an eigen value of A.
λ
ng
Results
eri
1. Diagonalization of orthogonal transformation is possible only for a real
symmetric martix.
e
2. If A is a real symmetric matrix, then the eigen vectors of A will be not only
gin
linearly independent but also pairwise orthogonal.
3. If A is orthogonal, then AT is orthogonal.
En
4. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then |A| = ±1.
5. The eigen values of an orthogonal matrix are of magnitude 1.
arn
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
cos θ sin θ
Le
Example 1.48. Prove that A = is orthogonal.
[Jan 2009]
− sin θ cos θ
Solution. |A| = cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1, which is nonsingular.
w.
cos θ sin θ cos θ − sin θ
AAT =
− sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ
ww
cos2 θ + sin2 θ − sin θ cos θ + sin θ cos θ 1 0
= 0 1 = I
=
− sin θ cos θ + cos θ sin θ sin2 θ + cos2 θ
∴ A is orthogonal.
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Matrices 95
1 2 2
1
Example 1.49. Show that A = 2 1 −2 is orthogonal.
3
−2 2 −1
1 2 2
1
Solution. Given A = 2 1 −2
3
.in
−2 2 −1
1 2 −2
1
AT = 2 1
ng
2
3
2 −2 −1
eri
1 2 2 1 2 −2
1
T
AA = 2 1 −2 2 1
2
9
−2 2 −1 2 −2 −1
e
gin
9 0 0 1 0 0
1
= 0 9 0 = 0 1 0 = I
9
0 0 9 0 0 1
En
∴ A is orthogonal.
Example 1.50. If A is an orthogonal matrix, prove that A−1 is also orthogonal.
arn
Solution. Since A is orthogonal, AT = A−1 .
Let AT = A−1 = B.
Now BT = (A−1 )T = (AT )−1 = B−1 .
Le
∴ B is orthogonal.
i.e., A−1 is orthogonal.
w.
Example 1.51. Prove that if A and B are orthogonal matrices, then AB is
orthogonal.
ww
Solution. Given A & B are orthogonal.
∴ AT = A−1 and BT = B−1 .
Now, (AB)T = BT AT = B−1 A−1 = (AB)−1 ⇒ AB is orthogonal.
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96 Engineering Mathematics - II
2 1 −1
Example 1.52. Diagonalise the symmetric matrix A = 1 1 −2 by an
−1 −2 1
orthogonal transformation. [Jan 2004]
Solution. A is a real symmetric matrix.
Step 1. To find the eigen values
.in
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
Now s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
ng
= 2 + 1 + 1 = 4.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
eri
1 −2 2 −1 2 1
= + +
−2 1 −1 1 1 1
=1−4+2−1+2−1 e
gin
= −3 + 1 + 1 = −1.
2 1 −1
En
s3 = |A| = 1 1 −2
−1 −2 1
arn
= 2(−3) − 1(−1) − 1(−1)
= −6 + 1 + 1 = −4.
The characteristic equation is λ3 − 4λ2 − λ + 4 = 0.
Le
λ = 1 is a root.
w.
By synthetic division we get,
1 1 −4 −1 4
ww
0 1 −3 −4
1 −3 −4 0
λ2 − 3λ − 4 = 0.
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Matrices 97
(λ + 1)(λ − 4) = 0.
∴ The characteristic equation becomes (λ − 1)(λ + 1)(λ − 4) = 0.
∴ The eigen values are −1, 1, 4.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
.in
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to λ. Then,
x3
ng
(A − λI)X = 0.
2 − λ 1 −1 x1 0
eri
1 − λ −2 x2 = 0 . (1)
1
−1 −2 1 − λ x3 0
When λ = −1, (1) becomes
e
gin
3 1 −1 x1
2 −2 x2 = 0.
1
−1 −2 2 x3
En
The equations are reduced to two equations
3x1 + x2 − x3 = 0.
arn
x1 + 2x2 − 2x3 = 0.
By the rule of cross multiplication we get,
x1 x2 x3
Le
1 −1 3 1
2 −2 1 2
w.
x1 x2 x3
= = =⇒ x1 = 0, x2 = 1, x3 = 1.
0 5 5
ww
0
∴ X1 = 1.
1
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98 Engineering Mathematics - II
When λ = 1 (1) become
1 1 −1 x1
0 −2 x2 = 0.
1
−1 −2 0 x3
i.e., x1 + x2 − x3 = 0.
x1 x3
.in
x1 − 2x3 = 0 ⇒ x1 = 2x3 ⇒ = =⇒ x1 = 2, x3 = 1.
2 1
x1 x2
−x1 − 2x2 = 0 ⇒ x1 = −2x2 ⇒ = =⇒ x1 = 2, x2 = −1.
2 −1
ng
∴ x1 = 2, x2 = −1, x3 = 1
2
eri
∴ X2 = −1.
1
When λ = 4, (1) become
e
gin
−2 1 −1 x1
1 −3 −2 x2 = 0.
−1 −2 −3 x3
En
i.e., −2x1 + x2 − x3 = 0 ⇒ 2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0.
x1 − 3x2 − 2x3 = 0.
arn
−x1 − 2x2 − 3x3 = 0 ⇒ x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 0.
All the three equations are different.
Taking the first two equations and solving by the rule of cross multiplication we
Le
get
x1 x2 x3
w.
−1 1 2 −1
−3 −2 1 −3
ww
x1 x2 x3
i.e., = = .
5 5 −5
=⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 1, x3 = −1.
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Matrices 99
1
∴ X3 = 1 .
−1
Since A is symmetric and all the eigen values are different X1 , X2 , X3 are pairwise
orthogonal.
Step 3. To form the modal matrix N
.in
0 √2 √1
6 3
The normalized eigen vectors are √1 , −1
√
and √1 .
ng
2 6 3
√1 √1 −1
√
2 6 3
The modal matrix N is formed with the normalized eigen vectors as columns.
eri
0 √2 √1
6 3
1
i.e., N = √ −1 √1
√
.
2 6 3
√1
2
√1
6
−1
√
3
e
gin
Step 4. To find T
N AN
0 √1 √1 2 1 −1 0 √2 √1
2 2 6 3
En
N T AN = √2 −1 √1 1 −2 √12 −1 √1
1
√ √
6 6 6 6 3
√1 √1 −1
√
−1 −2 1 √1
√1 −1
√
3 3 3 2 6 3
arn
−1 0 0
= 0 1 0 = D.
0 0 4
Le
1 1 3
w.
Example 1.53. Diagonalise the matrix 1 5 1 by an orthogonal reduction.
3 1 1
ww
1 1 3
Solution. Let A = 1 5 1.
3 1 1
A is a real symmetric matrix.
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100 Engineering Mathematics - II
Step 1. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements of A.
.in
= 1 + 5 + 1 = 7.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
ng
5 1 1 3 1 1
= + +
1 1 3 1 1 5
eri
=5−1+1−9+5−1
= 4 − 8 + 4 = 0.
1 1 3
e
gin
s3 = |A| = 1 5 1
3 1 1
= 1(5 − 1) − 1(1 − 3) + 3(1 − 15)
En
= 4 + 2 − 42
= −36.
arn
The characteristic equation is λ3 − 7λ2 + 36 = 0.
λ = −2 is a root.
By synthetic division we have
Le
−2 1 −7 0 36
0 −2 18 −36
w.
1 −9 18 0
λ2 − 9λ + 18 = 0
ww
(λ − 3)(λ − 6) = 0
λ = 3, λ = 6.
The eigen values are −2, 3, 6.
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Matrices 101
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x3
∴ (A − λI)X = 0
.in
1 − λ 1 3 x1
5−λ 1 x2 = 0. (1)
1
ng
3 1 1 − λ x3
When λ = −2, (1) becomes
eri
3 1 3 x1
1 7 1 x2 = 0.
e
3 1 3 x3
gin
The above equations are reduced to
3x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0
x1 + 7x2 + x3 = 0.
En
By the rule of cross multiplication we obtain
x1 x2 x3
arn
1 3 3 1
7 1 1 7
Le
x1 x2 x3
= =
1 − 21 3 − 3 21 − 1
w.
x1 x2 x3
= =
−20 0 20
x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = −1.
ww
1
∴ X1 = 0 .
−1
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102 Engineering Mathematics - II
When λ = 3, (1) becomes
−2 1 3 x1
1 2 1 x = 0.
2
3 1 −2 x3
The above equations become
−2x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0
.in
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0
3x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 0.
ng
Taking the first two equations and applying the rule of cross multiplication we get
x1 x2 x3
eri
1 3 −2 1
2 1 1 2
e
gin
x1 x2 x3
= =
1 − 6 3 + 2 −4 − 1
x1 x2 x3
= =
−5 5 −5
En
∴ x1 = 1, x2 = −1, x3 = 1.
1
arn
∴ X2 = −1 .
1
When λ = 6, (1) becomes
Le
−5 1 3 x1
1 −1 1 x2 = 0.
w.
3 1 −5 x3
The above equations become
ww
−5x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0
x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
3x1 + x2 − 5x3 = 0.
Taking the first two equations and applying rule of cross multiplication we get
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Matrices 103
x1 x2 x3
1 3 −5 1
−1 1 1 −1
x1 x2 x3
= =
1+3 3+5 5−1
x1 x2 x3
= =
4 8 4
.in
∴ x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 1.
1
ng
∴ X3 = 2 .
1
eri
Since A is symmetric and all the eigen values are different x1 , x2 , x3 are pairwise
orthogonal.
Step 3. To form the modal matrix N
e
gin
√1 √1 √1
2 3 6
The normalized eigen vectors are 0 , − √1 √2 .
3 6
−1
√ √1 √1
2 3 6
En
The modal matrix N is formed with the normalized eigen vectors as columns.
√1 √1 √1
2 3 6
arn
∴ N = 0 1 2
− √ √
3 6
− √1 √1 √1
2 3 6
Step 4. To find N T AN
Le
√1 0 − √1 1 1 3 √1 √1 √1
2 2 2 3 6
w.
T
N AN = √1 − √1 √1 − √1 √2
1 5 1 0
3 3 3
3 6
√1 √2 √1 3 1 1 − √1 √1 √1
6 6 6 2 3 6
ww
√ √ 1
− 2 0 2 √ √1 √1 −2 0 0
3
√ 2 6
√
√
1 2
= 3 − 3 3 0 − 0 3 0 .
=
√ √
√ 3 6
√ √ 1
6 2 6 6 −√ √1 √1 0 0 6
2 3 6
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104 Engineering Mathematics - II
3 1 1
Example 1.54. Diagonalise the matrix A = 1 3 −1 by means of an orthogonal
1 −1 3
transformation. [Jan 2004]
Solution. A is a symmetric matrix.
Step 1. To find the eigen values
.in
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
ng
Nows1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 3 + 3 + 3 = 9.
eri
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
3 −1 3 1 3 1
= + +
−1 3 1 3 1 3
e
gin
= 9 − 1 + 9 − 1 + 9 − 1 = 24.
3 1 1
En
s3 = |A| = 1 3 −1
1 −1 3
= 3(9 − 1) − 1(3 + 1) + 1(−1 − 3)
arn
= 24 − 4 − 4 = 16.
∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 − 9λ2 + 24λ − 16 = 0.
Le
λ = 1 is a root.
w.
By synthetic division we have
1 1 −9 24 −16
ww
0 1 −8 16
1 −8 16 0
=⇒ λ2 − 8λ + 16 = 0.
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Matrices 105
(λ − 4)(λ − 4) = 0.
The characteristic equation becomes (λ − 1)(λ − 4)(λ − 4) = 0.
∴ The eigen values are 1, 4, 4.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
.in
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to λ. Therefore,
x3
ng
(A − λI)X = 0.
3 − λ 1 1 x1
eri
3 − λ −1 x2 = 0. (1)
1
1 −1 3 − λ x3
When λ = 1, (1) becomes
e
gin
2 1 1 x1
1 2 −1 x2 = 0.
1 −1 2 x3
En
The above equations become
2x1 + x2 + x3 = 0.
arn
x1 + 2x2 − x3 = 0.
x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 0.
Le
Taking the first two equations and solving for x1 , x2 , x3 by the rule of cross
multiplication we get
w.
x1 x2 x3
1 1 2 1
ww
2 −1 1 2
x1 x2 x3
= =
−1 − 2 1 + 2 4 − 1
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106 Engineering Mathematics - II
x1 x2 x3
=⇒ = = .
−3 3 3
=⇒ x1 = −1, x2 = 1, x3 = 1.
−1
∴ X1 = 1 .
1
.in
When λ = 4, (1) becomes
−1 1 1 x1
1 −1 −1 x2 = 0.
ng
1 −1 −1 x3
The above equations are reduced to one single equation
eri
x1 − x2 − x3 = 0. (1)
e
Put x3 = 0 ⇒ x1 − x2 = 0 ⇒ x1 = x2 =⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 1.
gin
1
∴ X2 = 1.
0
En
a
Let X3 = b be orthogonal to X2 .
arn
c
By the condition of orthogonality, X3T X2 = 0.
1
Le
a b c 1 = 0
0
w.
=⇒ a + b = 0 ⇒ a = −b.
Also X3 should satisfy (1).
ww
∴ a − b − c = 0 ⇒ −2b − c = 0 ⇒ 2b = −c
b c
⇒ = ⇒ b = −1, c = 2, a = 1.
−1 2
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Matrices 107
1
∴ X3 = −1.
2
Step 3. To find the modal matrix N
The normalised eigen vectors are
.in
−1 √ √1 √1
3 2 6
√1 , √1 , −1
3 2 √6 .
ng
√1 0 √2
3 6
The normalised modal matrix is formed by the normalised eigen vectors as
eri
columns.
−1 √ √1 √1 −1 √ √1 √1
3 2 6 3 3 3
∴ N = √
1
√1 −1 , N T = √
1
√1
3
√1
2
e
√
2
6 2
√1 −1
2
0
√2
gin
0 √ √
3 6 6 6 6
Step 4. To find N T AN
En
−1
−1 √ √1 √1
3 √
1 1 √1 √1
3 3 3 3 2 6
N T AN = √1 1
0 1 3 −1 √1 1 −1
√ √ √
2 2 3 2 6
√1 −1 2 1 −1 3 √1 0 2
arn
√ √
√
6 6 6 3 6
−1 √ √1 √1 −1√ √4 √4 1 0 0
3 3 3 3 2 6
= √1 √1 0 √1 √4 −4 = 0 4 0 .
√
Le
2 2 3 2 6
√1 −1
√ √2
√1 0 √8
0 0 4
6 6 6 3 6
which is the required diagonal form.
w.
Computation of powers of a square matrix
Let A be the given square matrix. Diagonalising A, we obtain,
ww
D = N T AN = N −1 AN.
D2 = D.D = (N −1 AN)(N −1 AN) = N −1 A(NN −1 )AN
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108 Engineering Mathematics - II
= N −1 AAN = N −1 A2 N
D3 = N −1 A3 N
In general, Dr = N −1 Ar N
λr 0 0 . . . 0
1
r r
Where D = 0 λ2 0 . . . 0 .
.in
r
0 0 0 . . . λn
Premultiplying by N and postmultiplying by N −1 we get,
ng
Ar = NDr N −1 .
eri
2 0 1
Example 1.55. Diagonalise the matrix A = 0 3 0. Hence find A3 . [Jan 2006]
1 0 2
Solution. A is a symmetric matrix.
e
gin
Step 1. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
En
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
arn
Now s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 2 + 3 + 2 = 7.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
Le
3 0 2 1 2 0
= + +
0 2 1 2 0 3
w.
=6−0+4−1+6−0
= 6 + 3 + 6 = 15.
ww
2 0 1
s3 = |A| = 0 3 0
1 0 2
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Matrices 109
= 2(6 − 0) + 1(0 − 3)
= 12 − 3 = 9.
The characteristic equation is λ3 − 7λ2 + 15λ − 9 = 0.
λ = 1 is a root.
.in
By synthetic division, we get
ng
1 1 −7 15 −9
0 1 −6 9
eri
1 −6 9 0
λ2 − 6λ + 9 = 0.
e
(λ − 3)(λ − 3) = 0
gin
⇒ λ = 3, 3.
The eigen values are 1, 3, 3.
En
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
arn
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x3
Le
∴ (A − λI)X = 0
2 − λ 0 1 x1
w.
i.e., 0 3−λ 0 x2 = 0. (1)
1 0 2 − λ x3
ww
When λ = 1, (1) becomes
1 0 1 x1
0 2 0 x = 0.
2
1 0 1 x3
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110 Engineering Mathematics - II
The above equations become
x1 + x3 = 0
2x2 = 0.
From the last equation we get x2 = 0.
Also x1 = −x3
x1 x3
.in
=
1 −1
∴ x1 = 1, x3 = −1.
1
ng
∴ X1 = 0 .
−1
eri
When λ = 3, (1) becomes
−1 0 1 x1
0 0 0 x2 = 0.
e
1 0 −1 x3
gin
The above equations are reduced to one single equation
x1 − x3 = 0 (2)
En
⇒ x1 = x3
i.e., x1 = 1, x3 = 1 and x2 = any value = 0 (say)
arn
1
∴ X2 = 0.
1
Le
a
Let X3 = b be orthogonal to X2 .
w.
c
∴ X3T X2 = 0.
ww
1
i.e., a b c 0 = 0 =⇒ a + c = 0. (3)
1
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Matrices 111
i.e., Also X3 will satisfy by (2).
Solving (2) & (3) we get a = 0, c = 0. Choose b = 1.
0
We get the corresponding eigen vector X3 = 1.
0
.in
Step 3. To find the modal matrix N
√1 √1 0
2 2
ng
The normalised eigen vectors are 0 , 0 and 1.
−1 1
0
√ √
2 2
The modal matrix N is formed with the normalised eigen vectors as columns.
eri
√1 √1 0
2 2
∴ N = 0 0 1 .
−1
√ √1 0
e
gin
2 2
Step 4. To find N T AN
√1 0 − √1 2 0 1 √1 √1 0
2 2 2 2
En
T
N AN = √1 0 √1 0 3 0 0
0 1
2 2
1 0 2 − √1 √1
0 1 0 0
2 2
arn
√1 0 − √1 √1 √1 0 1 0 0
2 2 2 2
= √3 0 3
√ 0
0 1 = 0 3 0 = D.
2 2
1
1 0 0 3
0 3 0 − √ √ 0
Le
2 2
Step 5. To find A3
1 0 0
w.
D3 = 0 27 0
0 0 27
ww
√1 √1 0 1 0 0 √1 0 −1
√ 14 0 13
2 2 2 2
3 3 T
Now, A = ND N = 0 1 0 27 0 √1 √1 = 0 27 0 .
0 0
2
2
−1 √1
0 0 0 27 0 1 0 13 0 14
√
2 2
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112 Engineering Mathematics - II
8 −6 2
Example 1.56. Diagonalise the matrix A = −6 7 −4. Hence find the value of
2 −4 3
A4 . [Jan 2013]
Solution. A is a symmetric matrix.
.in
Step 1. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
ng
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements.
eri
= 8 + 7 + 3 = 18.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
=
e
7 −4 8 2 8 −6
+ +
gin
−4 3 2 3 −6 7
= 21 − 16 + 24 − 4 + 56 − 36
En
= 5 + 20 + 20 = 45.
8 −6 2
s3 = |A| = −6 7 −4
arn
2 −4 3
= 8(21 − 16) + 6(−18 + 8) + 2(24 − 14)
Le
= 40 − 60 + 20 = 0
∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 − 18λ2 + 45λ = 0
w.
λ(λ2 − 18λ + 45) = 0
λ(λ − 3)(λ − 15) = 0
ww
λ = 0, 3, 15.
The eigen values are 0, 3, 15
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Matrices 113
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x3
∴ (A − λI)X = 0
.in
8 − λ −6 2 x1
λ x = 0. (1)
−6 7 − −4 2
ng
2 −4 3 − λ x3
When λ = 0, (1) becomes
eri
8 −6 2 x1
−6 7 −4 x2 = 0.
2 −4 3 x3
The above equations become e
gin
8x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0
−6x1 + 7x2 − 4x3 = 0
En
2x1 − 4x2 + 3x3 = 0.
Taking the first two equations and applying the rule of cross multiplication we get
x1 x2 x3
arn
−6 2 8 −6
7 −4 −6 7
Le
x1 x2 x3
= =
24 − 14 −12 + 32 56 − 36
w.
x1 x2 x3
= =
10 20 20
x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 2.
ww
1
∴ X1 = 2 .
2
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114 Engineering Mathematics - II
When λ = 3, (1) becomes
5 −6 2 x1
−6 4 −4 x2 = 0.
2 −4 0 x3
The equations become
.in
5x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0
−6x1 + 4x2 − 4x3 = 0
2x1 − 4x2 = 0
ng
i.e., x1 = 2x2
x1 x2
=
eri
2 1
∴ x1 = 2, x2 = 1.
Substituting in the first equation we get
10 − 6 + 2x3 = 0
e
gin
4 + 2x3 = 0
2x3 = −4
En
x3 = −2.
2
∴ X2 = 1 .
arn
−2
When λ = 15, (1) becomes
−7 −6 2 x1
Le
−6 −8 −4 x2 = 0.
2 −4 −12 x3
w.
The above equations become
−7x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0
ww
−6x1 − 8x2 − 4x3 = 0
2x1 − 4x2 − 12x3 = 0.
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Matrices 115
Taking the first two equations and applying the rule of cross multiplication, we
get
x1 x2 x3
−6 2 −7 −6
8 4 6 8
.in
x1 x2 x3
= =
−24 − 16 12 + 28 −56 + 36
ng
x1 x2 x3
= =
−40 40 −20
x1 x2 x3
eri
= =
2 −2 1
∴ x1 = 2, x2 = −2, x3 = 1.
2
e
gin
∴ X3 = −2.
1
Since A is a symmetric matrix and all the eigen values are different, X1 , X2 & X3
En
are pairwise orthogonal.
Step 3. To find the modal matrix N
arn
1 2 2
3 3 3
The normalized eigen vectors are 23 , 13 , −2
3
2 −2 1
3 3 3
Le
The modal matrix N is formed with the normalized eigen vectors as columns.
1 2 2
3 3 3
w.
∴ N = 32 1
3
−2
3
2 −2 1
3 3 3
ww
1 2 2
1
= 2 1 −2
3
2 −2 1
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116 Engineering Mathematics - II
Step 4. To find N T AN
1 2 2 8 −6 2 1 2 2
1
N T AN = 2 1 −2 −6 7 −4 2 1 −2
9
2 −2 1 2 −4 3 2 −2 1
0 0 0 1 2 2
1
.in
= 6 3 −6 2 1 −2
9
30 −30 15 2 −2 1
ng
0 0 0 0 0 0
1
= 0 27 0 = 0 3 0 = D
9
eri
0 0 135 0 0 15
Step 5. To find A 4
0 0 0
D = 0 3 0 .
e
gin
0 0 15
0 0 0 0 0 0
D4 = 0 34 0 = 0 81
En
0 .
0 0 154 0 0 50625
Now A4 = ND4 N T
arn
1 2 2 0 0 0 1 2 2
1
= 2 1 −2 0 81
0 2 1 −2
9
Le
2 −2 1 0 0 50625 2 −2 1
0 162 101250 1 2 2
1
w.
= 0 81 −101250 2 1 −2
9
0 −162 50625 2 −2 1
ww
202824 −202338 100926 22536 −22482 11214
1
= −202338 202581 −101412 = −22482 22509 −11268 .
9
100926 −101412 50949 11214 −11268 5661
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Matrices 117
Example 1.57. The eigen vectors of a 3 × 3 real symmetric matrix A corresponding
to the eigen values 2, 3, 6 are [1 0 − 1]T , [1 1 1]T , [−1 2 − 1]T respectively. Find A.
[Jan 2012]
Solution. Given, A is symmetric and the eigen values are different.
∴ The eigen vectors are pairwise disjoint.
.in
√1 √1 −1
√
2 3 6
√1 √2
Now, N = 0
.
3 6
ng
√1
−1
√ −1
√
2 3 6
∴ By the orthogonal transformation, we obtain
eri
2 0 0
N T AN = D = 0 3 0 .
0 0 6
e
gin
1
√1 √1 −1
√ 2 0 0 √2 0 −1
√
2 3 6 2
T 1 2
Now, A = NDN = 0 3 0 √13 √1 √1
0
√ √
3 6 3 3
En
√1 √2
−1
√ −1
√
0 0 6 −1
√ −1
√
2 3 6 6 6 6
3 −1 1
arn
= −1 5 −1 .
1 −1 3
Le
Exercise I(E)
cos θ sin θ 0
w.
1. Prove that the matrix B = − sin θ cos θ 0 is orthogonal.
0 0 1
ww
6 −3 2
2. Show that the matrix 17 −3 −2 6 is orthogonal.
2 6 3
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118 Engineering Mathematics - II
3. Prove that the following matrices are orthogonal.
0 1 0 −1 2 2
1
(i) 1 0 0 (ii) 2 −1 2 .
9
0 0 1 2 2 −1
7 −2 0
.in
4. Diagonalise the matrix −2 6 −2.
0 −2 5
ng
8 −6 2
5. Reduce A = −6 7 −4 to the diagonal form by an orthogonal reduction.
eri
2 −4 3
10 −2 −5
e
gin
6. Reduce the matrix A = −2 2 3 to the diagonal form.
−5 3 5
En
6 −2 2
7. By an orthogonal transformation, diagonalise the matrix A = −2 3 −1.
arn
2 −1 3
2 −1 1
Le
8. Reduce the matrix A = −1 2 −1 to diagonal form by an orthogonal
1 −1 2
reduction. Hence find A3 .
w.
9. The eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen values 1, 2, 3 of the symmetric
ww
matrix A are [1 − 1 0]T , [0 0 1]T and [1 1 0]T respectively. Find A.
10. [1 − 1]T and [1 1]T are the eigen vectors of the symmetric matrix A
corresponding to the eigen values 0 and 2 respectively. Find A.
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Matrices 119
1.7 Quadratic Form
Definition. A homogeneous polynomial of second degree in any number of
variables is called a quadratic form.
Example.
(1) x2 + 2xy + 2y2 is a quadratic form in 2 variables.
.in
(2) ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + cz2 + 2gyz + 2 f zx is a quadratic form in 3 variables.
(3) ax2 + by2 + cz2 + dw2 + 2hxy + 2gyz + 2 f zx + 2ℓxw + 2myw + 2nzw is a quadratic form
ng
in 4 variables.
Definition. The general quadratic form in n variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is
n P n
eri
P
ai j xi x j where ai j ’s are real numbers such that ai j = a ji for all i, j =
j=1 i=1
1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
Notation. Usually the quadratic form is denoted by Q.
e
gin
n X
X n
∴ Q= ai j xi x j .
j=1 i=1
En
Matrix form of Q
x1 a11 a12 . . . a1n
x2 a21 a22 . . . a2n
arn
Let X = . , A = . .. .. .. where ai j = a ji . Then, A is a symmetric matrix.
.. .. . . .
n1 an2 . . . ann
x a
n
n P n
Le
ai j xi x j can be written as Q = X T AX. A is called
P
Now the quadratic form Q =
j=1 i=1
the matrix of the quadratic form.
w.
Example. Consider the quadratic form x2 + 4xy + y2 .
i.e., x2 + 2xy + 2yx + y2 .
1 2 x
ww
The quadratic form is [x y] .
2 1 y
x 1 2
Hence X = , A =
.
y 2 1
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120 Engineering Mathematics - II
1.8 Canonical form of Q
A quadratic form of Q which contains only the square terms of the variables is
said to be in canonical form.
Example. x2 + 2y2 , x2 − y2 , x2 + y2 + z2 , x12 + x22 + x32 + 4x42 are in canonical forms.
Reduction of Q to canonical form by orthogonal transformation
.in
Let Q = X T AX be a quadratic form in n variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn and A = [ai j ] be the
symmetric matrix of order n of the quadratic form. We shall reduce A to the
ng
diagonal form by an orthogonal transformation. Let X = NY where N is the
λ1 0 . . . 0
eri
0 λ2 . . . 0
normalized modal matrix of A so that N T AN = D, where D = . .. ..
.. . .
. . . λn
where λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn are the eigen values of A. e 0 0
gin
We have Q = X T AX = (NY)T A(NY) = (yT N Y )A(NY)
= Y T (N T AN)Y = Y T DY.
En
y1 λ1 0 . . . 0 y1
0 λ2 . . . 0 y2
arn
y2
If Y = . then Q = [y1 y2 . . . yn ] . .. .. ..
.. .. . . .
0 0 . . . λn yn
yn
Le
= λ1 y21 + λ2 y22 + · · · + λn y2n
w.
which is the required canonical form.
Note
(i) In the above canonical form, some λi ’s may be positive or negative or zero.
ww
(ii) In the canonical form, the coefficients are the eigen values of the matrix A.
(iii) A quadratic form is said to be real if the elements of the symmetric matrix
are real.
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Matrices 121
Definition
If A is the matrix of the quadratic form Q in the variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ,
then the rank of Q is equal to the rank of A. The rank of A is denoted by ρ(A).
If rank of A < n, where n is the number of variables or order of A, then |A| = 0
and Q is called a singular form.
.in
Definition
Let Q = X T AX be a quadratic form in n variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , where
ng
X = [x1 x2 . . . xn ]T and A is the matrix of the quadratic form.
(i) The number of positive and negative eigen values of A is called the rank of
eri
the quadratic form. It is denoted by r.
(ii) The number of positive eigen values of A is defined as the index of the
quadratic form. It is also denoted by p. It is equal to the number of positive
terms in the canonical form. e
gin
(iii) The difference between the number of positive and negative eigen values
of A is called the signature of the quadratic form. It is denoted by s. It is also
En
equal to the difference between the number of positive and negative terms in
the canonical form. i.e., s = p − (r − p) = 2p − r where ρ(A) = r.
(iv) Q is said to be positive definite if all the n eigen values of A are positive.
arn
i.e., r = n, p = r.
Ex. y21 + y22 + · · · + y2n is positive definite.
(v) Q is said to be negative definite if all the n eigen values of A are negative.
Le
i.e.,r = n, p = 0.
Ex. −y21 − y22 − · · · − y2n is negative definite.
w.
(vi) Q is said to be positive semi definite if all the n eigen values are ≥ 0 with
atleast one eigen value = 0.
ww
i.e., if r < n and p = r.
Ex. y21 + y22 + y24 + · · · + y2r is positive semi definite.
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122 Engineering Mathematics - II
(vii) Q is said to be negative semi definite if all the n eigen values of A are ≤ 0
with atleast one value = 0.
i.e., if r < n and p = 0.
Ex. −y21 − y22 − y25 − · · · − y2r , (r < n) is negative semi definite.
(viii) Q is said to be indefinite if A has positive and negative eigen values.
.in
Ex. y21 − y22 + y23 − y24 − y25 + · · · + y2n is indefinite.
Result. The nature of the quadratic form can also be found without finding
ng
the eigen values of A or without reducing to canonical form but by using the
principal minors of A.
eri
Definition. Let Q = X T AX be a quadratic form in n variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn and
let the matrix of the form A be
e
a11 a12 . . . a1n
gin
a21 a22 . . . a2n
A = . .. .. .. .
.. . . .
an1 an2 . . . ann
En
a11 a12 a13
a11 a12
arn
Let D1 = |a11 |, D2 = , D3 = a a a23 etc.
a 21 22
21 a22
a31 a32 a33
Finally Dn = |A|. The determinants D1 , D2 , . . . , Dn are called the principal minors
Le
of A. The quadratic form Q is said to be
(i) Positive definite if Di > 0 for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(ii) Negative definite if (−1)i Di > 0 for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n. i.e.,D1 , D3 , D5 , . . . are
w.
negative and D2 , D4 , D6 , . . . are positive.
(iii) Positive semidefinite if Di ≥ 0 for all i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n and atleast one Di = 0.
ww
(iv) Negative semidefinite if (−1)i Di ≥ 0 for all i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n and atleast one
Di = 0.
(v) Indefinite in all other cases.
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Matrices 123
Law of inertia of a quadratic form
The index of a real quadratic form is invariant under a real non singular
transformation. This property is called the law of inertia of the quadratic form.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Example 1.58. Write down the matrix of the quadratic form 2x2 + 3y2 + 6xy.
.in
[Jan 2001]
Solution. The given quadratic form is in two variables.
ng
Hence, the matrix of the quadratic form is a 2 × 2 symmetric matrix. Let A be the
required matrix. Then
eri
a11 a12
A = .
a21 a22
a11 = coefficient of x2 = 2.
e
gin
1 1
a12 = a21 = 2 coefficient of xy = 2 × 6 = 3.
a22 = coefficient
of y2 = 3.
2 3
∴ A =
En
3 3
Example 1.59. Write down the matrix of the quadratic form
arn
2x12 − 2x22 + 4x32 + 2x1 x2 − 6x1 x3 + 6x2 x3 . [Jan 2002]
Solution. The given quadratic form contains 3 variables. Hence, the matrix A of
the quadratic form is a 3 × 3 symmetric matrix. The matrix of the quadratic form
Le
a11 a12 a13
is A = a21 a22 a23 .
w.
a31 a32 a33
a11 = Coeff. of x12 = 2.
a22 = Coeff. of x22 = −2.
ww
a33 = Coeff. of x32 = 4.
1
a12 = a21 = 2 Coeff. of x1 x2 = 21 2 = 1.
1
a13 = a31 = 2 Coeff. of x1 x3 = 21 (−6) = −3.
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124 Engineering Mathematics - II
a23 = a32 = 21 Coeff. of x2 x3 = 21 6 = 3.
2 1 −3
∴ A = 1 −2 3 .
−3 3 4
Example 1.60. Write down the matrix of the quadratic form 2x2 +8z2 +4xy+10xz−2yz
.in
[Jun 2013, Dec 2001].
Solution. The given quadratic form contain 3 variables. Hence the matrix A of
ng
the quadratic form is a 3 × 3 matrix.
a11 a12 a13
Hence A = a21 a22 a23
eri
a31 a32 a33
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x2 = 2
a12 = a21 =
1
e 1
× Coeff.of xy = × 4 = 2.
gin
2 2
1 1
a13 = a31 = × Coeff.of xz = × 10 = 5.
2 2
a22 = Coeff.of y2 = 0
En
1 1
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of yz = × (−2) = −1.
2 2
a33 = Coeff.of z2 = 8.
arn
2 2 5
∴ A = 2 0 −1 .
Le
5 −1 8
2 4 5
w.
Example 1.61. Write down the quadratic form of the matrix 4 3 1.[Jan 2003]
5 1 1
ww
Solution. The given matrix is a 3 × 3 symmetric matrix. Hence, the quadratic
form is in 3 variables. The required quadratic form must be of the form
Q = a11 x2 + 2a12 xy + 2a13 xz + a22 y2 + 2a23 yz + a3 z2 .
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Matrices 125
a11 a12 a13
Comparing the given matrix with a21 a22 a23 we get,
a31 a32 a33
a11 = 2, a12 = 4, a13 = 5, a22 = 3, a23 = 1, a33 = 1.
∴ Q = 2x2 + 8xy + 10xz + 3y2 + 2yz + z2 .
= 2x2 + 3y2 + z2 + 8xy + 10xz + 2yz.
.in
Example 1.62. Write down the quadratic form corresponding to the matrix
2 2 5
ng
2 0 −1.
5 −1 8
eri
Solution. Since the given matrix is a 3 × 3 symmetric matrix, the quadratic form
must be in 3 variables x, y, z. Let Q be of the required quadratic form
e
∴ Q = a11 x2 + a22 y2 + a33 z2 + 2a12 xy + 2a13 xz + 2a23 yz.
gin
a11 a12 a13
Comparing the given matrix with we have
a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
En
a11 = 2, a22 = 0, a33 = 8, a12 = 2, a13 = 5, a23 = −1.
∴ Q = 2x2 + 8z2 + 4xy − 2yz + 10xz.
Example 1.63. Write down the quadratic form corresponding to the matrix
arn
2 0 −2
0 2 1 . [Jan 2013]
Le
−2 1 −2
Solution. Since the given matrix is a 3 × 3 symmetric matrix, the quadratic form
must be in 3 variables x, y, z. Let Q be the required quadratic form.
w.
∴ Q = a11 x2 + a22 y2 + a33 z2
+ 2a12 xy + 2a13 xz + 2a23 yz.
a11 a12 a13
ww
Comparing the given matrix with a21 a22 a23 we obtain
a31 a32 a33
a11 = 2, a12 = 0, a13 = −2, a22 = 2, a23 = 1, a33 = −2.
∴ Q = 2x2 + 2y2 − 2z2 − 4xz + 2yz.
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126 Engineering Mathematics - II
Example 1.64. Determine the nature of the quadratic form f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x12 + 2x22 .
[Jan 2003]
Solution. Since it contains only square terms it is of the canonical form. The
canonical form contains 3 variables but the RHS expression contains only two
terms. The coefficients of the canonical form are the eigen values of the matrix of
.in
the quadratic form. Hence, λ1 = 1, λ2 = 2 and λ3 = 0. Hence, the given quadratic
form is positive semi-definite.
ng
Example 1.65. Find the nature of the quadratic form 2x2 + 2xy + 3y2 .
Solution. Let us form the matrix A of the given quadratic form. Since the Q.F
eri
contains only two variables, A is a 2 × 2 matrix.
a11 a12
∴ A = . From the given Q.E, we have
21 a a
22
a11 = Coeff.of x2 = 2. e
gin
1 1
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of xy = × 2 = 1
2 2
a22 = Coeff.of y2 = 3.
En
2 1
∴ A =
1 3
Let us analyse the nature of the Q.F with the help of the principal minors.
arn
D1 = |2| = 2.
Le
2 1
D2 = = 6 − 1 = 5.
1 3
w.
Since all Di > 0, the quadratic form is positive definite.
Example 1.66. Find the nature of the quadratic form 6x2 + 3y2 + 3z2 − 4xy − 2yz + 4zx.
ww
[Jan 2010]
Solution. Since the given Q.F is in 3 variables, the matrix A of the Q.E is a 3 × 3
matrix.
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Matrices 127
a11 a12 a13
∴ A = a21 a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a33
From the given Q.F we have
a11 = Coeff.of x2 = 6.
1 1
.in
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of xy = × (−4) = −2
2 2
1 1
a13 = a31 = × Coeff.of xz = × 4 = 2
2 2
ng
a22 = Coeff.of y2 = 3.
1 1
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of yz = × (−2) = −1.
eri
2 2
a33 = Coeff.of z2 = 3
6 −2 2
∴ A = −2 3 −1.
e
gin
2 −1 3
The principal
minors are D1 = 6 > 0.
6 −2
En
D2 = = 18 − 4 = 14 > 0.
−2 3
D3 = |A| = 6(8) + 2(−4) + 2(−4) = 48 − 8 − 8 = 32 > 0.
arn
Since D1 , D2 , D3 are positive, the Q.F is positive definite.
Example 1.67. Determine λ so that the quadratic form λ(x2 +y2 +z2 )+2xy−2yz+2zx
Le
is positive definite.
a11 a12 a13
w.
Solution. If A is the matrix of the given quadratic form, then A = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
ww
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x2 = λ
1 1
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of xy = × 2 = 1
2 2
1 1
a13 = a31 = × Coeff.of xz = × 2 = 1
2 2
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128 Engineering Mathematics - II
a22 = Coeff.of y2 = λ
1 1
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of yz = × (−2) = −1
2 2
a33 = Coeff.of z2 = λ
λ 1 1
∴ A = 1 λ −1.
.in
1 −1 λ
Let us find out the principal minors D1 , D2 and D3 .
ng
D1 = λ.
D2 = λ2 − 1 = (λ + 1)(λ − 1).
eri
D3 = λ(λ2 − 1) − 1(λ + 1) + 1(−1 − λ)
= λ(λ − 1)(λ + 1) − (λ + 1) − (λ + 1) = (λ + 1)(λ2 − λ − 1 − 1)
e
gin
= (λ + 1)(λ2 − λ − 2) = (λ + 1)(λ − 2)(λ + 1) = (λ + 1)2 (λ − 2).
Since the Q.F is positive definite, we have D1 > 0, D2 > 0 and D3 > 0.
En
D1 > 0 =⇒ λ > 0
arn
D2 > 0 =⇒ (λ + 1)(λ − 1) > 0.
=⇒ λ + 1 > 0 and λ − 1 > 0.
Le
=⇒ λ > −1 and λ > 1.
OR
w.
λ + 1 < 0 and λ − 1 < 0
ww
=⇒ λ < −1 and λ < 1.
D3 > 0 =⇒ (λ + 1)2 (λ − 2) > 0
=⇒ λ > 2 [ since (λ + 1)2 is always > 0].
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Matrices 129
We have to consider the following cases.
case(i). λ > 0, λ > −1, λ > 1, λ > 2.
or
case(ii). λ > 0, λ < −1, λ < 1, λ > 2. In the above cases the value of λ that satisfies
the above conditions is λ > 2.
.in
Example 1.68. Show that the Q.F ax12 − 2bx1 x2 + cx22 is positive definite if a > 0
and ac − b2 > 0.
ng
Solution. The given Q.F. is in 2 variables. Hence, the matrix A of the Q.F is a
2 × 2 matrix.
eri
a11 a12
Let A be .
a21 a22
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x12 = a.
1 e
1
gin
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of x1 x2 = × (−2b) = −b.
2 2
a22 = Coeff.of x22 = c.
a −b
En
∴ A = .
−b c
We have D1 = a, D2 = ac − b2 .
arn
Given a > 0 and ac − b2 > 0.
=⇒ D1 > 0 and D2 > 0.
Le
∴ The Q.F is positive definite.
Example 1.69. Find the index, signature, rank and nature of the quadratic form
w.
in 3 variables x2 + 2y2 − 3z2 . [May 2011]
Solution. Since the given Q.F contains only square terms, it is in the canonical
ww
form in 3 variables.
The eigen values are the coefficients of x2 , y2 and z2 .
∴ λ1 = 1, λ2 = 2, λ3 = −3
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130 Engineering Mathematics - II
No. of positive eigen values = 2.
∴ Index = 2.
No. of negative eigen values = 1.
Signature = Difference of the number of positive and negative eigen values
= 2 − 1 = 1.
.in
Rank = 3 = Number of positive and negative eigen values.
Nature of the Q.F is indefinite.
ng
Example 1.70. If the quadratic form ax2 +2bxy+cy2 is positive definite (or negative
definite), then prove that the quadratic equation ax2 + 2bx + c = 0 has imaginary
eri
roots.
Solution. Since the given Q.F contains two variables, the matrix of the Q.F. A is
a 2 × 2 matrix.
a11 a12
e
gin
Let A be .
a 21a 22
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x2 = a.
1 1
En
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of xy = × 2b = b.
2 2
a22 = Coeff.of y2 = c.
arn
a b
∴ A = .
b c
The principal minors are D1 = a, D2 = ac − b2 .
Le
If the quadratic form is positive definite then D1 > 0 and D2 > 0.
=⇒ a > 0 and ac − b2 > 0.
w.
=⇒ a > 0 and b2 − ac < 0. (1)
ww
If the quadratic form is negative definite, then (−1)i Di > 0 for all i.
=⇒ −D1 > 0 and D2 > 0
=⇒ −a > 0 and ac − b2 > 0.
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Matrices 131
=⇒ a < 0 and b2 − ac < 0. (2)
Consider the quadratic equation
ax2 + 2bx + c = 0. (3)
The discriminant of the quadratic equation is
.in
∆ = 4b2 − 4ac = 4(b2 − ac) < 0.
ng
∴ The roots of (3) are imaginary.
Example 1.71. Reduce the quadratic form x12 + 5x22 + x32 + 2x1 x2 + 2x2 x3 + 6x3 x1 to
eri
canonical form through an orthogonal transformation. [Jan 2006]
Solution.
Step 1. To form the matrix of the Q.F e
gin
Let A be the matrix of the Q.F.
Since the given Q.F is in 3 variables, A must be a 3 × 3 matrix.
a11 a12 a13
En
Let A = a21 a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a33
arn
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x12 = 1
1 1
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of x1 x2 = × 2 = 1
2 2
Le
1 1
a13 = a31 = × Coeff.of x1 x3 = × 6 = 3
2 2
a22 = Coeff.of x22 = 5.
w.
1 1
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of x2 x3 = × 2 = 1.
2 2
a33 = Coeff.of x32 = 1.
ww
1 1 3
∴ A = 1 5 1.
3 1 1
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132 Engineering Mathematics - II
Step 2. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 1 + 5 + 1 = 7.
.in
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
5 1 1 3 1 1
ng
= + +
1 1 3 1 1 5
eri
=5−1+1−9+5−1
= 4 − 8 + 4 = 0.
1 1 3
s3 = |A| = 1 5 1
e
gin
3 1 1
= 1(5 − 1) − 1(1 − 3) + 3(1 − 15)
En
= 4 + 2 − 42
= −36.
arn
∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 − 7λ2 + 36 = 0.
λ = −2 is a root.
By synthetic division, we get
Le
−2 1 −7 0 36
0 −2 18 −36
w.
1 −9 18 0
λ2 − 9λ + 18 = 0.
ww
(λ − 3)(λ − 6) = 0.
The characteristic equation becomes (λ + 2)(λ − 3)(λ − 6) = 0.
The eigen values are −2, 3, 6.
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Matrices 133
Step 3.To find the eigen vectors
x1
Let X = x2 be an eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
x3
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
.in
1 − λ 1 3 x1
5−λ 1 x2 = 0. (1)
1
ng
3 1 1 − λ x3
When λ = −2, (1) becomes
eri
3 1 3 x1
1 7 1 x2 = 0.
3 1 3 x3
The above two equations are reduced to two equations e
gin
3x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0
En
x1 + 7x2 + x3 = 0.
Solving the two equations by the rule of cross multiplication we get
x1 x2 x3
arn
1 3 3 1
7 1 1 7
Le
x1 x2 x3
= =
1 − 21 3 − 3 21 − 1
w.
x1 x2 x3
= =
−20 0 20
=⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = −1.
ww
1
∴ X1 = 0 .
−1
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134 Engineering Mathematics - II
−2 1 3 x1
When λ = 3, (1) become 1 2 1 x2 = 0.
3 1 −2 x3
The above equations are reduced to
−2x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0
.in
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0
3x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 0.
ng
From the first two equations by the rule of cross multiplication we get
x1 x2 x3
eri
1 3 −2 1
2 1 1 2
e
gin
x1 x2 x3
= =
1 − 6 3 + 2 −4 − 1
x1 x2 x3
= = =⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = −1, x3 = 1.
En
−5 5 −5
1
∴ X2 = −1 .
arn
1
−5 1 3 x1
Le
When λ = 6, (1) becomes 1 −1 1 x2 = 0.
3 1 −5 x3
The above equations are reduced to
w.
−5x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0
ww
x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
3x1 + x2 − 5x3 = 0.
By the rule of cross multiplication, from the first two equations we get
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Matrices 135
x1 x2 x3
1 3 −5 1
−1 1 1 −1
.in
x1 x2 x3
= =
1+3 3+5 5−1
ng
x1 x2 x3
= = =⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 1.
4 8 4
eri
1
X3 = 2 .
e
1
gin
Step 4. To form the modal matrix
Since the eigen values are different, the eigen vectors are mutually orthogonal.
En
√1 √1 √1
2 3 6
The normalized eigen vectors are 0 , − √1 , √2 .
3 6
arn
−1 √ √1
√1
2 3 6
The modal matrix N is formed with columns as the normalized eigen vectors.
Le
√1 √1 √1
2 3 6
−1 √2
∴ N = 0 √
3 6
w.
−1
√ √1 √1
2 3 3
Step 5. To find N T AN
ww
√1 0 − √1 1 1 3 √1 √1 √1
2 2 2 3 6
N T AN = √1 − √1 1
− √1 √2
1 5 1 0
√
3 3 3 3 6
√1 2
√ √1
3 1 1 − √1
√1 √1
6 6 3 2 3 3
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136 Engineering Mathematics - II
√ √ 1
− 2 0 2 √2 √1 √1
√ 3 6
√ √
= 3 − 3 3 0 − √1 √2
√ 3 6
√ √
√1 1 1
6 2 6 6 −
√ √
2 3 3
−2 0 0
= 0 3 0 = D.
.in
0 0 6
Step 6. Reduction to Canonical form
ng
y1
Let X = NY, where Y = y2 .
y3
eri
The given Q.F is Q = X T AX.
= (NY)T A(NY)
e
gin
= Y T N T ANY
= Y T DY
−2 0 0 y1
En
= y1 y2
y3 0 3 0 y2
0 0 6 y3
arn
= −2y21 + 3y22 + 6y23
which is canonical.
Le
Example 1.72. Reduce the quadratic form 8x2 + 7y2 + 3z2 − 12xy + 4xz − 8yz to the
w.
canonical form by an orthogonal transformation. Find one set of values of x, y, z
(not all zero) which will make the Quadratic form zero. [Jan 2012]
ww
Solution.
Step 1. To find the matrix of the Q.F
Since the given Q.F contains 3 variables, the matrix of the Q.F A is a 3 × 3
matrix.
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Matrices 137
a11 a12 a13
∴ A = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x12 = 8
1 1
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of xy = × (−12) = −6
2 2
.in
1 1
a13 = a31 = × Coeff.of xz = × 4 = 2
2 2
a22 = Coeff.of y2 = 7.
ng
1 1
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of yz = × (−8) = −4.
2 2
eri
a33 = Coeff.of z2 = 3.
8 −6 2
∴ A = −6 7 −4.
e
gin
2 −4 3
Step 2. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
En
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
arn
= 8 + 7 + 3 = 18.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
7 −4 8 2 8 −6
Le
= + +
−4 3 2 3 −6 7
= 21 − 16 + 24 − 4 + 56 − 36
w.
= 5 + 20 + 20 = 45.
8 −6 2
ww
s3 = |A| = −6 7 −4
2 −4 3
= 8(21 − 16) + 6(−18 + 8) + 2(24 − 14)
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138 Engineering Mathematics - II
= 40 − 60 + 20 = 0.
The characteristic equation is λ3 − 18λ2 + 45λ = 0
λ(λ2 − 18λ + 45) = 0
.in
λ(λ − 3)(λ − 15) = 0
λ = 0, 3, 15.
ng
Step 3. To find the eigen vectors
x1
eri
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
x3
e
gin
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
8 − λ −6 2 x1
−6 7 − λ −4 x2 = 0. (1)
En
2 −4 3 − λ x3
When λ = 0, (1) becomes
arn
8 −6 2 x1
x2 = 0.
−6 7 −4
2 −4 3 x3
Le
The equations become
8x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0
w.
−6x1 + 7x2 − 4x3 = 0
ww
2x1 − 4x2 + 3x3 = 0.
Taking the first two equations and applying the rule of cross multiplication, we
obtain
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Matrices 139
x1 x2 x3
−6 2 8 −6
7 −4 −6 7
x1 x2 x3
= =
24 − 14 −12 + 32 56 − 36
.in
x1 x2 x3
= =
10 20 20
=⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 2.
ng
1
∴ X1 = 2 .
eri
2
5 −6 2 x1
When λ = 3, (1) become −6 4 −4 x2 = 0.
e
gin
2 −4 0 x3
The above equations become
En
5x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0
−6x1 + 4x2 − 4x3 = 0
arn
2x1 − 4x2 = 0.
From the last equation we get
Le
2x1 = 4x2
x1 x2
=
4 2
⇒ x1 = 2, x2 = 1.
w.
Substituting in the first equation we get
10 − 6 + 2x3 = 0
ww
4 + 2x3 = 0
2x3 = −4
x3 = −2.
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140 Engineering Mathematics - II
2
∴ X2 = 1 .
−2
−7 −6 2 x1
When λ = 15, (1) becomes −6 −8 −4 x2 = 0.
.in
2 −4 −12 x3
The above equations become
ng
−7x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0
eri
−6x1 − 8x2 − 4x3 = 0
2x1 − 4x2 − 12x3 = 0.
e
Taking the first two equations and applying the rule of cross multiplication, we
gin
get
x1 x2 x3
En
−6 2 −7 −6
−8 −4 −6 −8
arn
x1 x2 x3
= =
24 + 16 −12 − 28 56 − 36
Le
x1 x2 x3
= = =⇒ x1 = 2, x2 = −2, x3 = 1.
40 −40 20
2
w.
X3 = −2 .
1
ww
Step 4. To form the modal matrix
Since all the eigen values are different, X1 , X2 , X3 are pairwise orthogonal.
The modal matrix N is formed with the normalized eigen vectors are columns.
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Matrices 141
1 2 2
3 3 3
The normalized eigen vectors are 23 , 13 , −2 .
3
2 −2 1
3 3 3
1 2 2
1
∴ N = 2 1 −2 .
3
.in
2 −2 1
Step 5. To find N T AN
ng
1 2 2 8 −6 2 1 2 2
1
N T AN = 2 1 −2 −6 7 −4 2 1 −2
9
eri
2 −2 1 2 −4 3 2 −2 1
0 0 0 1 2 2
1
= 6
9
3 −6 2 1 −2
e
gin
30 −30 15 2 −2 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
1
= 0 27 0 = 0 3 0 = D.
En
9
0 0 135 0 0 15
Step 6. Reduction to Canonical form
arn
y1
Let X = NY, where Y = y2 .
y3
Le
The given Q.F is Q = X T AX.
= (NY)T A(NY)
w.
= Y T N T ANY
= Y T DY
ww
0 0 0 y1
= y1 y2
y3 0 3 0 y2
0 0 15 y3
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142 Engineering Mathematics - II
= 3y22 + 15y23 .
which is canonical.
we have
X = NY
x 1 2 2 y1
1
y = 2 1 −2 y2
.in
3
z 2 −2 1 y3
1
x = (y1 + 2y2 + 2y3 )
3
ng
1
y = (2y1 + y2 − 2y3 )
3
1
eri
z = (2y1 − 2y2 + y3 ).
3
Equating the quadratic form to zero we get
e
3y22 + 15y23 = 0.
gin
⇒ y2 = 0, y3 = 0, and assume y1 = 3.
En
Substituting these values in x, y, z we obtain x = 1, y = 2, z = 2.
These set of values will make the quadratic form zero.
arn
Example 1.73. Reduce the quadratic form x12 + 2x22 + x32 − 2x1 x2 + 2x2 x3 to the
canonical form through an orthogonal transformation and hence show that it is
positive semidefinite. Also give a nonzero set of values (x1 , x2 , x3 ) which makes the
Le
quadratic form to zero. [Jan 2009]
Solution.
w.
Step 1. To find the matrix of the Q.F
Since the given Q.F contains 3 variables, the matrix of the Q.F A is a 3 × 3
ww
matrix.
a11 a12 a13
Let A = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
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Matrices 143
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x12 = 1
1 1
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of x1 x2 = × (−2) = −1
2 2
1 1
a13 = a31 = × Coeff.of x1 x3 = × 0 = 0
2 2
a22 = Coeff.of x22 = 2.
.in
1 1
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of x2 x3 = × 2 = 1
2 2
a33 = Coeff.of x32 = 1.
ng
1 −1 0
∴ A = −1 2 1.
eri
0 1 1
Step 2. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
e
gin
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
En
= 1 + 2 + 1 = 4.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
arn
2 1 1 0 1 −1
= + +
1 1 0 1 −1 2
Le
=2−1+1−0+2−1
= 3.
w.
1 −1 0
s3 = |A| = −1 2 1
ww
0 1 1
= 1(2 − 1) + 1(−1 − 0) + 0
= 1 − 1 = 0.
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144 Engineering Mathematics - II
∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 − 4λ2 + 3λ = 0
λ(λ2 − 4λ + 3) = 0
λ(λ − 1)(λ − 3) = 0
.in
λ = 0, 1, 3.
The eigen values are 0, 1, 3.
ng
Step 3. To find the eigen vectors
x1
eri
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
x3
e
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
gin
1 − λ −1 0 x1
−1 2 − λ 1 x2 = 0. (1)
En
0 1 1 − λ x3
When λ = 0, (1) becomes
1 −1 0 x1
arn
−1 2 1 x2 = 0.
0 1 1 x3
Le
The equations are
x1 − x2 = 0
w.
−x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0
x2 + x3 = 0.
ww
From the first equation we get
x1 = x2 =⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 1.
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Matrices 145
From the last equation we get
x2 = −x3
⇒ x3 = −1.
1
∴ X1 = 1 .
−1
.in
When λ = 1, (1) becomes
0 −1 0 x1
ng
−1 1 1 x2 = 0.
0 1 0 x3
eri
The equations are
x2 = 0
−x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
e
gin
Substituting x2 = 0, the second equation becomes
x1 = x3 ⇒ x1 = 1, x3 = 1.
En
1
∴ X2 = 0.
arn
1
−2 −1 0 x1
When λ = 3, (1) become −1 −1 1 x2 = 0.
Le
0 1 −2 x3
The equations are
w.
2x1 + x2 = 0
x1 + x2 − x3 = 0
x2 − 2x3 = 0.
ww
From the first equation we have
2x1 = −x2
x1 x2
=
−1 2
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146 Engineering Mathematics - II
⇒ x1 = −1, x2 = 2.
From the last equation we have
x2 = 2x3
x2 x3
=
2 1
=⇒ x2 = 2, x3 = 1.
−1
.in
∴ X3 = 2
1
ng
Step 4. To find the modal matrix
Since all the eigen values are different, X1 , X2 , X3 are pairwise orthogonal.
eri
√1 √1 −1
√
3 2 6
1 2
The normalized eigen vectors are √ , 0 , √ .
3 6
1 −1 √1
√
3
e √
2
The modal matrix N is formed with the normalized eigen vectors as columns.
6
gin
√1 √1 −1
√
3 2 6
∴ N = √1 0 √2 .
3 6
En
√1 √1
−1
√
3 2 6
Step 5. To find N T AN
arn
1
√1 √1 −1
√ 1 −1 0 √3 √1 −1
√
3 3 3 2 6
N T AN = √1 0 √1
−1 2 1 √13
0 √2
2 2 6
Le
√2 1 √1 √1
−1
√ √
0 1 1 −1
√
6 6 6 3 2 6
0 0 0 √13 √1
2
−1
√
6
w.
= √1 √1 √1 √2
0 0
2 2 3 6
−3 √6 3 −1 √1 √1
√ √ √
6 6 6 3 2 6
ww
0 0 0
= 0 1 0 = D.
0 0 3
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Matrices 147
Step 6. Reduction to Canonical form
y1
Let X = NY, where Y = y2 .
y3
The given Q.F is Q = X T AX.
.in
= (NY)T A(NY)
= Y T N T ANY
ng
= Y T DY
0 0 0 y1
eri
= y1 y2
y3 0 1 0 y2
0 0 3 y3
= y22 + 3y23 .
e
gin
which is canonical.
Step 7. To find the nature of the Q.F
Since two eigen values are positive and one eigen value is 0, the given quadratic
En
form is positive semidefinite.
Step 8. To find the value of x1 , x2 , x3 for which the Q.F = 0
arn
Taking y22 + 3y23 = 0 =⇒ y2 = 0, y3 = 0.
Now X = NY is reduced to the equations.
1 1 1
Le
x1 = √ y1 + √ y2 − √ y3
3 2 6
1 2
w.
x2 = √ y1 + √ y3
3 6
−1 1 1
ww
x3 = √ y1 + √ y2 + √ y3 .
3 2 6
√
Taking y1 = 3, we get x1 = 1, x2 = 1, x3 = −1.
∴ x1 = 1, x2 = 1, x3 = −1 make the given quadratic form zero.
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148 Engineering Mathematics - II
Example 1.74. Reduce the Q.F 2x12 + 6x22 + 2x32 + 8x1 x3 to canonical form. State the
type of the canonical form. [Jan 2008]
Solution.
Step 1. To find the matrix of the Q.F
Let A be the matrix of the Q.F.
.in
Since the given Q.F contains 3 variables, A must be a 3 × 3 matrix.
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23 .
ng
a31 a32 a33
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x12 = 2.
eri
1
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of x1 x2 = 0.
2
1 1
2
e
a13 = a31 = × Coeff.of x1 x3 = × 8 = 4
2
gin
2
a22 = Coeff.of x2 = 6.
1 1
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of x2 x3 = × 0 = 0.
2 2
a33 = Coeff.of x32 = 2.
En
2 0 4
∴ A = 0 6 0.
arn
4 0 2
Step 2. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
Le
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
w.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 2 + 6 + 2 = 10.
ww
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
6 0 2 4 2 0
= + +
0 2 4 2 0 6
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Matrices 149
= 12 − 0 + 4 − 16 + 12 − 0
= 12 − 12 + 12 = 12.
2 0 4
s3 = |A| = 0 6 0
4 0 2
.in
= 2(12 − 0) − 0 + 4(0 − 24)
= 24 − 96
ng
= −72.
eri
∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 − 10λ2 + 12λ + 72 = 0
λ = −2 is a root.
e
gin
By synthetic division we get
−2 1 −10 12 72
En
0 −2 24 −72
1 −12 36 0
arn
λ2 − 12λ + 36 = 0
(λ − 6)(λ − 6) = 0
Le
λ = 6, 6.
The eigen values are −2, 6, 6.
w.
Step 3. To find the eigen vectors
x1
ww
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
x3
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
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150 Engineering Mathematics - II
2 − λ 0 4 x1
6−λ 0 x2 = 0. (1)
0
4 0 2 − λ x3
When λ = −2, (1) becomes
4 0 4 x1
.in
0 8 0 x2 = 0.
4 0 4 x3
ng
The equations are reduced to
4x1 + 4x3 = 0
eri
8x2 = 0
∴ x2 = 0.
e
and 4x1 = −4x3
gin
x1 x3
=
4 −4
⇒ x1 = 1, x3 = −1.
En
1
∴ X1 = 0 .
arn
−1
When λ = 6, (1) becomes
−4 0 4 x1
Le
0 0 0 x = 0.
2
4 0 −4 x3
w.
The above equations are reduced to one single equation
ww
−4x1 + 4x3 = 0
i.e., 4x1 = 4x3
x1 = x3 .
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Matrices 151
⇒ x1 = 1, x3 = 1, x2 = any value. Take x2 = 0.
1
X2 = 0.
1
a
.in
Let X3 = b orthogonal to X2 .
c
ng
T
∴ X3 X2 = 0
1
eri
a b c 0 = 0
1
a+c=0 (2)
X3 also satisfy e
gin
−4a + 4c = 0
i.e., a − c = 0 (3)
En
Solving (2) and (3) we get
a = 0, c = 0 and b =any value.
Take b = 1.
arn
0
∴ X3 = 1.
0
Le
Step 4. To find the modal matrix
√1 √1 0
2 2
w.
The normalized eigen vectors are 0 , 0 , 1.
√ √1 0
−1
2 2
ww
The modal matrix is formed with the normalised eigen vectors as columns.
√1 1
2 √2 0
0 1.
∴ N = 0
−1
√ √1 0
2 2
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152 Engineering Mathematics - II
Step 5. To find N T AN
1
√1 0 −1 √ 2 0 4 √ 1
0
2 √2
2 2
N T AN = √1 0 √1 0 6 0 0
0 1
2 2
0 1 0 4 0 2 √2 √12
−1
0
√ √ 1
− 2 0 2 √ √1 0
√ 2 2
√
.in
= 3 2 0 3 2 0
0 1
0 −1 √1
√
0 6 0
2 2
ng
−2 0 0
= 0 6 0 = D.
eri
0 0 6
Step 6. Reduction to Canonical form
e
gin
y1
Let X = NY, where Y = y2 .
y3
En
The given Q.F is Q = X T AX.
= (NY)T A(NY)
arn
= Y T N T ANY
= Y T DY
Le
−2 0 0 y1
= y1 y2
y3 0 6 0 y2
w.
0 0 6 y3
= −2y21 + 6y22 + 6y23
which is canonical.
ww
Step 7. To find the nature
Since two of the eigen values are positive and one eigen value is negative,
the given Q.F is indefinite.
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Matrices 153
Example 1.75. Reduce 6x2 + 3y2 + 3z2 − 4xy − 2yz + 4xz into a canonical form by
an orthogonal reduction and find the rank, signature, index and nature of the
quadratic form. [Jan 2015, Jan 2005]
Solution.
Step 1. To find the matrix of the Q.F
.in
Since the given Q.F contains 3 variables, the matrix of the Q.F A is a 3 × 3 matrix.
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23 .
ng
a31 a32 a33
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x2 = 6
eri
1 1
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of xy = × (−4) = −2.
2 2
1 1
a13 = a31
2 2
e
= × Coeff.of xz = × 4 = 2
gin
a22 = Coeff.of y2 = 3.
1 1
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of yz = × (−2) = −1.
2 2
a33 = Coeff.of z2 = 3.
En
6 −2 2
∴ A = −2 3 −1.
arn
2 −1 3
Step 2. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
Le
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
w.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 6 + 3 + 3 = 12.
ww
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
3 −1 6 2 6 −2
= + +
−1 3 2 3 −2 3
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154 Engineering Mathematics - II
= 9 − 1 + 18 − 4 + 18 − 4
= 8 + 14 + 14 = 36.
6 −2 2
s3 = |A| = −2 3 −1
2 −1 3
.in
= 6(9 − 1) + 2(−6 + 2) + 2(2 − 6)
= 48 − 8 − 8
ng
= 32.
eri
∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 − 12λ2 + 36λ − 32 = 0.
λ = 2 is a root. By synthetic division we get
2 1 −12
e 36 −32
gin
0 2 −20 32
1 −10 16 0
En
λ2 − 10λ + 16 = 0
(λ − 2)(λ − 8) = 0.
arn
The characteristic equation becomes (λ − 2)(λ − 2)(λ − 8) = 0.
The eigen values are 2, 2, 8.
Step 3. To find the eigen vectors
Le
x1
Let X = x2 be an eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
w.
x3
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
ww
6 − λ −2 2 x1
−2 3 − λ −1 x = 0.
2
2 −1 3 − λ x3
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Matrices 155
(6 − λ)x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0
−2x1 + (3 − λ)x2 − x3 = 0 (1)
2x1 − x2 + (3 − λ)x3 = 0.
When λ = 8 (1) ⇒ −2x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0 ⇒ x1 + x2 − x3 = 0.
−2x1 − 5x2 − x3 = 0 ⇒ 2x1 + 5x2 + x3 = 0.
.in
2x1 − x2 − 5x3 = 0 ⇒ 2x1 − x2 − 5x3 = 0.
ng
From the first two equations using the rule of cross multiplication we get
x1 x2 x3
= = ⇒ x1 = 2, x2 = −1, x3 = 1.
eri
6 −3 3
2
e
∴ X1 = −1 .
gin
1
When λ = 2, (1) is reduced to a single equation, 2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0.
x1 x2
Choose x3 = 0 ⇒ 2x1 − x2 = 0 ⇒ 2x1 = x2 ⇒ = ⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 2.
En
1 2
1
∴ X2 = 2 .
arn
0
a
Le
Let X3 = b be orthogonal to X2 .
c
w.
=⇒ X2T X3 = 0 ⇒ a + 2b = 0. (2)
ww
X3 also satisfy 2a − b + c = 0. (3)
a b
(2) ⇒ a = −2b =⇒ = .
−2 1
b c
(3) ⇒ −4b − b + c = 0 ⇒ 5b = c ⇒ = .
1 5
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156 Engineering Mathematics - II
a b c
Combining the above two equations we obtain = = .
−2 1 5
Hence, b = 1, c = 5, a = −2.
−2
∴ X3 = 1 .
.in
5
Step 4. To find the modal matrix
ng
The normalised eigen vectors are
h 2 −1 1 iT h 1 2 iT h −2 1 5 iT
√ √ √ , √ √ 0 , √ √ √
6 6 6 5 5 30 30 30
eri
√2 √1 −2
√
6 5 30
∴ N = −1
√
6
e √2
5
√1
30
.
gin
√1 0 √5
6 30
Step5. To find N T AN
√2 −1 √1 6 −2 2 √2 √1 −2
En
√ √
6 6 6 6 5 30
T 1 2
2
0 −2 3 −1 −1 √1
N AN = √
√ √ √
5 5 6 5 30
√−2 1 √5
2 −1 3 √1 5
0
√
√
arn
30 30 30 6 30
√ 16 −8
√ √8 √2 √1 −2
√
6 6 6 6 5 30
= √2 −8
0 −1 √2 √1
√ √
5 5 6 5 30
Le
√2 √10 √1 √5
√−4 0
30 30 30 6 30
8 0 0
w.
= 0 2 0 = D.
0 0 2
Step 6. Reduction to canonical form
ww
y1
Let X = NY, where Y = y2
y3
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Matrices 157
The given Q.F. is Q = X T AX
= (NY)T ANY
= Y T N T ANY
= Y T DY
.in
8 0 0 y1
T
Y DY = [y1 y2 y3 ] 0 2 0 y2
0 0 2 y3
ng
8y1
eri
= [y1 y2 y3 ] 2y2
2y3
e
gin
= 8y21 + 2y22 + 2y23
which is the canonical form.
En
Rank of the Q.F = 3.
Index = 3.
arn
Signature = 3.
Since all the eigen values are positive, the Q.F is positive definite.
Le
Example 1.76. Reduce the quadratic form 2x1 x2 + 2x2 x3 + 2x3 x1 in to canonical
form. Discuss also its nature. [Jan 2013].
w.
Solution.
Step 1. To find the matrix of the quadratic form
ww
Since given Q.F. contains 3 variables, the matrix of the Q.F. A is a 3 × 3 matrix.
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a33
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2 ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED
QUESTION PAPERS
n
g.i
rin
2.1 Unit I MATRICES
ee
2.1.1 APRIL/ MAY 2015 [R 2013]
gin
Part A
En
8 −6 2
1. Find the sum and product of all the eigen values of −6 7 −4.
arn
2 −4 3
.Le
Solution. Sum of the eigen values = trace of A
= 8 + 7 + 3 = 18.
w
ww
Product of the eigen values = |A|
8 −6 2
= −6 7 −4
2 −4 3
= 8(21 − 16) + 6(−18 + 8) + 2(24 − 14)
= 40 − 60 + 20 = 0.
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37
38 Supplement to Engineering Mathematics - II
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2. Give the nature of the quadratic form whose matrix is
−1 0 0
0 −1 0 .
0 0 −2
Solution. The given matrix is a diagonal matrix whose elements
along the leading diagonal are the eigen values. We notice that all
the eigen values are negative. Hence, the given quadratic form is
n
negative definite.
g.i
Part B
6 −2 2
rin
11. (a) (i) Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of −2 3 −1.
2 −1 3
ee
6 −2 2
Solution. Let A = −2 3 −1.
gin
2 −1 3
Step 1. To find the eigen values
En
arn
s1 = tr(A) = 6 + 3 + 3 = 12.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diogonal elements.
.Le
3 −1 6 2 6 −2
= + +
−1 3 2 3 −2 3
w
= 9 − 1 + 18 − 4 + 18 − 4
ww
= 8 + 14 + 14 = 36.
6 −2 2
s3 = |A| = −2 3 −1
2 −1 3
= 6(8) + 2(−4) + 2(−4)
= 48 − 8 − 8 = 32.
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———-
Anna University Solved Question Papers 39
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The characteristic equation is
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0
i.e., λ3 − 12λ2 + 36λ − 32 = 0.
λ = 2 is a root.
By synthetic division we have
n
g.i
2 1 −12 36 −32
0 2 −20 32
rin
1 −10 16 0
Hence, the characteristic equation becomes ee
(λ − 2)(λ2 − 10λ + 16) = 0
gin
(λ − 2)(λ − 2)(λ − 8) = 0
En
λ = 2, 2, 8.
arn
∴ The eigen values are λ1 = 2, λ2 = 2, λ3 = 8.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
.Le
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x3
w
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
ww
6 − λ 2 x1
−2
3 − λ −1 x2 = 0.
−2
−1 3 − λ x3
2
(6 − λ)x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0
−2x1 + (3 − λ)x2 − x3 = 0 . (A)
2x1 − x2 + (3 − λ)x3 = 0
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40 Supplement to Engineering Mathematics - II
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case(i) when λ = 2, (A) reduces to
4x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0
−2x1 + x2 − x3 = 0
2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0.
The above three equations are reduced to the single equation
2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0.
n
g.i
Since λ = 2 is a repeated root, we have to find two eigen vectors by
assigning a particular value to two variables, one at a time.
rin
Assigning x3 = 0, we obtain
2x1 = x2 ee
x1 x2
=
gin
1 2
1
∴ X1 = 2 .
En
0
arn
Assigning x2 = 0, we obtain
2x1 = −x3
.Le
x1 x3
= .
−1 2
w
−1
∴ X2 = 0 .
ww
2
case(ii) when λ = 8, (A) reduces to
−2x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0 (1)
−2x1 − 5x2 − x3 = 0 (2)
2x1 − x2 − 5x3 = 0. (3)
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 41
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Since all the three equations are different, we can consider the the
first two equations and solve for x1 , x2 , &, x3 by the method of cross
multiplication
x1 x2 x3
-2 2 -2 -2
-5 -1 -2 -5
n
g.i
x1 x2 x3
= =
2 + 10 −4 − 2 10 − 4
x1 x2 x3
rin
= =
12 −6 6
x1 x2 x3
= = ee
2 −1 1
∴ x1 = 2, x2 = −1, x3 = 1.
gin
x1 , x2 , x3 satisfy (3).
2
En
∴ X3 = −1 .
1
arn
3 −1 1
11. (a) (ii) If A = −1 5 −1, verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem
.Le
1 −1 3
and hence find A−1 .
w
Solution.
ww
Step 1. To find the characteristic equation
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0. (1)
Now, s1 = sum of the diagonal elements
= 3 + 5 + 3 = 11.
s2 = sum of the minors of the elements of the main diagonal
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42 Supplement to Engineering Mathematics - II
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5 −1 3 1 3 −1
= + +
−1 3 1 3 −1 5
= 15 − 1 + 9 − 1 + 15 − 1 = 14 + 8 + 14 = 36.
3 −1 1
s3 = |A| −1 5 −1 = 3(15 − 1) + 1(−3 + 1) + 1(1 − 5) = 3 × 14 − 2 − 4
1 −1 3
n
= 42 − 6 = 36.
g.i
The characteristic equation is λ3 − 11λ2 + 36λ − 36 = 0.
Step 2. Verification of Cayley Hamilton theorem.
rin
3 −1 1
ee
A = −1 5 −1
1 −1 3
gin
A2 = A · A
3 −1 1 3 −1 1
En
= −1 5 −1 −1 5 −1
arn
1 −1 3 1 −1 3
9 + 1 + 1 −3 − 5 − 1 3 + 1 + 3 11 −9 7
= −3 − 5 − 1 1 + 25 + 1 −1 − 5 − 3 = −9
.Le
27 −9
3 + 1 + 3 −1 − 5 − 3 1 + 1 + 9 7 −9 11
w
A3 = A2 × A
ww
11 −9 7 3 −1 1
= −9 27 −9 −1 5 −1
7 −9 11 1 −1 3
33 + 9 + 7 −11 − 45 − 7 11 + 9 + 21 49 −63 41
= −27 − 27 − 9 9 + 135 + 9 −9 − 27 − 27 = −63 153 −63
21 + 9 + 11 −7 − 45 − 11 7 + 9 + 33 41 −63 49
A3 − 11A2 + 36A − 36I
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 43
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49 −63 41 121 −99 77 108 −36 36
= −63 153 −63 − −99 297 −99 + −36 180 −36
41 −63 49 77 −99 121 36 −36 108
36 0 0 0 0 0
− 0 36 0 = 0 0 0 = 0.
0 0 36 0 0 0
n
∴ Cayley Hamilton theorem is verified.
g.i
Step 3. To find A−1
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, we have A3 − 11A2 + 36A − 36I = 0.
rin
Multiplying by A−1 we get,
A2 − 11A + 36I − 36A−1 = 0.
ee
⇒ 36A−1 = A2 − 11A + 36I.
gin
1 2
⇒ A−1 = [A − 11A + 36I].
36
En
11 −9 7 33 −11 11 36 0 0
1
∴ A−1 = −9 27 −9 − −11 55 −11 + 0 36 0 .
36
arn
7 −9 11 11 −11 33 0 0 36
11 − 33 + 36 −9 + 11 + 0 7 − 11 + 0
1
.Le
= −9 + 11 + 0 27 − 55 + 36 −9 + 11 + 0
36
7 − 11 + 0 −9 + 11 + 0 11 − 33 + 36
w
14 2 −4
1
2 8 2 .
ww
A−1 =
36
−4 2 14
11. (b) Reduce the quadratic form x2 + 5y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 6zx into
canonical form and hence find its rank.
Solution.
Step 1. To form the matrix of the Q.F
Let A be the matrix of the Q.F.
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Since the given Q.F is in 3 variables, A must be a 3 × 3
matrix.
a11 a12 a13
Let A = a21 a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a33
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x2 = 1
1 1
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of xy = × 2 = 1
n
2 2
1 1
g.i
a13 = a31 = × Coeff.of xz = × 6 = 3
2 2
a22 = Coeff.of y2 = 5.
rin
1 1
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of yz = × 2 = 1.
2 2 ee
a33 = Coeff.of z2 = 1.
gin
1 1 3
∴ A = 1 5 1.
3 1 1
En
Step 2. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
arn
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
.Le
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
w
= 1 + 5 + 1 = 7.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
ww
5 1 1 3 1 1
= + +
1 1 3 1 1 5
= 5 − 1 + 1 − 9 + 5 − 1 = 4 − 8 + 4 = 0.
1 1 3
s3 = |A| = 1 5 1
3 1 1
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= 1(5 − 1) − 1(1 − 3) + 3(1 − 15) = 4 + 2 − 42 = −36.
∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 − 7λ2 + 36 = 0.
λ = −2 is a root.
By synthetic division, we get
−2 1 −7 0 36
0 −2 18 −36
n
1 −9 18 0
g.i
λ2 − 9λ + 18 = 0.
rin
(λ − 3)(λ − 6) = 0.
ee
The characteristic equation becomes (λ + 2)(λ − 3)(λ − 6) = 0.
The eigen values are −2, 3, 6.
gin
Step 3.To find the eigen vectors
x1
En
Let X = x2 be an eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
x3
arn
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
.Le
1 − λ 13 x1
1 5−λ 1 x2 = 0. (1)
w
3 1 1 − λ x3
ww
When λ = −2, (1) becomes
3 1 3 x1
1 7 1 x2 = 0.
3 1 3 x3
The above two equations are reduced to two equations
3x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0
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x1 + 7x2 + x3 = 0.
Solving the two equations by the rule of cross multiplication we get
x1 x2 x3
1 3 3 1
7 1 1 7
n
x1 x2 x3
= =
g.i
1 − 21 3 − 3 21 − 1
x1 x2 x3
= =
−20 0 20
rin
=⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = −1.
ee
1
∴ X1 = 0 .
gin
−1
En
−2 1 3 x1
When λ = 3, (1) become 1 2 1 x2 = 0.
arn
3 1 −2 x3
The above equations are reduced to
.Le
−2x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0
w
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0
ww
3x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 0.
From the first two equations by the rule of cross multiplication we
get
x1 x2 x3
1 3 -2 1
2 1 1 2
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 47
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x1 x2 x3
= =
1 − 6 3 + 2 −4 − 1
x1 x2 x3
= = =⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = −1, x3 = 1.
−5 5 −5
1
∴ X2 = −1 .
1
n
−5 1 3 x1
When λ = 6, (1) becomes 1 −1 1 x2 = 0.
g.i
3 1 −5 x3
rin
The above equations are reduced to
ee
−5x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0
gin
x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
3x1 + x2 − 5x3 = 0.
En
By the rule of cross multiplication, from the first two equations we
get
arn
x1 x2 x3
1 3 -5 1
.Le
-1 1 1 -1
w
x1 x2 x3
= =
1+3 3+5 5−1
ww
x1 x2 x3
= = =⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 1.
4 8 4
1
X3 = 2 .
1
Step 4. To form the modal matrix
Since the eigen values are different, the eigen vectors are mutually
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48 Supplement to Engineering Mathematics - II
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orthogonal.
√1 √1 √1
2 3 6
The normalized eigen vectors are 0 , − √1 , √2 .
3 6
−1
√
√1 √1
2 3 6
The modal matrix N is formed with columns as the normalized
eigen vectors.
√1 √1 √1
n
6
2 3
g.i
∴ N = 0 −1
√ √2
3 6
−1
√ √1 √1
2 3 3
rin
T
Step 5. To find N AN
ee
√1 0 − √12 1 1 3 √12 √1 √1
2 3 6
gin
1 5 1 0
N T AN = √1 − √13 √1 − √1 √
2
3 3 3 6
√1 √2 √1
3 1 1 − √1 √1 √1
6 6 3 2 3 3
En
√ √ 1
− 2
√ 0 2 √2 √1 √1
6
√ √
3
− √3 √6
= 3 − 3 3 0 1 2
arn
√ √ √ 1
6 2 6 6 −√ √1 √1
2 3 3
−2 0 0
.Le
= 0 3 0 = D.
0 0 6
w
Step 6. Reduction to Canonical form
ww
y1
Let X = NY, where Y = y2 .
y3
The given Q.F is Q = X T AX.
= (NY)T A(NY)
= Y T N T ANY
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= Y T DY
0 0 y1
−2
= y1 y2 y3 0 3 0 y2
0 0 6 y3
= −2y21 + 3y22 + 6y23
which is canonical.
n
Since two of the eigen values are positive and one eigen value is
g.i
negative, the rank = 3.
rin
2.1.2 NOV/DEC 2014 [R 2013]
Part A
ee
2 0 1
gin
1.If 2, 3 are the eigen values of 0 2 0, then find the value of b.
b 0 2
En
2 0 1
Solution. Let A = 0 2 0.
arn
b 0 2
Let λ1 , λ2 , λ3 be the eigen values of A.
.Le
We know that, λ1 + λ2 + λ3 = tr(A) = 6.
2 + 3 + λ3 = 6
w
ww
λ3 = 1.
Also, product of the eigen values = |A|.
2 0 1
λ1 λ2 λ3 = 0 2 0
b 0 2
2.3.1 = 2(4) − 0(0) + 1(0 − 2b)
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6 = 8 − 2b
2b = 2
b = 1.
2. State Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
Solution. Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic
n
equation.
g.i
Part B
11. (a) (i) Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem find A4 for the matrix
rin
2 −1 2
A = −1 2 −1.
ee
1 −1 2
Solution.
gin
Step 1. To find the characteristic equation
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
En
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0. (1)
arn
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 2 + 2 + 2 = 6.
.Le
s2 = sum of the minors of the elements of the main diagonal
2 −1 2 1 2 −1
= + +
w
−1 2 1 2 −1 2
ww
=4−1+4−1+4−1
= 3 + 3 + 3 = 9.
2 −1 1
s3 = |A| = −1 2 −1
1 −1 2
= 2(3) + 1(−1) + 1(−1) = 6 − 1 − 1 = 4.
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 51
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The characteristic equation is λ3 − 6λ2 + 9λ − 4 = 0.
Step 2. Verification of Cayley Hamilton theorem.
2 −1 1
A = −1 2 −1
1 −1 2
2 −1 1 2 −1 1
n
A2 = A · A = −1 2 −1 −1 2 −1
g.i
1 −1 2 1 −1 2
4 + 1 + 1 −2 − 2 − 1 2 + 1 + 2 6 −5 5
rin
= −2 − 2 − 1 1 + 4 + 1 −1 − 2 − 2 = −5 6 −5
ee
2 + 1 + 2 −1 − 2 − 2 1 + 1 + 4 5 −5 6
A3 = A2 × A
gin
6 −5 5 2 −1 1
= −5 6 −5 −1 2 −1
En
5 −5 6 1 −1 2
arn
12 + 5 + 5 −6 − 10 − 5 6 + 5 + 10 22 −21 21
= −10 − 6 − 5 5 + 12 + 5 −5 − 6 − 10 = −21 22 −21
10 + 5 + 6 −5 − 10 − 6 5 + 5 + 12 21 −21 22
.Le
A3 − 6A2 + 9A − 4I
w
22 −21 21 6 −5 5 2 −1 1
= −21 22 −21 − 6 −5 6 −5 + 9 −1
2 −1
ww
21 −21 22 5 −5 6 1 −1 2
1 0 0 0 0 0
− 4 0 1 0 = 0 0 0 = 0.
0 0 1 0 0 0
∴ Cayley Hamilton theorem is verified.
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52 Supplement to Engineering Mathematics - II
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Step 3. To find A4
Consider λ4 . Dividing λ4 by λ3 − 6λ2 + 9λ − 4 we get,
λ4 = (λ + 6)(λ3 − 6λ2 + 9λ − 4) + 27λ2 − 50λ + 24.
Replacing λ by A we get,
A4 = (A + 6I)(A3 − 6A2 + 9A − 4I) + 27A2 − 50A + 24I.
= 27A2 − 50A + 24I [ By Cayley Hamilton theorem].
n
86 −85 85
g.i
= −85 86 −85 .
85 −85 86
rin
7 −2 0
ee
11. (a) (ii) Find the eigenvalues and eigen vectors of −2 6 −2.
gin
0 −2 5
7 −2 0
Solution. Given A = −2 6 −2.
En
0 −2 5
Step 1. To find the eigen values
arn
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation takes the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
.Le
Now, s1 =sum of the main diagonal elements
= 7 + 6 + 5 = 18
w
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
6 −2 7 0 7 −2
ww
= + +
−2 5 0 5 −2 6
= (30 − 4) + (35 − 0) + (42 − 4) = 99.
7 −2 0
s3 = |A| = −2 6 −2
0 −2 5
= 7(30 − 4) + 2(−10 − 0) + 0 = 182 − 20 = 162.
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 53
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∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 − 18λ2 + 99λ − 162 = 0.
λ = 3 is a root.
By synthetic division we get
3 1 −18 99 −162
0 3 −45 162
1 −15 54 0
n
g.i
The remaining factor is
λ2 − 15λ + 54 = 0
rin
(λ − 6)(λ − 9) = 0
λ = 6, 9. ee
∴ The eigen values are 3, 6, 9.
gin
Step 3. To find the eigen vectors
x1
Let X = x2 be an eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
En
x3
arn
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
7 − λ −2 0 x1
.Le
−2 6 − λ −2 x2 = 0. (1)
0 −2 5 − λ x3
w
When λ = 3 (1) becomes
4 −2 0 x1
ww
= 0.
−2 3 −2 x2
0 −2 2 x3
The equations become
4x1 − 2x2 = 0 ⇒ 2x1 − x2 = 0 (2)
−2x1 + 3x2 − 2x3 = 0 (3)
−2x2 + 2x3 = 0 ⇒ −x2 + x3 = 0. (4)
From (2) and (4) we get 2x1 = x2 = x3 .
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If we set x1 = 1, then x2 = 2, x3 = 2.
1
∴ One eigen vector is X1 = 2 .
2
When λ = 6 (1) becomes
1 −2 0 x1
−2 0 −2 x2 = 0.
n
0 −2 −1 x3
The equations become
g.i
x1 − 2x2 = 0 ⇒ x1 = 2x2 (5)
rin
−2x1 − 2x3 = 0 ⇒ x1 = x3 (6)
−2x1 − 2x3 = 0 ⇒ x3 = −2x2 . (7)
From (5), (6) and (7) we obtain x1 = 2x2 = −x3 .
ee
When x2 = 1, x1 = 2, x3 = −2
gin
2
∴ The second eigen vector is X2 = 1 .
En
−2
When λ = 9 (1) becomes
−2 −2 0 x1
arn
= 0.
−2 −3 −2 x2
0 −2 −4 x3
.Le
The equations become
−2x1 − 2x2 = 0 ⇒ x1 = −x2 (8)
w
−2x1 − 3x2 − 2x3 = 0 (9)
ww
−2x2 − 4x3 = 0 ⇒ x2 = −2x3 . (10)
From (8), (9) and (10) we obtain x1 = −x2 = 2x3 .
Let x3 = 1. Then x1 = 2, x2 = −2
2
∴ The third eigen vector is X2 = −2.
1
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11. (b) (i) Reduce the quadratic form 3x2 + 5y2 + 3z2 − 2yz + 2zx − 2xy
to the canonical form through orthogonal transformation.
Solution.
Step 1. To find the matrix of the Q.F
Since the given Q.F contains 3 variables, the matrix A of the Q.F is
a 3 × 3 matrix.
a11 a12 a13
Let A = a21
n
a22 a23 .
g.i
a31 a32 a33
rin
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x2 = 3.
1 1
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of xy = × (−2) = −1.
ee
2 2
1 1
a13 = a31 = × Coeff.of xz = × 2 = 1.
gin
2 2
a22 = Coeff.of y2 = 5.
1 1
En
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of yz = × (−2) = −1.
2 2
a33 = Coeff.of z2 = 3.
arn
3 −1 1
∴ A = −1 5 −1.
.Le
1 −1 3
Step 2. To find the eigen values
w
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
ww
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0, where
s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements = 3 + 5 + 3 = 11.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
5 −1 3 1 3 −1
= + +
−1 3 1 3 −1 5
= 14 + 8 + 14 = 36.
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3 −1 1
s3 = |A| = −1 5 −1
1 −1 3
= 3(15 − 1) + 1(−3 + 1) + 1(1 − 5)
= 3 × 14 − 2 − 4 = 42 − 6 = 36.
∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 − 11λ2 + 36λ − 36 = 0.
n
λ = 2 is a root.
g.i
By synthetic division we get
rin
2 1 −11 36 −36
0 2 −18 36
1 −9 18 0
ee
gin
λ2 − 9λ + 18 = 0
(λ − 3)(λ − 6) = 0
En
λ = 3, 6.
∴ The eigen values are 2, 3, 6.
arn
Step 3. To find the eigen vectors
x1
.Le
Let X = x2 be an eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
x3
w
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
ww
3 − λ −1 1 x1
−1 5 − λ −1 x2 = 0. (1)
1 −1 3 − λ x3
When λ = 2 (1) becomes
1 −1 1 x1
= 0.
−1 3 −1 x2
1 −1 1 x3
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The equations become
x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
−x1 + 3x2 − x3 = 0
x1 − x2 + x3 = 0.
From the last two equations, using the rule of cross multiplication
we get
n
g.i
rin
x1 x2 x3
ee
= =
3 − 1 −1 + 1 1 − 3
gin
x1 x2 x3 x1 x2 x3
= = ⇒ = =
2 0 −2 1 0 −1
En
⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = −1.
arn
1
∴ X1 = 0 .
.Le
−1
w
When λ = 3 (1) becomes
0 −1 1 x1
ww
= 0.
−1 2 −1 x2
1 −1 0 x3
The equations become
−x2 + x3 = 0
−x1 + 2x2 − x3 = 0
x1 − x2 = 0.
From the first and the last equations we get
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x1 = x2 = x3 = 1(say)
1
∴ X2 = 1 .
1
When λ = 6 (1) becomes
−3 −1 1 x1
= 0.
−1 −1 −1 x2
n
1 −1 −3 x3
g.i
The equations become
−3x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
rin
−x1 − x2 − x3 = 0
x1 − x2 − 3x3 = 0. ee
From the last two equations using the rule of cross multiplication,
gin
we get
En
arn
x1 x2 x3
= =
3 − 1 −1 − 3 1 + 1
.Le
x1 x2 x3 x1 x2 x3
= = ⇒⇒ = =
2 −4 2 1 −2 1
w
⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = −2, x3 = 1.
ww
1
∴ X3 = −2 .
1
1 1 1
∴ The eigen vectors are 0 , 1 , −2.
−1 1 1
Step 4. To find the modal matrix
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The normalised eigen vectors are
h 1 −1 iT h 1 1 1 iT h 1 −2 1 iT
√ 0 √ , √ √ √ , √ √ √ .
2 2 3 3 3 6 6 6
√1 √1 √1
2 3 6
∴ N = 0 √1 √
−2 .
3 6
−1
√ √1 √1
2 3 6
T
Step5. To find N AN
n
√1 √
−1
3 −1 1 √1 √1 √1 2 0 0
2 0
g.i
2
2
3 6
N T AN = √1 √1 √1 −1 5 −1 0 √1 √
−2 = 0 3 0 = D.
3
√1
3 3
3 6
1 −1 3 −1
rin
−2
√ √1 √ √1 √1 0 0 6
6 6 6 2 3 6
Step 6. Reduction to canonical form
ee
y1
Let X = NY, where Y = y2 .
gin
y3
The given Q.F. is Q = X AX = (NY)T ANY = Y T N T ANY = Y T DY
T
En
2 0 0 y1 2y1
Y DY = [y1 y2 y3 ] 0 3 0 y2 = [y1 y2 y3 ] 3y2 = 2y21 + 3y22 + 6y23 ,
T
arn
0 0 6 y3 6y3
which is in the canonical form.
.Le
1
11. (b) (ii) If β is a eigenvalue of a matrix, then prove that is the
β
eigen value of A−1 .
w
Solution. Given β is a non zero eigen value of A. Then, there exists
ww
a non zero column matrix X such that
AX = βX. (1)
Since all the eigen values are non zero, A is non-singular. Hence, A−1
exists.
Premultiplying both sides of (1) by A−1 we get,
A−1 (AX) = A−1 βX
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(A−1 A)X = β(A−1 X)
IX = βA−1 X
1
X = A−1 X.
β
1
⇒ is an eigen value of A−1 .
β
n
2.1.3 MAY/JUNE 2014 [R 2013]
g.i
Part A
rin
2 1 0
1. Find the Eigen values of the inverse of the matrix A = 0 3 4.
ee
0 0 4
Solution. A is a triangular matrix.
gin
The eigen values of A are 2, 3, 4.
1 1 1
∴ Eigen values of A−1 are , , .
En
2 3 4
2. If 2, −1, −3 are the Eigen values of the matrix A, then find the
Eigen values of the matrix A2 − 2I.
arn
Solution. If λ1 , λ2 , λ3 are the eigen values of A, then the eigen
values of
.Le
A2 − 2I are λ21 − 2, λ22 − 2, λ23 − 2.
Here λ1 = 2, λ2 = −1, λ3 = −3.
w
∴ The required eigen values are 22 − 2, (−1)2 − 2, (−3)2 − 2.
i.e., 2, −1, 7.
ww
Part B
11. (a) (i) Verify Cayley Hamilton theorem for the matrix
1 0 3
A = 2 1 −1, hence find A−1 . (8)
1 −1 1
Solution.
Step 1. To find the characteristic equation
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Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements.
= 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
1 −1 1 3 1 0
= + +
n
−1 1 1 1 2 1
g.i
= 1 − 1 + 1 − 3 + 1 − 0 = −1.
rin
1 0 3
s3 = |A| = 2 1 −1
ee
1 −1 1
gin
= 1(1 − 1) + 3(−2 − 1) = −9.
The characteristic equation is λ3 − 3λ2 − λ + 9 = 0.
En
Step 2. Verification of Cayley Hamilton theorem
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, A3 − 3A2 − A + 9I = 0.
arn
1 0 3 1 0 3
Now, A = A × A = 2 1 −1 2 1 −1
2
.Le
1 −1 1 1 −1 1
1 + 0 + 3 0 + 0 − 3 3 + 0 + 3 4 −3 6
w
= 2 + 2 − 1 0 + 1 + 1 6 − 1 − 1 = 3 2 4
ww
1−2+1 0−1−1 3+1+1 0 −2 5
4 −3 6 1 0 3
A3 = A2 × A = 3 2 4 2 1 −1
0 −2 5 1 −1 1
4 − 6 + 6 0 − 3 − 6 12 + 3 + 6 4 −9 21
= 3 + 4 + 4 0 + 2 − 4 9 − 2 + 4 = 11 −2 11
0−4+5 0−2−5 0+2+5 1 −7 7
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A3 − 3A2 − A + 9I
4 −9 21 4 −3 6 1 0 3 1 0 0
= 11 −2 11 − 3 3 2 4 − 2 1 −1 + 9 0 1 0
1 −7 7 0 −2 5 1 −1 1 0 0 1
4 − 12 − 1 + 9 −9 + 9 − 0 + 0 21 − 18 − 3 + 0
= 11 − 9 − 2 + 0 −2 − 6 − 1 + 9 11 − 12 + 1 + 0
n
1 + 0 − 1 + 0 −7 + 6 + 1 + 0 7 − 15 − 1 + 9
g.i
0 0 0
= 0 0 0 = 0.
rin
0 0 0
ee
gin
Hence, Cayley Hamilton theorem is verified.
Step 3. To find A−1
By Cayley Hamilton theorem we have A3 −3A2 − A+9I = 0.
En
Premultiply by A−1 we get, A2 − 3A − I + 9A−1 = 0.
arn
.Le
9A−1 = I + 3A − A2
1 0 0 1 0 3 4 −3 6
= 0 1 0 + 3 2 1 −1 − 3 2 4
w
0 0 1 1 −1 1 0 −2 5
ww
1 + 3 − 4 0 + 0 + 3 0 + 9 − 6 0 3 3
= 0 + 6 − 3 1 + 3 − 2 0 − 3 − 4 = 3 2 −7
0+3−0 0−3+2 1+3−5 3 −1 −1
0 3 3
1
A−1 = 3 2 −7
9
3 −1 −1
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 63
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−2 2 −3
11. (a) (ii) Find the Eigen values and Eigen vectors of 2 1 −6.
−1 −2 0
−2 2 −3
Solution. Let A = 2 1 −6.
−1 −2 0
Step 1. To find the eigen values
n
Since A is a 3×3 matrix, the characteristic equation takes
g.i
the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0
rin
where s1 = tr(A) = −2 + 1 + 0 = −1.
ee
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements of A.
1 −6 −2 −3 −2 2
gin
= + +
−2 0 −1 0 2 1
En
s2 = 0 − 12 + 0 − 3 − 2 − 4 = −21.
−2 2 −3
arn
s3 = |A| = 2 1 −6
−1 −2 0
.Le
= −2(0 − 12) − 2(0 − 6) − 3(−4 + 1) = 24 + 12 + 9 = 45.
w
The characteristic equation is λ3 + λ2 − 21λ − 45 = 0.
λ = −3 is a root. By synthetic division,
ww
−3 1 1 −21 −45
0 −3 6 45
1 −2 −15 0
=⇒ (λ + 3)(λ2 − 2λ − 15) = 0
(λ + 3)(λ − 5)(λ + 3) = 0 ⇒ λ = −3, λ = −3, λ = 5.
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The eigen values are −3, −3, 5.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
Let X = x2 be an eigen vector corresponding to λ.
x3
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
n
−2 − λ 2 −3 x1
g.i
2 1−λ −6 x2 = 0. (1)
−1 −2 0 − λ x3
rin
1 2 −3 x1
When λ = −3, (1) becomes 2 4 −6 x2 = 0.
ee
−1 −2 3 x3
gin
The above three equations are reduced to
x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = 0. (2)
En
Since two of the eigen values are equal, from (2) we have to get two
arn
eigen vectors by assigning arbitrary values for two variables. First,
choosing x3 = 0, we obtain x1 + 2x2 = 0 which implies
x1 x2
.Le
x1 = −2x2 ⇒ = ⇒ x1 = 2, x2 = −1
2 −1
2
w
∴ X1 = −1 .
ww
Also in (2) assign x2 = 0, we obtain x1 − 3x3 = 0,
x1 x3
which implies x1 = 3x3 ⇒ = ⇒ x1 = 3, x3 = 1.
3 1
3
X2 = 0 .
1
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 65
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−7 2 −3 x1
When λ = 5, (1)=⇒ 2 −4 −6 x2 = 0.
−1 −2 −5 x3
The equations are
−7x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = 0
2x1 − 4x2 − 6x3 = 0 (A)
−x1 − 2x2 − 5x3 = 0.
n
g.i
Taking the first two equations and on solving by the method of cross
multiplication, we obtain
rin
x1 x2 x3
2 -3 ee-7 2
-4 -6 2 -4
gin
x1 x2 x3
= =
−12 − 12 −6 − 42 28 − 4
En
x1 x2 x3
= =
−24 −48 24
arn
x1 x2 x3
= = .
1 2 −1
=⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = −1.
.Le
The values of x1 , x2 , x3 satisfy the last equation in (A).
w
1
∴ X3 = 2 .
ww
−1
2 3 1
∴ The eigen vectors are −1 , 0 and 2 .
0 1 −1
11. (b) (i) Reduce the quadratic form x12 + 5x22 + x32 + 2x1 x2 + 2x2 x3 + 6x3 x1
to the canonical form through orthogonal transformation and find
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its nature.
Solution.
Step 1. To form the matrix of the Q.F
Let A be the matrix of the Q.F.
Since the given Q.F is in 3 variables, A must be a 3 × 3
matrix.
a11 a12 a13
Let A = a21
n
a22 a23 .
g.i
a31 a32 a33
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x12 = 1
rin
1 1
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of x1 x2 = × 2 = 1
2 2 ee
1 1
a13 = a31 = × Coeff.of x1 x3 = × 6 = 3
2 2
gin
a22 = Coeff.of x22 = 5.
1 1
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of x2 x3 = × 2 = 1.
2 2
En
a33 = Coeff.of x32 = 1.
1 1 3
arn
∴ A = 1 5 1.
3 1 1
.Le
Step 2. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of
w
the form
ww
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 1 + 5 + 1 = 7.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
5 1 1 3 1 1
= + +
1 1 3 1 1 5
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= 5 − 1 + 1 − 9 + 5 − 1 = 4 − 8 + 4 = 0.
1 1 3
s3 = |A| = 1 5 1
3 1 1
= 1(5 − 1) − 1(1 − 3) + 3(1 − 15)
= 4 + 2 − 42 = −36.
n
g.i
∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 − 7λ2 + 36 = 0.
λ = −2 is a root.
rin
By synthetic division, we get
−2 1 −7
ee
0 36
0 −2 18 −36
gin
1 −9 18 0
En
λ2 − 9λ + 18 = 0.
arn
(λ − 3)(λ − 6) = 0.
The characteristic equation becomes (λ + 2)(λ − 3)(λ − 6) = 0.
.Le
The eigen values are −2, 3, 6.
Step 3.To find the eigen vectors
w
x1
Let X = x2 be an eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
ww
x3
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
1 − λ 1 3 x1
1 5−λ 1 x2 = 0. (1)
3 1 1 − λ x3
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When λ = −2, (1) becomes
3 1 3 x1
1 7 1 x2 = 0.
3 1 3 x3
The above two equations are reduced to two equations
3x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0
n
x1 + 7x2 + x3 = 0.
g.i
Solving the two equations by the rule of cross multiplication we get
x2 x3
rin
x1
1 3 3 1
7 1
ee 1 7
gin
x1 x2 x3
= =
1 − 21 3 − 3 21 − 1
x1 x2 x3
= =
En
−20 0 20
=⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = −1.
1
arn
∴ X1 = 0 .
−1
.Le
−2 1 3 x1
When λ = 3, (1) become 1 2 1 x2 = 0.
w
3 1 −2 x3
ww
The above equations are reduced to
−2x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0
3x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 0.
From the first two equations by the rule of cross multiplication we
get
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 69
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x1 x2 x3
1 3 -2 1
2 1 1 2
x1 x2 x3
= =
1 − 6 3 + 2 −4 − 1
x1 x2 x3
= = =⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = −1, x3 = 1.
−5 5 −5
n
1
g.i
∴ X2 = −1 .
1
rin
−5 1 3 x1
When λ = 6, (1) becomes 1 −1 1 x2 = 0.
ee
3 1 −5 x3
gin
The above equations are reduced to
−5x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0
En
x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
arn
3x1 + x2 − 5x3 = 0.
By the rule of cross multiplication, from the first two equations we
.Le
get
x1 x2 x3
1
w
1 3 -5
ww
-1 1 1 -1
x1 x2 x3
= =
1+3 3+5 5−1
x1 x2 x3
= = =⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 1.
4 8 4
1
X3 = 2 .
1
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Step 4. To form the modal matrix
Since the eigen values are different, the eigen vectors are mutually
orthogonal.
√1 √1 √1
2 3 6
The normalized eigen vectors are 0 , − √1 , √2 .
3 6
−1
√ √1 √1
2 3 6
The modal matrix N is formed with columns as the normalized
n
eigen vectors.
g.i
√1 √1 √1
2 3 6
rin
∴ N = 0 −1
√ √
2
3 6
−1
√ √1 √1
Step 5. To find N AN T
2 ee 3 3
gin
√1 0 − √12 1 1 3 √12 √1 √1
2 3 6
En
1 5 1 0
N T AN = √1 − √13 √1 − √1 √
2
3 3 3 6
√1
√2 √1 3 1 1 − √1 √1 √1
arn
6 6 3 2 3 3
√ √ 1
− 2
√ 0 2 √2 √1 √1
6
√ √
3
− √3 √6
= 3 − 3 3 0 1 2
.Le
√ √ √ 1
6 2 6 6 −√ √1 √1
2 3 3
−2 0 0
w
= 0 3 0 = D.
ww
0 0 6
Step 6. Reduction to Canonical form
y1
Let X = NY, where Y = y2 .
y3
The given Q.F is Q = X T AX.
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= (NY)T A(NY)
= Y T N T ANY
= Y T DY
0 0 y1
−2
= y1 y2 y3 0 3 0 y2
0 0 6 y3
n
= −2y21 + 3y22 + 6y23
g.i
which is canonical.
rin
Since two of the eigen values are positive and one eigen value is
negative, the given Q.F is indefinite. ee
11. (b) (ii) Prove that the Eigen values of a real symmetric matrix
gin
are real.
Solution. Let λ (real or complex) be an eigen value of A.
Let X be the eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
En
∴ AX = λX. (1)
Let X̄ be the Complex conjugate of X.
arn
Premultiply (1) by X̄ T we get
X̄ T AX = λX̄ T X
.Le
X̄ T AX = λX̄ T X
i.e., X T ĀX̄ = λ̄X T X̄.
w
Since A is a real symmetric matrix, Ā = A & AT = A.
ww
∴ X T AX̄ = λ̄X T X̄.
Taking transpose on both sides we get
T T
X T AX̄ = λ̄X T X̄
X̄ T AT X = X̄ T X λ̄T = λ̄X̄ T X
X̄ T AX = λ̄X̄ T X
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X̄ T λX = λ̄X̄ T X
λX̄ T X = λ̄X̄ T X.
Now X is an n × 1 matrix and X̄ T is a 1 × n matrix.
Hence, X̄ T X is a 1 × 1 matrix, which is a positive real.
⇒ λ = λ̄.
⇒ λ is a real number.
n
g.i
2.1.4 JANUARY 2014 [R 2013]
Part A
rin
1. If the eigen values of the matrix A of order 3 × 3 are 2, 3, 1 then find
the eigen values of adjoint of A. ee
Solution. Eigen values of A are 2, 3, 1.
gin
|A| = Product of eigen values
= 2 × 3 × 1 = 6.
En
We know that ad j(A) = |A| A−1 .
1 1
Eigen values of A−1 are , , 1.
2 3
arn
1 1
∴ The eigen values of ad j(A) are 6 × , 6 × , 6 × 1
2 3
i.e., 3, 2, 6.
.Le
2. If λ is the eigen value of the matrix A ,then prove that λ2 is the
eigen value of A2 .
w
Solution. Since λ is an eigen value of A, there exists a column
matrix X such that
ww
AX = λX
A(AX) = A(λX)
(AA)X = λ(AX)
A2 X = λ(λX)
A2 X = λ2 X.
⇒ λ2 is an eigen value of A2 .
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Part B
11. (a)
(i) Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix
2 1 2
3 1
1
2 2 1
2 2 1
Solution. Let A = 1 3 1.
n
1 2 2
g.i
Step 1. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation takes the form
rin
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0, where
ee
s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements of A
= 2 + 3 + 2 = 7.
gin
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements of A.
3 1 2 1 2 2
En
= + +
2 2 1 2 1 3
arn
= (6 − 2) + (4 − 1) + (6 − 2) = 4 + 3 + 4 = 11.
2 2 1
.Le
s3 = |A| = 1 3 1 = 2(6 − 2) − 2(2 − 1) + 1(2 − 3) = 8 − 2 − 1 = 5.
1 2 2
w
The characteristic equation is λ3 − 7λ2 + 11λ − 5 = 0.
ww
λ = 1 is a root.
By synthetic division we have
1 1 −7 11 −5
0 1 −6 5
1 −6 5 0
λ2 − 6λ + 5 = 0
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(λ − 1)(λ − 5) = 0 ⇒ λ = 1, 5.
∴ The eigen values are 1, 1, 5.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
x1
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
x3
n
∴ (A − λI)X = 0
g.i
2 − λ 2 1 x1
1 x2 = 0.
rin
1 3−λ (1)
1 2 2 − λ x3
When λ = 1, (1) becomes
ee
gin
1 2 1 x1
1 2 1 x2 = 0.
En
1 2 1 x3
All the three equations are reduced to one single equation
arn
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0. (2)
Since two of the eigen values are equal, from(2), we have to get two
.Le
eigen vectors by assigning arbitrary values for two variables.
First, choosing x3 = 0, we obtain x1 + 2x2 = 0 ⇒ x1 = −2x2
w
x1 x2
i.e.,
= ⇒ x1 = −2, x2 = 1.
−2 1
ww
−2
∴ One eigen vector is X1 = 1 .
0
Assign x2 = 0, (2) becomes
x1 + x3 = 0
x1 = −x3
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x1 x3
=
1 −1
⇒ x1 = 1, x3 = −1.
1
∴ The second eigen vector is X2 = 0 .
−1
When λ = 5, (1) becomes
n
g.i
−3 2 1 x1
1 −2 1 x2 = 0.
rin
1 2 −3 x3
The equations become
ee
gin
−3x1 + 2x2 + x3 =0
x1 − 2x2 + x3 =0 (A)
En
x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = 0.
All the three equations are different.
arn
Taking the first two equations and applying the rule of cross
multiplication we obtain
.Le
x1 x2 x3
2 1 -3 2
w
ww
-2 1 1 -2
x1 x2 x3
= =
2+2 1+3 6−2
x1 x2 x3
= =
4 4 4
⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 1, x3 = 1.
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1
The third eigen vector is X3 = 1.
1
−2 1 1
∴ The eigen vectors are 1 , 0 , 1.
0 −1 1
11. (a) (ii) Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem find A−1 and A4 ,
n
1 2 −2
g.i
if A = −1 3 0 .
0 −2 1
rin
Solution.
Step 1. To find the characteristic equation ee
Since A is 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
gin
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
Now, s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
En
= 1 + 3 + 1 = 5.
s2 = sum of the minors of the elements
arn
of the main diagonal
3 0 1 −2 1 2
.Le
= + +
−2 1 0 1 −1 3
=3−0+1−0+3+2
w
=3+1+5
ww
= 9.
1 2 −2
s3 = |A| = −1 3 0
0 −2 1
= 1(3 − 0) − 2(−1 − 0) − 2(2 − 0)
= 3 + 2 − 4 = 1.
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The characteristic equation is λ3 − 5λ2 + 9λ − 1 = 0.
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, we have
A3 − 5A2 + 9A − I = 0.
Step2. Verification of Cayley Hamilton theorem
1 2 −2 1 2 −2 −1 12 −4
n
A2 = A.A = −1 3
0 −1 3 0 = −4 7 2
g.i
0 −2 1 0 −2 1 2 −8 1
rin
−1 12 −4 1 2 −2 −13 42 −2
A = A .A = −4
3 2
7 2 −1 3 0 = −11 9 10
ee
2 −8 1 0 −2 1 10 −22 −3
gin
∴ A3 − 5A2 + 9A − I
−13 42 −2 −1 12 −4 1 2 −2 1 0 0
= −11
10 − 5 −4 2 + 9 −1 0 − 0 1 0
En
9 7 3
10 −22 −3 2 −8 1 0 −2 1 0 0 1
arn
0 0 0
= 0 0 0 = 0.
.Le
0 0 0
Hence, Cayley Hamilton theorem is verified.
w
Step 3. To find A−1
ww
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, we have A3 − 5A2 + 9A − I = 0.
Multiplying by A−1 we get
A2 − 5A + 9I − A−1 = 0
3 2 6
∴ A−1 = A2 − 5A + 9I = 1 1 2 .
2 2 5
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Step 4. To find A4
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, we have
A3 − 5A2 + 9A − I = 0.
A3 = 5A2 − 9A + I.
Multiplying by A we get
n
g.i
A4 = 5A3 − 9A2 + A
rin
−13 42 −2 −1 12 −4 1 2 −2
= 5 −11 9 10 − 9 −4 7 2 + −1 3 0
ee
10 −22 −3 2 −8 1 0 −2 1
−65 210 −10 9 −108 36 1 2 −2
gin
= −55 45
50 + 36 −63 −18 + −1 3 0
50 −110 −15 −18 72 −9 0 −2 1
En
−65 + 9 + 1 210 − 108 + 2 −10 + 36 − 2
= −55 + 36 − 1
arn
45 − 63 + 3 50 − 18 + 0
50 − 18 + 0 −110 + 72 − 2 −15 − 9 + 1
.Le
−55 104 24
= −20 −15 32 .
w
32 −40 −23
ww
11. (b) Reduce the quadratic form 6x2 + 3y2 + 3z2 − 4xy − 2yz + 4xz into
a canonical form by an orthogonal reduction.Hence find its rank and
nature.
Solution.
Step 1. To find the matrix of the Q.F
Since the given Q.F contains 3 variables, the matrix of the Q.F A is
a 3 × 3 matrix.
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a11 a12 a13
Let A = a21 a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a33
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x2 = 6
1 1
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of xy = × (−4) = −2.
2 2
1 1
n
a13 = a31 = × Coeff.of xz = × 4 = 2
2 2
g.i
a22 = Coeff.of y2 = 3.
1 1
rin
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of yz = × (−2) = −1.
2 2
a33 = Coeff.of z2 = 3. ee
6 −2 2
gin
∴ A = −2 3 −1.
2 −1 3
En
Step 2. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
arn
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0.
s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
.Le
= 6 + 3 + 3 = 12.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
w
3 −1 6 2 6 −2
= + +
ww
−1 3 2 3 −2 3
= 9 − 1 + 18 − 4 + 18 − 4 = 8 + 14 + 14 = 36.
6 −2 2
s3 = |A| = −2 3 −1
2 −1 3
= 6(9 − 1) + 2(−6 + 2) + 2(2 − 6) = 48 − 8 − 8 = 32.
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∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 − 12λ2 + 36λ − 32 = 0.
λ = 2 is a root. By synthetic division, we get
2 1 −12 36 −32
0 2 −20 32
1 −10 16 0
λ2 − 10λ + 16 = 0
n
g.i
(λ − 2)(λ − 8) = 0.
The characteristic equation becomes (λ − 2)(λ − 2)(λ − 8) = 0.
rin
The eigen values are 2, 2, 8.
Step 3. To find the eigen vectors ee
x1
Let X = x2 be an eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
gin
x3
En
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
6 − λ −2 2 x1
arn
−2 3−λ −1 x2 = 0. (1)
2 −1 3 − λ x3
.Le
When λ = 8 (1) becomes
−2 −2 2 x1
w
−2 −5 −1 x2 = 0.
ww
2 −1 −5 x3
The equations are −2x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0 ⇒ x1 + x2 − x3 = 0.
−2x1 − 5x2 − x3 = 0 ⇒ 2x1 + 5x2 + x3 = 0.
2x1 − x2 − 5x3 = 0 ⇒ 2x1 − x2 − 5x3 = 0.
From the first two equations, using the rule of crossmultiplication
we get,
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x1 x2 x3
= =
1 + 5 −2 − 1 5 − 2
x1 x2 x3
= = ⇒ x1 = 2, x2 = −1, x3 = 1.
6 −3 3
n
2
∴ X1 = −1 .
g.i
1
rin
When λ = 2 (1) becomes
4 −2 2 x1
ee
= 0.
−2 1 −1 x2
2 −1 1 x3
gin
i.e., 4x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0 ⇒ 2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
En
−2x1 + x2 − x3 = 0 ⇒ 2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0.
arn
The above three equations are reduced to one single equation
x1 x2
2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0. Choose x3 = 0. ⇒ 2x1 − x2 = 0 ⇒ 2x1 = x2 ⇒ =
.Le
1 2
⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 2.
1
w
∴ X2 = 2 .
ww
0
a
Let X3 = b be orthogonal to X2 .
c
a
⇒ X2 X3 = 0 ⇒ 1 2 0 b ⇒ a + 2b = 0.
T
(2)
c
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X3 also satisfy 2a − b + c = 0. (3)
a b
(2) ⇒ a = −2b =⇒ = .
−2 1
b c
(3) ⇒ −4b − b + c = 0 ⇒ 5b = c ⇒ = .
1 5
a b c
Combining the above two equations we obtain, = = .
−2 1 5
Hence, a = −2, b = 1, c = 5.
n
−2
g.i
∴ X3 = 1 .
rin
5
Step 4. To find the modal matrix
The normalised eigen vectors are
ee
h 2 −1 1 iT h 1 2 iT h −2 1 5 iT
√ √ √ , √ √ 0 , √ √ √
gin
6 6 6 5 5 30 30 30
√2 √1 −2
√
30
En
6 5
√
∴ N = −1 √2 √
1
.
6 5 30
√1 0 √5
arn
6 30
Step5. To find N T AN
.Le
√2 −1
√ √1 6 −2 2 √26 √1 −2
√
6 30
6 6
5
N T AN = √1 √2 0 −2 3 −1 −1 √2 √
1
w
√
5 5 6 5 30
√−2 √1 √5 2 −1 3 √1 0 √5
ww
30 30 30 6 30
√16 −8
√ √8 √26 √1 −2
√
6 6 6 5 30
= √2 −8
√ 0 −1 √ √2 √
1
5 5 6 5 30
√−4 √2 √10 √1 0 √5
30 30 30 6 30
8 0 0
= 0 2 0 = D.
0 0 2
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 83
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Step 6. Reduction to canonical form
y1
Let X = NY, where Y = y2
y3
The given Q.F. is
Q = X T AX = (NY)T ANY = Y T N T ANY = Y T DY
n
8 0 0 y1 8y1
g.i
Y T DY = [y1 y2 y3 ] 0
2 0 y2 = [y1 y2 y3 ] 2y2 = 8y21 + 2y22 + 2y23 ,
0 0 2 y3 2y3
rin
which is in the canonical form.
Rank of the Q.F = 3.
ee
Index = 3.
gin
Signature = 3.
Since all the eigen values are positive, the Q.F is positive definite.
En
arn
2.1.5 JANUARY 2014 [R 2008]
.Le
Part A
6 −2 2
1. The product of two eigen values of the matrix A = −2 3 −1 is
w
2 −1 3
ww
16. Find the third eigenvalue.
Solution. Let λ1 , λ2 , λ3 be the eigen values of A.
Given λ1 λ2 = 16.
6 −2 2
|A| = −2 3 −1
2 −1 3
= 6(9 − 1) + 2(−6 + 2) + 2(2 − 6) = 48 − 8 − 8 = 32.
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We know that λ1 λ2 λ3 = 32
16λ3 = 32
λ3 = 2.
∴ The third eigen value is 2.
2. Discuss the nature of the quadratic form 2x2 + 3y2 + 2z2 + 2xy.
2 1 0
Solution. The matrix of the quadratic form is A = 1 3 0.
n
0 0 2
g.i
The principal minors are
rin
D1 = 2 > 0.
2 1 ee
D2 = = 6 − 1 = 5 > 0.
1 3
gin
2 1 0
D3 = 1 3 0 = 2(6 − 0) − 1(2 − 0) = 12 − 2 = 10 > 0.
0 0 2
En
Since all Di ’s are positive, the given quadratic form is positive
arn
definite.
Part B
.Le
11. (a) (i) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
8 −6 2
A = −6 7 −4.
w
ww
2 −4 3
Solution.
Step 1. To find the characteristic equation
Since A is 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0, where
s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements of A
= 8 + 7 + 3 = 18.
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 85
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s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements of A
7 −4 8 2 8 −6
= + +
−4 3 2 3 −6 7
= (21 − 16) + (24 − 4) + (56 − 36)
= 5 + 20 + 20 = 45.
8 −6 2
n
s3 = |A| = −6 7 −4
g.i
2 −4 3
rin
= 8(21 − 16) + 6(−18 + 8) + 2(24 − 14)
= 40 − 60 + 20 = 0.
ee
The characteristic equation is
gin
λ3 − 18λ2 + 45λ = 0
λ(λ2 − 18λ + 45) = 0
En
λ(λ − 3)(λ − 15) = 0
λ = 0, 3, 15.
arn
Step 3. To find the eigen vectors
x1
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
.Le
x3
w
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
ww
8 − λ −6 2 x1
−6 7 − λ −4 x2 = 0. (1)
2 −4 3 − λ x3
When λ = 0 (1) becomes
8 −6 2 x1
−6 7 −4 x2 = 0.
2 −4 3 x3
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The equations become
8x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0
−6x1 + 7x2 − 4x3 = 0
2x1 − 4x2 + 3x3 = 0.
Taking the first two equations and applying the rule of cross
multiplication, we get
n
g.i
rin
x1 x2 x3
= =
24 − 14 −12 + 32 56 − 36
x1
=
x2
10 20 20
=
x3 ee
gin
1
∴ X1 = 2.
En
2
When λ = 3 (1) becomes
arn
5 −6 2 x1
−6 4 −4 x2 = 0.
.Le
2 −4 0 x3
The equations become
w
5x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0
ww
−6x1 + 4x2 − 4x3 = 0
2x1 − 4x2 + 0x3 = 0.
Taking the last two equations and applying the rule of cross
multiplication we get,
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 87
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x1 x2 x3
= =
0 − 16 −8 24 − 8
x1 x2 x3
= =
−16 −8 16
2
∴ X2 = 1 .
−2
When λ = 15 (1) becomes
n
−7 −6 2 x1
g.i
−6 −8 −4 x2 = 0.
rin
2 −4 −12 x3
The equations become
−7x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0
ee
gin
−6x1 − 8x2 − 4x3 = 0
2x1 − 4x2 − 12x3 = 0.
Taking the first two equations and applying the rule of cross
En
multiplication we get,
arn
.Le
x1 x2 x3
= =
24 + 16 −12 − 28 56 − 36
w
x1 x2 x3
= =
ww
40 −40 20
2
∴ X3 = −2.
1
1 2 2
∴ The eigen vectors are 2 , 1 and −2.
2 −2 1
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11. (a) (ii) Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem find A−1 for the matrix
1 0 3
A = 2 1 −1.
1 −1 1
1 0 3
Solution. A = 2 1 −1
1 −1 1
n
The characteristic equation is λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0, where
g.i
s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
rin
= 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements ee
1 −1 1 3 1 0
= + +
−1 1 1 1 2 1
gin
= (1 − 1) + (1 − 3) + (1 − 0) = −1.
En
1 0 3
s3 = |A| = 2 1 −1 = 1(1 − 1) − 0(2 + 1) + 3(−2 − 1) = 0 − 0 − 9 = −9.
arn
1 −1 1
The characteristic equation is λ3 − 3λ2 − λ + 9 = 0.
.Le
By Cayley-Hamilton theorem A3 − 3A2 − A + 9I = 0.
Premultiply byA−1 ,we have A2 − 3A − I + 9A−1 = 0.
w
ww
−9A−1 = I + 3A − A2 .
1 0 3 1 0 3 4 −3 6
A2 = 2 1 −1 2 1
−1 = 3 2 4
1 −1 1 1 −1 1 0 −2 5
1 0 0 3 0 9 4 −3 6
−9A−1 = 0 1 0 + 6 3 −3 − 3 2 4
0 0 1 3 −3 3 0 −2 5
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 89
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0 3 3 0 3 3
1
−9A = 3 2 −7 ⇒ ∴ A = − 3 2
−1 −1
−7
9
3 −1 −1 3 −1 −1
11. (b) Reduce the quadratic form Q = 3x2 − 3y2 − 5z2 − 2xy − 6yz − 6xz
to its canonical form using orthogonal transformation. Also find its
rank, index and signature.
n
Solution.
g.i
Step 1. To find the matrix of the Q.F
Since the given Q.F contains 3 variables, the matrix of the Q.F A is
rin
a 3 × 3 matrix.
a11 a12 a13
ee
Let A = a21 a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a33
gin
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x2 = 3
En
1 1
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of xy = × (−2) = −1.
2 2
1 1
arn
a13 = a31 = × Coeff.of xz = × (−6) = −3.
2 2
a22 = Coeff.of y2 = −3.
.Le
1 1
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of yz = × (−6) = −3.
2 2
a33 = Coeff.of z2 = −5.
w
ww
3 −1 −3
∴ A = −1 −3 −3.
−3 −3 −5
Step 2. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0, where
s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
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= 3 − 3 − 5 = −5.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
−3 −3 3 −3 3 −1
= + +
−3 −5 −3 −5 −1 −3
= (15 − 9) + (−15 − 9) + (−9 − 1) = 6 − 10 − 24 = −28.
3 −1 −3
n
s3 = |A| = −1 −3 −3
g.i
−3 −3 −5
rin
= 3(15 − 9) + 1(5 − 9) − 3(3 − 9) = 18 − 4 + 18 = 32.
∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 + 5λ2 − 28λ − 32 = 0.
ee
λ = −1 is a root. By synthetic division we get
gin
−1 1 5 − 28 − 32
0 −1 −4 32
En
1 4 − 32 0
λ2 + 4λ − 32 = 0
arn
(λ − 4)(λ + 8) = 0.
.Le
The characteristic equation becomes (λ − 4)(λ + 1)(λ + 8) = 0.
The eigen values are 4, −1, −8.
w
Step 3. To find the eigen vectors
x1
ww
Let X = x2 be an eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
x3
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
3 − λ −1 −3 x1
−1 −3 − λ −3 x2 = 0. (1)
−3 −3 −5 − λ x3
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 91
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When λ = 4 (1) becomes
−1 −1 −3 x1
−1 −7 −3 x2 = 0.
−3 −3 −9 x3
The equations are −x1 − x2 − 3x3 = 0
−x1 − 7x2 − 3x3 = 0
−3x1 − 3x2 − 9x3 = 0 ⇒ −x1 − x2 − 3x3 = 0.
n
From the first two equations, using the rule of crossmultiplication
g.i
we get,
rin
ee
gin
x1 x2 x3
= =
3 − 21 3 − 3 7 − 1
x1 x2 x3
En
= =
−18 0 6
x1 x2 x3
= = .
arn
−3 0 1
−3
∴ X1 = 0 .
.Le
1
w
When λ = −1 (1) becomes
4 −1 −3 x1
ww
= 0.
−1 −2 −3 x2
−3 −3 −4 x3
The equations are 4x1 − x2 − 3x3 = 0
−x1 − 2x2 − 3x3 = 0
−3x1 − 3x2 − 4x3 = 0.
From the first two equations, using the rule of crossmultiplication
we get,
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x1 x2 x3
= =
3 − 6 3 + 12 −8 − 1
x1 x2 x3
= =
−3 15 −9
n
x1 x2 x3
g.i
= = .
1 −5 3
1
rin
∴ X2 = −5 .
ee
3
When λ = −8 (1) becomes
gin
11 −1 −3 x1
−1 5 −3 x2 = 0.
En
−3 −3 3 x3
The equations are 11x1 − x2 − 3x3 = 0
arn
−x1 + 5x2 − 3x3 = 0
−3x1 − 3x2 + 3x3 = 0.
.Le
From the last two equations, using the rule of crossmultiplication,
we get
w
ww
x1 x2 x3
= =
15 − 9 9 + 3 3 + 15
x1 x2 x3
= =
6 12 18
x1 x2 x3
= =
1 2 3
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 93
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1
∴ X3 = 2 .
3
Since all the eigen values are different, the eigen vectors are
pairwise orthogonal.
Step 4. To find the modal matrix
The normalised eigen vectors are
n
h −3 1 iT h 1 −5 3 iT h 1 2 3 iT
√ 0 √ , √ √ √ , √ √ √
g.i
10 10 35 35 35 14 14 14
√−3 √1
rin
√1
10 35 14
∴ N = 0 −5
√ √
2 .
35 14
√1 √3 √3
ee
10 35 14
gin
Step5. To find N T AN
√−3 0 √1 3 −1 −3 √−310 √1 √1
10 10 14
En
35
N T AN = √1 √3
−5
√
35
−1 −3 −3 0 −5
√ √
2
14
35 35
35
√1 √2 √3 −3 −3 −5 √1 √3 √3
arn
14 14 14 10 35 14
−12 √ 0 √4 √−310 √1 √1 4 0
0
10 10 35 14
= √−1 −3 0 √2 = 0
√5 −5
−1 0 = D.
.Le
√ √
35 35 35 35 14
√−8 1 0
−16
√ −24
√ √ √3 √3 0 −8
14 14 14 10 35 14
w
Step 6. Reduction to canonical form
y1
ww
Let X = NY, where Y = y2
y3
The given Q.F. is Q = X AX = (NY)T ANY = Y T N T ANY = Y T DY
T
4 0 0 y1 4y1
Y DY = [y1 y2 y3 ] 0 −1
T
0 y2 = [y1 y2 y3 ] −y2 = 4y21 − y22 − 8y23 ,
0 0 −8 y3 −8y3
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which is the canonical form.
Rank of the Q.F = 3, Index = 1, Signature = −1.
2.1.6 JANUARY 2013 [R 2008]
Part A
1. Find the symmetric matrix A whose eigenvalues are 1 and 3 with
1 1
n
corresponding eigenvectors and .
g.i
−1 1
Solution.
a b
.
rin
Let the required symmetric matrix be A =
b c
The eigen values are λ1 = 1 and λ2 = 3, with corresponding eigen
ee
1 1
vectors are X1 = and X2 = .
gin
−1 1
By definition, AX1 = λ1 X1
a b 1 1 1
En
= 1 =
b c −1 −1 −1
arn
which yields the equations
a − b = 1. (1)
.Le
b − c = −1. (2)
w
Also, AX2 = λ2 X2
a b 1 1 3
ww
i.e., = 3 = which yields the equations
b c 1 1 3
a+b=3 (3)
b+c=3 (4)
(1) + (3) =⇒ 2a = 4 =⇒ a = 2.
(2) + (4) =⇒ 2b = 2 =⇒ b = 1.
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 95
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(4) =⇒ 1 + c = 3 =⇒ c = 2.
2 1
∴ The required matrix is A = .
1 2
2. Write down the quadratic form corresponding to the matrix
2 0 −2
.
0 2 1
n
−2 1 −2
g.i
Solution.
From the matrix of the quadratic form we observe that
rin
a11 = 2, a12 = 0, a13 = −2, a22 = 2, a23 = 1, a33 = −2.
The required quadratic form is
ee
a11 x2 + a22 y2 + a33 z2 + 2a12 xy + 2a13 xz + 2a23 yz
= 2x2 + 2y2 − 2z2 − 4xz + 2yz.
gin
Part B
1 2 1
En
11. (a) (i) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of 6 −1 0 .
−1 −2 −1
arn
1 2
1
Solution. Let A = 6 −1 0 .
.Le
−1 −2 −1
Step 1. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation takes the form
w
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0, where
ww
s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements of A.
= 1 − 1 − 1 = −1.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
−1 0 1 1 1 2
= + +
−2 −1 −1 −1 6 −1
= 1 − 0 + (−1) + 1 + (−1 − 12) = 1 + 0 − 13 = −12.
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1 2 1
s3 = |A| = 6 −1 0
−1 −2 −1
= 1(1 − 0) − 2(−6 − 0) + 1(−12 − 1) = 1 + 12 − 13 = 0.
The characteristic equation is
λ3 + λ2 − 12λ = 0
n
λ(λ2 + λ − 12) = 0
g.i
λ(λ + 4)(λ − 3) = 0
rin
λ = 0, −4, 3.
∴ The eigen values are 0, −4, 3.
Step 2. To find the eigen vectors
ee
x1
gin
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
x3
En
∴ (A − λI)X = 0
1 − λ 2 1 x1
i.e., 6 0 x2 = 0.
arn
−1 − λ (1)
−1 −2 −1 − λ x3
When λ = 0, (1) becomes
.Le
1 2 1 x1
6 −1 0 x2 = 0
w
−1 −2 −1 x3
ww
i.e., x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0 (2)
6x1 − x2 = 0 (3)
−x1 − 2x2 − x3 = 0. (4)
(3) can be written as
6x1 = x2
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 97
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x1 x2
=
1 6
⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = 6.
Substituting in (2) we obtain, 1 + 12 + x3 = 0
⇒ x3 = −13.
1
n
∴ The eigen vector is X1 = 6 .
g.i
−13
rin
When λ = −4, (1) becomes
5 2 1 x1
ee
6 3 0 x2 = 0
gin
−1 −2 3 x3
En
i.e., 5x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0 (5)
6x1 + 3x2 = 0 (6)
arn
−x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 = 0. (7)
.Le
(6) can be written as
6x1 = −3x2
w
x1 x2
=
ww
−3 6
x1 x2
=
1 −2
∴ x1 = 1, x2 = −2.
Substituting in (5) we obtain
5 − 4 + x3 = 0 ⇒ x3 = −1.
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1
∴ The second eigen vector is X2 = −2.
−1
When λ = 3, (1) becomes
−2 2 1 x1
6 −4 0 x2 = 0.
−1 −2 −4 x3
n
g.i
i.e., − 2x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0 (8)
rin
6x1 − 4x2 = 0 (9)
−x1 − 2x2 − 4x3 = 0.
ee (10)
(9) can be written as
gin
6x1 = 4x2
⇒ 3x1 = 2x2
En
x1 x2
⇒ =
2 3
arn
∴ x1 = 2, x2 = 3.
Substituting in (8) we obtain
.Le
−4 + 6 + x3 = 0
w
2 + x3 = 0
ww
⇒ x3 = −2.
2
∴ The third eigen vector is X3 = 3 .
−2
1 1 2
∴ The eigen vectors are 6 , −2 and 3 .
−13 −1 −2
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 99
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8 −6 2
11. (a) (ii) If the eigenvalues of A = −6 7 −4 are 0, 3, 15 find the
2 −4 3
eigenvectors of A and diagonalize the matrix A.
Solution.
The given eigen values are 0,3,15.
Step 1. To find the eigen vectors
n
x1
g.i
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
x3
rin
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
8 − λ
ee
−6 2 x1
gin
−6 7 − λ −4 x2 = 0. (1)
2 −4 3 − λ x3
En
When λ = 0 (1) becomes
8 −6 2 x1
arn
−6 7 −4 x2 = 0.
2 −4 3 x3
.Le
The equations become
8x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0
w
−6x1 + 7x2 − 4x3 = 0
ww
2x1 − 4x2 + 3x3 = 0.
Taking the first two equations and applying the rule of cross
multiplication we get,
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x1 x2 x3 x1 x2 x3
= = ⇒ = =
24 − 14 −12 + 32 56 − 36 10 20 20
1
∴ X1 = 2.
2
When λ = 3 (1) becomes
5 −6 2 x1
n
−6 4 −4 x2 = 0.
g.i
2 −4 0 x3
rin
The equations become
5x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0
−6x1 + 4x2 − 4x3 = 0
ee
2x1 − 4x2 + 0x3 = 0.
gin
Taking the last two equations and applying the rule of cross
multiplication we get,
En
arn
.Le
x1 x2 x3
= =
0 − 16 −8 24 − 8
x1 x2 x3
w
= =
−16 −8 16
ww
2
∴ X2 = 1 .
−2
When λ = 15 (1) becomes
−7 −6 2 x1
−6 −8 −4 x2 = 0.
2 −4 −12 x3
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 101
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The equations become
−7x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0
−6x1 − 8x2 − 4x3 = 0
2x1 − 4x2 − 12x3 = 0.
Taking the first two equations and applying the rule of cross
multiplication we get,
n
g.i
rin
ee
x1 x2 x3
gin
= =
24 + 16 −12 − 28 56 − 36
En
x1 x2 x3
= =
40 −40 20
arn
2
∴ X3 = −2.
.Le
1
1 2 2
w
∴ The eigen vectors are 2 , 1 and −2.
ww
2 −2 1
Step 2. To find the modal matrix
The normalised eigen vectors are
h 1 2 2 iT h 2 1 −2 iT h 2 −2 1 iT
, ,
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1 2 2
3 3 3
∴ N = 3 3 2 1 −2
3
.
2 −2 1
3 3 3
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Step 3. To find N T AN
1 2 2
2 31 32 2
3 3 3 8 −6 3
N T AN = 32 −2 −2
1
3 3 −6 7 −4 23 31 3
2 1 1
3
−2
3 3 2 −4 3 23 −2 3 3
0 0 13 2 2
0 0 0
0 3
3
= 2 −2 =
1 −2 23 1
3 3 0 3 0 = D.
n
1
10 −10 5 23 −2
3 3 0 0 15
g.i
11. (b) (i) Reduce the quadratic form 2x1 x2 + 2x2 x3 + 2x3 x1 into
rin
canonical form.
Solution.
Step 1. To find the matrix of the quadratic form
ee
Since given Q.F. contains 3 variables, the matrix of the Q.F. A is a
gin
3 × 3 matrix.
a11 a12 a13
Let A = a21
En
a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a33
arn
Now, a11 = Coeff.of x12 = 0
1 1
a12 = a21 = × Coeff.of x1 x2 = × 2 = 1.
2 2
.Le
1 1
a13 = a31 = × Coeff.of x1 x3 = × 2 = 1
2 2
a22 = Coeff.of x22 = 0.
w
1 1
ww
a23 = a32 = × Coeff.of x2 x3 = × 2 = 1.
2 2
a33 = Coeff.of x32 = 0.
0 1 1
∴ A = 1 0 1.
1 1 0
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 103
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Step 2. To find the eigen values
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0, where
s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements
= 0 + 0 + 0 = 0.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
n
0 1 0 1 0 1
g.i
= + + = 0 − 1 + 0 − 1 + 0 − 1 = −3.
1 0 1 0 1 0
rin
0 1 1
s3 = |A| = 1 0 1 = 0 − 1(0 − 1) + 1(1 − 0) = 1 + 1 = 2.
ee
1 1 0
gin
∴ The characteristic equation is λ3 − 3λ − 2 = 0.
λ = −1 is a root. By synthetic division we get
En
−1 1 0 −3 −2
0 −1 1 2
arn
1 −1 −2 0
.Le
λ2 − λ − 2 = 0
(λ − 2)(λ + 1) = 0.
w
λ = 2, −1.
ww
The eigen values are −1, −1, 2..
Step 3. To find the eigen vectors
x1
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ.
x3
∴ (A − λI)X = 0.
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104 Supplement to Engineering Mathematics - II
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−λ 1 1 x1
1 −λ 1 x2 = 0. (1)
1 1 −λ x3
When λ = 2 (1) becomes
−2 1 1 x1
1 −2 1 x2 = 0.
n
1 1 −2 x3
g.i
The equations become
rin
−2x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0
x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 0.
ee
Taking the first two equations and applying the rule of cross
gin
multiplication we get
x1 x2 x3
En
1 1 -2 1
arn
-2 1 1 -2
x1 x2 x3
.Le
= =
1+2 1+2 4−1
x1 x2 x3
= =
w
3 3 3
ww
=⇒ x1 = x2 = x3 = 1.
1
∴ X1 = 1.
1
1 1 1 x1
When λ = −1, (1) becomes 1 1 1 x2 = 0.
1 1 1 x3
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 105
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The above three equations are equivalent to one equation
x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
Let x3 = 0.
∴ x1 = −x2
x1 x2
=
1 −1
n
⇒ x1 = 1, x2 = −1
g.i
1
∴ X2 = −1 .
rin
0
ee
a
Let X3 = b orthogonal to X2
gin
c
1
En
∴ X3T X2 = 0 ⇒ a b c −1 = 0
0
arn
⇒ a−b=0 (2)
.Le
X3 also satisfy a + b + c = 0 (3)
w
From (2) we have a = b ⇒ a = b = 1.
Substituting in (3) we get 1 + 1 + c = 0 ⇒ c = −2.
ww
1
∴ X3 = 1 .
−2
Step 4. To find the modal matrix
√1 √1 √1
3 2 6
The normalised eigen vectors are √1 , −1√ , √1 .
3 2 6
√1 −2
3
0 √
6
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106 Supplement to Engineering Mathematics - II
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The modal matrix N is formed with the normalised eigen vectors as
columns
√1 √1 √1
3 2 6
∴ N = √1 −1
√ √1 .
3 2 6
√1 0 −2
√
3 6
Step 5. To find N T AN
n
√1 √1 √1
0 1 1 √13 √1 √1
3 6
g.i
3 3
2
N T AN = √1 −1
√ 0 1 0 1 √13 −1
√ √
1
6
2 2 2
√1 1 1 0 √1
rin
√1 −2
√ 0−2
√
6 6 6 3 6
√2 √2 √2 √13 √1 √1
2 0 0
3 3 3 2
ee 6
√ = 0 −1 0 = D.
= −1 √1 0 √13 −1
√ √1
2 2 2 6
−1
−1 √2 √1 −2
gin
√ √ 0 √ 0 0 −1
6 6 6 3 6
Step 6. Reduction to canonical form
y1
En
Let X = NY, where Y = y2
arn
y3
The given Q.F. is
Q = X T AX = (NY)T ANY = Y T N T ANY = Y T DY
.Le
2 0 0 y1 y1
Y T DY = [y1 y2 y3 ] 0 −1 0 y2 = [y1 y2 y3 ] y2 = 2y21 − y22 − y23 .
w
0 0 −1 y3 y3
ww
which is the required canonical form.
Step 7. To find the nature of the Q.F
Since the Q.F contains both positive and negative eigen values, it is
indefinite.
1 −1 1
11. (b) (ii) Show that the matrix 0 1 0 satisfies its own
2 0 3
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 107
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characteristic equation. Find also its inverse.
Solution.
Step 1. To find the characteristic equation
1 −1 1
Let A = 0 1 0
2 0 3
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
n
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0 where
g.i
s1 = sum of the main diagonal elemnets.
rin
= 1 + 1 + 3 = 5.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elments. ee
1 0 1 1 1 −1
= + +
gin
0 3 2 3 0 1
= (3 − 0) + (3 − 2) + (1 − 0) = 3 + 1 + 1 = 5.
En
1 −1 1
s3 = |A| = 0 1 0 = 1(3 − 0) + 1(0 − 0) + 1(0 − 2) = 3 − 2 = 1.
arn
2 0 3
.Le
Therefore the characteristic equation of A is λ3 − 5λ2 + 5λ − 1 = 0.
By Cayley-Hamilton theorem we get A3 − 5A2 + 5A − I = 0.
Step 2. To verify Cayley Hamilton theorem
w
ww
1 −1 1 1 −1 1 3 −2 4
A = A × A = 0
2
1 0 0 1 0 = 0 1 0
2 0 3 2 0 3 8 −2 11
1 −1 1 3 −2 4 11 −5 15
A3 = A × A2 = 0 1 0 0 1 0 = 0 1 0
2 0 3 8 −2 11 30 −10 41
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108 Supplement to Engineering Mathematics - II
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Now, A3 − 5A2 + 5A − I
11 −5 15 3 −2 4 1 −1 1 1 0 0
= 0 1
0 − 5 0 1
0 + 5 0 1 0 − 0 1 0
30 −10 41 8 −2 11 2 0 3 0 0 1
11 −5 15 −15 10 −20 5 −5 5 1 0 0
= 0 1 0 + 0 −5 0 + 0 5 0 − 0 1 0
n
30 −10 41 −40 10 −55 10 0 15 0 0 1
g.i
0 0 0
= 0 0 0 = 0
rin
0 0 0
Hence Cayley Hamilton theorem verified.
ee
Step 3. To find A−1
gin
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, we have A3 − 5A2 + 5A − I = 0
Multiply by A−1 , we get A2 − 5A + 5I − A−1 = 0
En
∴A−1 = A2 − 5A + 5I
arn
3 −2 4 1 −1 1 1 0 0
= 0 1 0 − 5 0 1 0 + 5 0 1
0
.Le
8 −2 11 2 0 3 0 0 1
3 −2 4 −5 5 −5 5 0 0 3 3 −1
= 0 0 + 0 0 + 0 5 0 = 0 0
w
1 −5 1
8 −2 11 −10 0 −15 0 0 5 −2 −2 1
ww
2.1.7 JUNE 2013 [R 2008]
Part A
3 1 4
1. Find the eigenvalues of A−1 where A = 0 2 6.
0 0 5
Solution. Since A is triangular, the eigenvalues of A are the
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 109
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elements in the principal diagonal.
Hence, the eigen values of A are 3, 2, 5.
1 1 1
∴ The eigenvalues of A−1 are , , .
3 2 5
2. Write down matrix of the quadratic form
2x2 + 8z2 + 4xy + 10xz − 2yz.
Solution. If A is the matrix of the quadratic form, then
2 2 5
n
A = 2 0 −1.
g.i
5 −1 8
Part B
rin
11. (a) (i) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
2 0 1
ee
A = 0 2 0.
gin
1 0 2
Solution.
Step 1. To find the eigenvalues
En
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0, where
arn
s1 = sum of the main diagonal elements = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6.
s2 = sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements
.Le
2 0 2 1 2 0
= + + = 4 + (4 − 1) + 4 = 11.
0 2 1 2 0 2
w
s3 = |A| = 2(4 − 0) + 1(0 − 2) = 8 − 2 = 6.
ww
The characteristic equation is λ3 − 6λ2 + 11λ − 6 = 0
λ = 1 is a root. By synthetic division we have
1 1 −6 11 −6
0 1 −5 6
1 −5 6 0
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110 Supplement to Engineering Mathematics - II
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λ2 − 5λ + 6 = 0
(λ − 2)(λ − 3) = 0
⇒ λ = 2, 3.
∴ The eigen values are λ = 1, 2, 3.
Step 2. To find the eigenvectors
x1
Let X = x2 be the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value λ.
n
x3
g.i
∴ [A − λI] X = 0
2 − λ 0 1 x1 0
rin
0 2−λ 0 x2 = 0. (1)
1 0 2 − λ x3
ee 0
When λ = 1 equation (1) becomes
1 0 1 x1
gin
0 1 0 x2 = 0.
1 0 1 x3
En
The equations become
x1 + x3 = 0 ⇒ x1 = −x3 .
arn
x2 = 0.
x1 + x3 = 0
.Le
If x1 = 1 then x3 = −1.
x1 1
∴ X1 = x2 = 0 .
w
x3 −1
ww
When λ = 3 equation (1) becomes
−1 0 1 x1
0 −1 0 x2 = 0.
1 0 −1 x3
The equations become
−x1 + x3 = 0.
−x2 = 0.
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 111
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x1 − x3 = 0.
If x1 = 1 then x3 = 1.
1
∴ X2 = 0.
1
When λ = 2 equation (1) becomes
0 0 1 x1
0 0 0 x2 = 0.
n
g.i
1 0 0 x3
The equations become
rin
x3 = 0.
x1 = 0.
x2 = any value say = 1.
ee
0
gin
∴ X3 = 1.
0
En
0
1 1
.
∴ The eigen vectors are 0 , 0 and
1
arn
−1 1 0
2 −1 2
.Le
11. (a) (ii) Show that the matrix A = −1 2 −1 satisfies its own
1 −1 2
characteristic equation. Find also its inverse.
w
Solution.
ww
Step 1. To find the characteristics equation
Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the characteristic equation is of the form
λ3 − s1 λ2 + s2 λ − s3 = 0, where
s1 = sum of its leading diagonal elements
= 2 + 2 + 2 = 6.
s2 = sum of the minors of its leading diagonal elements
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112 Supplement to Engineering Mathematics - II
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2 −1 2 2 2 −1
= + +
−1 2 1 2 −1 2
= (4 − 1) + (4 − 2) + (4 − 1) = 3 + 2 + 3 = 8.
2 −1 2
s3 = |A| = −1 2 −1
1 −1 2
n
= 2(4 − 1) + 1(−2 + 1) + 2(1 − 2)
g.i
= 2(3) + 1(−1) + 2(−1) = 6 − 1 − 2 = 3.
rin
∴ The characteristic equation of A is λ3 − 6λ2 + 8λ − 3 = 0.
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, we have A3 − 6A2 + 8A − 3I = 0.
Step 2. Verification of Cayley Hamilton theorem.
ee
gin
2 −1 2 2 −1 2 7 −6 9
A2 = A × A = −1 2 −1 −1 2 −1 = −5 6 −6
En
1 −1 2 1 −1 2 5 −5 7
2 −1 2 7 −6 9 29 −28 38
arn
A = A × A = −1
3 2
2 −1 −5 6 −6 = −22 23 −28
1 −1 2 5 −5 7 22 −22 29
.Le
Now, A3 − 6A2 + 8A − 3I
29 −28 38 7 −6 9 2 −1 2 1 0 0
w
= −22 23 −28 − 6 −5
6 −6 + 8 −1 2 −1 − 3 0
1 0
ww
22 −22 29 5 −5 7 1 −1 2 0 0 1
29 −28 38 42 −36 54 16 −8 16 3 0 0
= −22 23 −28 − −30 36 −36 + −8 16 −8 − 0 3 0
22 −22 29 30 −30 42 8 −8 16 0 0 3
0 0 0
= 0 0 0 = 0
0 0 0
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Anna University Solved Question Papers 113
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∴ Cayley Hamilton theorem is verified.
Step 3. To find A−1
By Cayley Hamilton theorem we have A3 − 6A2 + 8A − 3I = 0.
Multiply by A−1 we get
A2 − 6A + 8I − 3A−1 = 0
3A−1 = A2 − 6A + 8I
n
7 −6 9 2 −1 2 1 0 0
g.i
3A−1 = −5 6 −6 − 6 −1 2
−1 + 8 0
1 0
5 −5 7 1 −1 2 0 0 1
rin
7 −6 9 −12 6 −12 8 0 0
ee
= −5 6 −6 + 6 −12 6 + 0 8 0
5 −5 7 −6 6 −12 0 0 8
gin
3 0 −3 3 0 −3
1
3A−1 = 1 2 0 ⇒ A = 1 −1
2 0 .
En
3
−1 1 3 −1 1 3
arn
11. (b) Reduce the quadratic form 3x2 + 5y2 + 3z2 − 2xy − 2yz + 2zx into
canonical form.
Solution. Refer question no. 11. (b) (i) of Nov/Dec. 2014 [2.1.2]
.Le
2.2 Unit II Vector Calculus
w
ww
2.2.1 May/June 2016 [R 2013]
Part A
1. Evaluate ∇2 log r.
Solution. We have ~r = x~i + y~j + z~k
p
r = |~r| = x2 + y2 + z2 .
∴ r2 = x2 + y2 + z2 .
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MA3151 - MATRICES AND CALCULUS
1 Differential calculus
n
g.i
1.1 Representation of a function.
rin
Definition. A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly
one element, called f (x), in a set E.
ee
The set D is called the domain of the function. The number f (x) is the value of
f at x. The range of f is the set of all possible values of f (x) as x varies throughout
gin
the domain. A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain of a
function f is called an independent variable. A symbol that represents a number
in the range of f is called a dependent variable.
En
Example. The area A of a circle depends on the radius r of the circle. The rule
that connects r and A is given by the equation A = πr2 . With each positive number
arn
r, there is associated one value of A and we say that A is a function of r. Here, r is
the independent variable and A is the dependent variable.
We can think of a function as a machine. If x is in the domain of the function
Le
f , then when x enters the machine, it is accepted as an input and the machine
produces an output f (x) according to the rule of the function. Thus, we can think
w.
of the domain as the set of all possible inputs and the range as the set of all possible
outputs.
input x → f → f (x) output
ww
Another way to represent a function is by an Arrow diagram. Each arrow
connects an element of D to an element of E. The arrow indicates that f (x) is
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2 Engineering Mathematics - I
associated with x, f (a) is associated with a and so on.
x f (x)
a f (a)
y f (y)
.in
The most common method for visualizing a function is its graph. If f is a
ng
function with domain D, then its graph is the set of ordered pairs {(x, f (x))/x ∈ D}.
In other words, the graph of f consists of all points (x, y) in the coordinate plane
eri
such that y = f (x), and x is in the domain of f .
Y
Y
(x, f (x))
e
gin
range y = f (x)
f (x)
f (2)
f (1) X
En
X 0 Domain
0 1 2 x
arn
The graph of a function f gives us a useful picture of the behavior of a function.
Since the y−coordinate of any point (x, y) on the graph is y = f (x), we can read the
value of f (x) from the graph as being the height of the graph above the point x. The
Le
graph of f also allows us to picture the domain of f on the x−axis and its range on
the y−axis.
w.
Example 1.1. Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2x + 1 and find the domain and range.
Solution.
ww
Y
−1
x 0
2 1
y 1 0
X
−1/2
y = 2x + 1
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Differential calculus 3
The equation of the graph is y = 2x + 1. This represents a line with slope 2 and
y−intercept 1. With these informations, we can sketch the portion of the graph of
f . The expression 2x + 1 is defined for all real numbers, and hence the domain of
f is the set of all real numbers, which we denote by R. The graph shows that the
range is also R.
.in
Example 1.2. Sketch the graph of g(x) = x2 and find the domain and range.
Solution. The equation of the graph is y = x2 .
ng
Y
eri
x −2 −1 0 1 2
8
y 4 1 0 1 4
6
e 4
gin
2
y = x2
X
−2 −1 0 1 2
En
From the tabular column we can plot the points (−2, 4), (−1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1) and (2, 4)
and join them to produce the graph, which represents a parabola. The domain of
arn
g is R. The range of g consists of all values of g(x), that is, all numbers of the form
x2 . But x2 ≥ 0 for all numbers x and any positive number y is a square. Hence, the
range of g is {y : y ≥ 0} = [0, ∞].
Le
The graph of a function is a curve in the xy−plane. But whether all curves in
the xy−plane represent the graph of some function. This can be answered by the
w.
vertical line test.
The vertical line test. A curve in the xy−plane is the graph of a function of
ww
x if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
Consider the following graphs.
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4 Engineering Mathematics - I
Y Y
(a, c)
x=a x=a
(a, b)
.in
(a, b)
X X
a 0 a
0
ng
In the first graph, each vertical line x = a intersects the curve only once, at
eri
(a, b), then exactly one function value is defined by f (a) = b. But in the second
graph, the line x = a intersects the curve twice at (a, b) and (a, c), that is, the
e
function assigns two different values to a. Hence, the first curve represents the
gin
graph of a function while the second graph is not.
As an illustration consider the parabola x = y2 − 4. The curve that represents
this equation is give below.
En
This curve does not represent the
Y
graph of a function of x because, we can
arn
see that every vertical line intersects
x = y2 − 4
the parabola twice. This parabola is the
union of the graphs of two functions of
Le
(−4, 0)
0 X x. Rewriting the equation as y2 = x + 4
√
we get y = ± x + 2.
w.
ww
Hence, the upper and lower halves of the parabola are the graphs of the
√ √
functions f (x) = x + 4 and g(x) = − x + 4. The separate graphs are given below.
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Differential calculus 5
√
Y
Y y= x+4
(−4, 0)
(−4, 0) 0 X
0 X
√
.in
y=− x+4
ng
If we reverse the roles of x and y, then we get the equation x = h(y) = y2 − 4
definitely define x as a function of y with y as the independent variables and x as
eri
the dependent variable and in this case, the parabola represent the graph of the
function h.
Piecewise difined functions. e
gin
1 − x , if x ≤ −1
Example 1.3. Consider the function f defined by f (x) = .
x2
, if x > −1
En
Y
For all x ≤ −1.
arn
6
x -3 -2 -1
5
y=1−x 4 3 2
4
Le
For all x > −1. 3
x -1 0 1 2 3 2
w.
y = x2 1 0 1 4 9 1
The combined graph of the function f is X
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
ww
as follows
Notice that the point (−1, 1) in y = x2 is not included and there is a discontinuity
between the graph for all x ≤ 1 (i.e.y = 1 − x) and the graph for all x > 1 (i.e. y = x2 ).
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6 Engineering Mathematics - I
Example 1.4. Consider the absolute value function f (x) = |x|, which is defined as
x , if x ≥ 0
follows f (x) = . The graph of f (x) consists of two branches namely
−x , if x < 0
y = x for all x ≥ 0 and y = −x for all x < 0.
.in
The combined graph of f is given below.
y = x (x ≥ 0)
ng
x 0 1 2 3 Y
y 0 1 2 3
3 y = |x|
eri
2
y = −x (x < 0) 1
x -3 -2 -1 0 X
y 3 2 1 0
e −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
gin
Notice that the point (0, 0) is not included in the graph of y = −x (x < 0).
En
x , if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
Example 1.5. Consider the function f (x) = , if 1 < x ≤ 2 .
2−x
arn
0 , if x > 2
y = 2 − x (1 ≤ x ≤ 2) y = 0 (x > 2)
y = x (0 ≤ x ≤ 1) x 1 2 x 2 3 4 5
Le
x 0 1
y 1 0 y 0 0 0 0
y 0 1
w.
The graph of f is given below.
ww
1
X
0 1 2 3 4 5
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Differential calculus 7
Example 1.6. Consider the greatest integer function defined by f (x) = [x].
By definition [x]= Largest integer that is less than or equal to x
= max{m ∈ Z; m ≤ x}.
Example. [2.7] = 2, [−1.3] = −2, [4] = 4
.in
The graph of the function is as follows
The open dots are not included at the
ng
Y
corresponding points.
5 The Examples 1.3 to 1.6 indicate that
eri
4
there is jump from one value to the
3
2 next. Hence, the above functions are
1
ecalled piecewise functions. The function
gin
X discussed in Example 1.6 is called step
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
−1 function.
−2
En
symmetry
Even function. If a function f satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for every number x in its
arn
domain, then f is called an even function.
Le
Example. f (x) = x2 is even, Y
since f (−x) = (−x)2 = x2 = f (x).
Geometrically, tha graph of an even
w.
function is symmetric about the y−axis.
f (−x) f (x)
Consider the curve of y = x2 − 4.
ww
0 X
−x x
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8 Engineering Mathematics - I
Odd function. If f statifies f (−x) = − f (x) for every number x in the domain, then
f is called an odd function.
Example. Consider f (x) = x3
f (−x) = (−x)3 = −x3 = − f (x).
∴ f (x) = x3 is an odd function.
.in
Y
f (x)
−x
ng
X
0 x
− f (x)
eri
The graph of the odd function is symmetric about the origin.
Example 1.7. Determine the nature of the following functions.
(i) f (x) = x5 − x. (ii) g(x) = 1 + x4 . e (iii) h(x) = x + x2 .
gin
Solution.
(i) f (x) = x5 − x.
En
f (−x) = (−x)5 − (−x) = −x5 + x = −(x5 − x) = − f (x).
∴ f (x) is odd.
(ii) g(x) = 1 + x4 .
arn
g(−x) = 1 + (−x)4 = 1 + x4 = g(x).
∴ g(x) is even.
Le
(iii) h(x) = x + x2 .
h(−x) = (−x) + (−x)2 = −x + x2 .
h(−x) , h(x) and h(−x) , −h(x)
w.
∴ h(x) is neither even nor odd.
ww
Increasing and decreasing functions. A function f is called increasing on an
interval I, if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I.
It is called decreasing on I, if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I.
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Differential calculus 9
1.2 Limit of a function
Definition. Intuitive definition of a limit. Suppose f (x) is defined. When x is
near the number a, then we write lim f (x) = L. This means that the limit of f (x),
x→a
as x approaches a equals L.
.in
lim f (x) = L can also be represented as f (x) → L as x → a.
x→a
One sided limits. The left hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is written as
lim f (x) = L which means that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left
ng
x→a−
is equal to L if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x
sufficiently close to a with x less than a.
eri
Similarly, if we require that x greater than a, we get the right hand limit of
f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L and we write lim f (x) = L.
e x→a+
Result. lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L.
gin
x→a x→a− x→a+
Infinite limits.
(i) Let f ba a function defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself. Then
En
lim f (x) = ∞ means that the value of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large by taking x
x→a
sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
arn
(ii) Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, expect possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) = −∞ means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large negative
x→a
by taking x sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
Le
1
Example. lim 2 = ∞.
x→0 x !
1
lim − 2 = −∞.
w.
x→0 x
Asymptote. The vertical line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve
y = f (x) if atleast one of the following statements is true:
ww
lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = ∞.
x→a x→a− x→a+
lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = −∞.
x→a x→a− x→a+
2x
Example. (i) For the function f (x) = , x = 3 is a vertical asymptote.
x−3
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10 Engineering Mathematics - I
π
(ii) For the curve f (x) = tan x, x =
is a vertical asymptote.
2
Laws of limits. Suppose that c is a constant and the limits lim f (x) and lim g(x)
x→a x→a
exist, then the following laws are true.
1. lim f (x) + g(x) = lim f (x)+ lim g(x).
x→a x→a x→a
2. lim f (x) − g(x) = lim f (x) − lim g(x).
.in
x→a x→a x→a
3. lim c f (x) = c lim f (x).
x→a x→a
ng
4. lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) × lim g(x).
x→a x→a x→a
" # lim f (x)
f (x)
eri
5. lim = x→a . if lim g(x) , 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a
n
6. lim f (x) n = lim f (x) , where n is a positive integer.
x→a x→a
e
gin
7. lim c = c.
x→a
8. lim x = a.
x→a
En
9. lim xn = an , where n is a positive integer
x→a
√n √n
10. lim x= a, where n is a positive integer and a > 0.
x→a
arn
p
n
q
11. lim f (x) = n lim f (x).
x→a x→a
Direct substitution property. If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a
Le
is in the domain of f , then lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
Theorem. If f (x) ≤ g(x), when x is near a and the limits of f and g both exist as x
w.
approaches a, then lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x).
x→a x→a
The Squeeze Theorem. If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x), when x is near a and
ww
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L, then lim g(x) = L.
x→a x→a x→a
The above theorem is sometimes called Sandwich Theorem or the Pinching
Theorem.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
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Differential calculus 11
Example 1.8. Find lim (2x2 − 3x + 4).
x→5
Solution. lim (2x2 − 3x + 4) = lim 2x2 − lim 3x + lim 4
x→5 x→5 x→5 x→5
= 2 lim x2 − 3 lim x + 4
x→5 x→5
2
= 2 × 5 − 3 × 5 + 4 = 50 − 15 + 4 = 39.
.in
x3 + 2x2 − 1
Example 1.9. Find lim .
x→−2 5 − 3x
ng
lim x3 + 2x2 − 1
x3 + 2x2 − 1 x→−2
Solution. lim =
x→−2 5 − 3x lim 5 − 3x
x→−2
eri
lim x3 + lim 2x2 − lim 1
x→−2 x→−2 x→−2
=
lim 5 − lim 3x
x→−2 x→−2
e
lim x3 + 2 lim x2 − 1
gin
x→−2 x→−2
=
lim 5 − 3 lim x
x→−2 x→−2
−8 + 2(−2)2
−1
=
5 − 3(−2)
En
−8 + 8 − 1 1
= =− .
5+6 11
x2 − 1
arn
Example 1.10. Find lim .
x→1 x−1
x2 − 1 (x + 1)(x − 1)
Solution. lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2.
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x−1 x→1
Le
x + 1 , ifx , 1
Example 1.11. Find lim f (x) where f (x) = .
x→1
w.
, ifx = 1
π
Solution. f is defined at x = 1 and g(1) = π.
But the value of a limit as x approahces 1 does not depend on the value
ww
of the function at 1.
Since g(x) = x + 1 for x , 1, we have
lim g(x) = lim (x + 1) = 2.
x→1 x→1
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12 Engineering Mathematics - I
(3 + x)2 − 9
Example 1.12. Evaluate lim .
x→0 x
(3 + x)2 − 9 (3 + x − 3)(3 + x + 3)
Solution. lim = lim
x→0 x x→0 x
x(6 + x)
= lim
x→0 x
.in
= lim (6 + x) = 6.
x→0
√
x2 + 9 − 3
Example 1.13. Find lim .
ng
x→0 x2
Solution. On rationalizing the numerator we get
√ √ √
eri
x2 + 9 − 3 x2 + 9 − 3 x2 + 9 + 3
lim = lim × √
x→0 x2 x→0 x2 x2 + 9 + 3
2
x +9−9
= lim √
x→0 x2 x2 + 9 + 3
e
gin
x2
= lim √
x→0 x2 x2 + 9 + 3
1 1 1
= lim √ = = .
x→0 x2 + 9 + 3 3 + 3 6
En
Example 1.14. Show that lim |x| = 0.
x→0
, ifx ≥ 0
arn
x
Solution. We know that |x| = .
−x , ifx < 0
Since |x| = −x for x < 0, we have lim |x| = lim −x = 0.
x→0− x→0−
Le
Also |x| = x for x > 0, we have lim |x| = lim x = 0.
x→0+ x→0+
∴ lim |x| = lim |x| = 0.
x→0− x→0+
w.
Hence, lim |x| = 0.
x→0
ww
|x|
Example 1.15. Prove that lim does not exist.
x→0 x
x , ifx ≥ 0
Solution. We know that |x| =
.
−x , ifx < 0
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Differential calculus 13
|x| x
Now, lim = lim = 1.
x→0+ x x→0+ x
|x| −x
lim = lim = −1.
x→0− x x→0− x
|x| |x| |x|
Since lim , lim , lim does not exist.
x→0+ x x→0− x x→0 x
√
x − 4 , ifx > 4
.in
Example 1.16. If f (x) = , determine whether lim f (x) exists.
x→4
8 − 2x , ifx < 4
√
Solution. We have f (x) = x − 4 for x > 4.
ng
√
∴ lim f (x) = lim x − 4 = 0.
x→4+ x→4+
Also, f (x) = 8 − 2x for x < 4.
eri
∴ lim f (x) = lim (8 − 2x) = 0.
x→4− x→4−
Since lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0, we have lim f (x) exists and lim f (x) = 0.
x→4+ x→4− x→4 x→4
e
Example 1.17. Show that for the greatest integer function [x], lim [x] does not
gin
x→3
exist.
Solution. By definition [x] = 3 for 3 ≤ x < 4.
En
∴ lim [x] = lim 3 = 3.
x→3+ x→3+
Also [x] = 2 for 2 ≤ x < 3.
∴ lim [x] = lim 2 = 2.
arn
x→3− x→3−
Since lim [x] , lim [x], lim [x] does not exist.
x→3+ x→3− x→3
Le
1.3 Continuity
Definition. A function f is continuous at a number a, if lim f (x) = f (a).
w.
x→a
f is discontinuous at a if it is not continuous at a.
Note. For proving a function f to be continuous, we have to prove the following.
ww
1. f (a) must be defined.
2. lim f (x) exists.
x→a
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14 Engineering Mathematics - I
3. lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
x2 − x − 2
Example. Consider f (x) = .
x−2
Here, f (x) is not defined at x = 2.
∴ f is not continuous at x = 2.
x2 −x−2
, ifx , 2
.in
x−2
If we define f (x) as f (x) =
.
, ifx = 2
1
Then
ng
(i) f (2) is defined and f (2) = 1.
x2 − x − 2 (x − 2)(x + 1)
eri
(ii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2
(iii) Since f (2) = 1 , lim f (x), f (x) is not continuous at x = 2.
x→2
e
Definition. A function f is said to be continuous from the right at a number a if
gin
lim f (x) = f (a), and f is said to be continuous from the left at a if lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a+ x→a−
Example. Consider the greatest integer function f (x) = [x]. We notice that
lim f (x) = lim [x] = n = f (n)
En
x→n+ x→n+
lim f (x) = lim [x] = n − 1 , f (n).
x→n− x→n−
∴ f (x) = [x] is continuous from the right but not continuous from the
arn
left.
Definition. A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every
number in the interval.
Le
Theorem. If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant, then the following
functions are also continuous at a.
w.
f
1. f + g 2. f − g 3. c f 4. f g 5. g(a) , 0.
g
Theorem.
ww
(a) Any polynomial is continuous everywhere. i.e., it iscontinuous on R = (−∞, ∞).
(b) Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined, i.e., it is continuous
on its domain.
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Differential calculus 15
Theorem. The following types of functions are continuous at every number in
their domains.
1. Polynomials.
2. Rational functions.
.in
3. Root functions.
4. Trigonometric functions.
ng
5. Inverse trigonometric functions.
eri
6. Exponential functions.
7. Logarithmic functions.
e
gin
Theorem. If f is continuous at b, and lim g(x) = b, then lim f (g(x)) = f (b).
x→a x→a
i.e., lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a
Theorem. If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the composite
En
function f og given by ( f og)(x) = f (g(x)) is continuous at a.
The intermediate value theorem. Suppose that f is continuous on the closed
arn
interval [a, b] and let N be any number between f (a) and f (b), where f (a) , f (b).
Then there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f (c) = N.
Result. The intermediate value theorem is useful in the location of the roots
Le
of the given equation.
Example 1.18. Find the domain where the fnction f is continuous. Also find the
w.
numbers at which the function f is discontinous where
1 + x2
, if x ≤ 0
ww
f (x) = , if 0 < x ≤ 2 . [A.U. Dec. 2015]
2−x
(x − 2)2 x
, if x > 2
Solution. The function f changes its value at x = 0, and x = 2.
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16 Engineering Mathematics - I
lim f (x) = lim (1 + x2 ) = 1.
x→0− x→0−
lim f (x) = lim (2 − x) = 2.
x→0+ x→0+
Since, lim f (x) = lim f (x), f is not continuous at x = 0.
x→0− x→0+
lim f (x) = lim (2 − x) = 0.
x→2− x→2−
lim f (x) = lim (x − 2)2 = 0.
.in
x→2+ x→2+
Since, lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0 = f (2), f (x) is continuous at x = 2.
x→2− x→2+
∴ The only number at which the function is discontinuous is at x = 0.
ng
The domain of continuity of f is {(−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
The graph of f is given below
eri
The combined graph of the function f is
For all x ≤ 0.
as follows
y = f (x) = 1 + x2 .
e
gin
Y
x -3 -2 -1 0 10
y 10 5 2 1 9
8
En
For all 0 < x ≤ 2. 1 + x2
7
y = f (x) = 2 − x.
6
arn
x 0 1 2 5
y 2 1 0 4
For all x > 2. 3
Le
2 (x − 2)2
y = f (x) = (x − 2)2 . 2−x
1
x 2 3 4 X
w.
y 0 1 4
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
ww
Notice that the point (−1, 1) in y = x2 is not included and there is a discontinuity
between the graph for all x ≤ 1 (i.e.y = 1 − x) and the graph for all x > 1 (i.e. y = x2 ).
Example 1.19. Show that there is a root of the equation 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 between
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Differential calculus 17
1 and 2.
Solution.Let f (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2.
f (1) = 4(1)3 − 6(1)2 + 3(1) − 2 = 4 − 6 + 3 − 2 = −1 < 0.
.in
f (2) = 4(2)3 − 6(2)2 + 3(2) − 2
= 4 × 8 − 6 × 4 + 3 × 2 − 2 = 32 − 24 + 6 − 2 = 12 > 0.
ng
The function changes its sign between 1 and 2.
eri
Y
Since f (x) is a polynomial, which is
continuous in its domain the graph of
y = f (x) must cross the x−axis atleast
e f (1)
gin
at one point say x = c between x = 1
and x = 2 such that f (c) = 0, which is c 2
X
the root of the equation f (x) = 0. This 1
f (2)
En
proves that the given equation f (x) = 0
has a root between 1 and 2.
arn
Example 1.20. Prove that the equation x3 − 15x + 1 = 0 has atmost one real root
in the interval [−2, 2]. [A.U.Nov.2016]
Le
Solution. Let f (x) = x3 − 15x + 1
w.
f (−2) = −8 + 30 + 1 = 23 = +ve.
f (−1) = −1 + 15 + 1 = 15 = +ve. + + +
ww
f (0) = 1 = +ve.
f (1) = 1 − 15 + 1 = −13 = −ve. −2 −1 0 1 2
f (2) = 8 − 30 + 1 = −21 = −ve. − −
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18 Engineering Mathematics - I
Hence, f (0) > 0 > f (1).
f changes sign between 0 and 1.
∴ By intermediate value theorem, there is a number c between 1 and 2
such that f (c) = 0.
∴ The given equation has atleast one root c in the interval (0, 1).
.in
Since f (x) changes sign in the interval [−2, 2] only once between 0 and
1, y = f (x) crosses the x axis only once.
i.e., f (x) attains 0 only once in [−2, 2]
ng
Hence, there is atmost one real root in the interval [−2, 2].
eri
1.4 Derivatives and differentiation rules
e
Definition. The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P(a, f (a)) is the line
gin
f (x) − f (a)
through P with slope m = lim .
x→a x−a
En
Definition. The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by f ′ (a) is
f (a + h) − f (a)
defined as f ′ (a) = lim , if the limit exists.
h→0 h
arn
Note. Let x = a+h. As h → 0, x → a. The equivalent definition for the derivative
f (x) − f (a)
is f ′ (a) = lim .
x→a x−a
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
Le
✍ ✌
Example 1.21. Find an equation to the tangent line to the parabola y = x2 at the
w.
point P(1, 1).
Solution. Given a = 1, f (a) = 1, f (x) = x2 .
ww
f (x) − f (1)
Slope m = lim
x→1 x−1
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
= lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2.
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x−1 x→1
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Differential calculus 19
Equation of the tangent line through (1, 1) is
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).
y − 1 = 2(x − 1)
y = 2x − 2 + 1
.in
y = 2x − 1.
ng
Example 1.22. Find an equation to the tangent line to the hyperbola y = at the
x
point (3, 1).
eri
Solution. Given a = 3, f (a) = f (3) = 1.
f (a + h) − f (a)
We have m = lim
h→0 h
e
f (3 + h) − f (3)
gin
= lim
h→0 h
3
−1
= lim 3+h
h→0 h
En
3−3−h
= lim
h→0 h(3 + h)
−h −1 −1
= lim = lim = .
h→0 h(3 + h) h→0 (3 + h) 3
arn
∴ The equation of the tangent line is
Le
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).
−1
y−1= (x − 3)
3
w.
3y − 3 = −x + 3
x + 3y − 3 − 3 = 0
ww
x + 3y − 6 = 0.
Example 1.23. Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 − 8x + 9 at a number
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20 Engineering Mathematics - I
a. Find also the equation the tangent line at the point (3, −6).
f (a + h) − f (a)
Solution. f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
(a + h) − 8(a + h) + 9 − (a2 − 8a + 9)
2
= lim
h→0 h
a + h + 2ah − 8a − 8h + 9 − a2 + 8a − 9
2 2
= lim
.in
h→0 h
h2 + 2ah − 8h
= lim
h→0 h
ng
= lim (h + 2a − 8) = 2a − 8.
h→0
We have m = f ′ (a) = f ′ (3) = 2 × 3 − 8 = −2.
eri
∴ The equation of the tangent line is
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).
e
gin
y + 6 = −2(x − 3)
= −2x + 6
2x + y = 0.
En
Derivative of a function. Let f (x) be a given function. The derivative of f (x) at
f (x + h) − f (x)
any variable point x is defined by f ′ (x) = lim .
arn
h→0 h
Example 1.24. If f (x) = x3 − x, find a formula for f ′ (x).
Solution.Given f (x) = x3 − x.
Le
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
(x + h)3 − (x + h) − (x3 − x)
w.
= lim
h→0 h
x + 3x h + 3xh2 + h3 − x − h − x3 + x
3 2
= lim
ww
h→0 h
2 2
3x h + 3xh + h − h3
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 3x2 + 3xh + h2 − 1 = 3x2 − 1.
h→0
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Differential calculus 21
√
Example 1.25. If f (x) = x, find the derivative of f . State the domain of f ′ .
√
Solution.Given f (x) = x.
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
√ √
x+h− x
= lim
.in
h→0 h
√ √ √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
= lim × √ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
ng
x+h−x
= lim √ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
eri
h
= lim √ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
1 1 1
= lim √ √ = √ √ = √ .
h→0 x+h+ x
e
x+ x 2 x
gin
From this we notice that f ′ (x) exists if x > 0.
∴ The domain of f ′ is (0, ∞).
En
Example 1.26. Where is the function f (x) = |x| differentiable. [A.U. Nov. 2015]
x if x ≥ 0
arn
Solution. We have that |x| = .
−x if x < 0
Consider x > 0. Then |x| = x. We choose h small enough such that x + h > 0.
∴ |x + h| = x + h.
Le
∴ When x > 0,
w.
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
|x + h| − |x|
= lim
ww
h→0 h
x+h−x h
= lim = lim = lim 1 = 1.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
∴ f is differentiable for x > 0.
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22 Engineering Mathematics - I
Consider x = 0.
f (0 + h) − f (x)
f ′ (0) = lim
h→0 h
|0 + h| − |x|
= lim
h→0 h
|h|
= lim [if it exists]
h→0 h
.in
Let us find the left and right limits.
|h| h
lim = lim = lim 1 = 1.
ng
h→0+ h h→0+ h h→0+
|h| −h
lim = lim = lim −1 = −1.
h→0− h h→0− h h→0
Since the two limits are different, f ′ (0) does not exist.
eri
∴ f is not differentiable at x = 0.
Consider x < 0.
In this case |x| = −x. e
gin
Choose h small so that x + h < 0.
∴ |x + h| = −(x + h)
∴ For x < 0,
En
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
arn
−(x + h) − (−x)
= lim
h→0 h
−x − h + x −h
= lim = lim = lim −1 = −1.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
Le
∴ f is differentiable for x < 0.
Combining all the three cases we obtain that f is differentiable at all x except 0.
w.
1 ifx > 0
′
∴ f (x) =
.
−1 ifx < 0
ww
Theorem. If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.
Proof. Given that f is differentiable at a.
f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (x) = lim exits. (1)
x→a x−a
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Differential calculus 23
f (x) − f (a)
Now, f (x) − f (a) = (x − a)
x−a
Taking limits as x → a both sides we get
f (x) − f (a)
lim f (x) − f (a) = lim (x − a)
x→a x→a x−a
f (x) − f (a)
= lim × lim (x − a)
x→a x−a x→a
.in
= f ′ (a) × 0 [by (1)]
lim f (x) − f (a) = 0 (2)
x→a
ng
Also lim f (x) = lim f (a) + ( f (x) − f (a))
x→a x→a
= lim + lim ( f (x) − f (a))
eri
x→a x→a
= f (a) + 0 [by (1)]
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
e
gin
∴ f (x) is continuous at a.
Result. The converse of the above theorem is false.
i.e., If a function is continuous at a need not be differentiable at a.
En
For example consider the function f (x) = |x|.
lim f (x) = lim |x| = 0 = f (0).
x→a x→a
arn
But by example 1.26, f (x) = |x| is not differentiable at 0.
Higher derivatives. If a function f is differentiable, then its derivative f ′ is also
a function. Hence, f ′ may have a derivative of its own denoted by ( f ′ )′ = f ′′ . f ′′ is
Le
called !the second derivative of f . The second derivative of y = f (x) is denoted by
d dy d2 y
= 2 . In a similar way we can have the third derivative of f denoted by
dx dx dx
w.
d d2 y d3 y
!
( f ′′ )′ = f ′′′ . If y = f (x) then we have y′′′ = f ′′′ (x) = = . If this process is
dx dx2 dx3
continued we can get in general, the nth derivative of f denoted by f (n) is obtained
ww
dn y
by differentiating f n times. Generally if y = f (x) then we write y(n) = f (n) (x) = n .
dx
Rules on differentiation
1. The sum rule. If f and g are both differentiable, then
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24 Engineering Mathematics - I
d d d
g(x) .
f (x) + g(x) = f (x) +
dx dx dx
Proof. Let F(x) = f (x) + g(x). Then,
F(x + h) − F(x)
F ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
f (x + h) + g(x + h) − [ f (x) + g(x)]
= lim
h→0 h
.in
[ f (x + h) − f (x)] + [g(x + h) − g(x)]
= lim
h→0 h
[ f (x + h) − f (x)]
= lim + lim [g(x + h) − g(x)]h
ng
h→0 h h→0
= f ′ (x) + g′ (x).
eri
2. Constant multiple rule. If c is a constant and f is a differentiable function,
d d
then
f (x) .
c f (x) = c
dx dx
Proof. Let F(x) = c f (x). Then, e
gin
F(x + h) − F(x)
F ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
c f (x + h) − c f (x)
= lim
En
h→0 h
c[ f (x + h) − f (x)]
= lim
h→0 h
arn
[ f (x + h) − f (x)]
= c lim
h→0 h
d
= c f ′ (x) = c
f (x) .
dx
Le
3. The difference rule. If f and g are both differentiable, then
d d d
g(x) .
f (x) − g(x) = f (x) −
w.
dx dx dx
Proof. We have f (x) − g(x) = f (x) + (−)g(x).
d d
ww
f (x) − g(x) = f (x) + (−1)g(x)
dx dx
d d
= f (x) + (−1)g(x) [by sum rule]
dx dx
d d
= f (x) + (−1) g(x) [by constant multiple rule]
dx dx
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Differential calculus 25
d d
= f (x) − g(x) .
dx dx
4. The product rule. If f and g are both differentiable, then
d d d
f (x) × g(x) = f (x) g(x) + g(x) f (x) .
dx dx dx
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
.in
Proof. ( f (x)g(x))′ = lim
h→0 h
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x + h)g(x) + f (x + h)g(x) − f (x)g(x)
= lim
h→0 h
ng
f (x + h){g(x + h) − g(x)} + g(x){ f (x + h) − f (x)}
= lim
h→0 h
( )
g(x + h) − g(x) f (x + h) − f (x)
eri
= lim f (x + h) + g(x)
h→0 h h
g(x + h) − g(x) f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim f (x + h) lim + lim g(x) lim
h h
h→0 h→0
e
( f (x)g(x))′ = f (x)g′ (x) + g(x) f ′ (x).
h→0 h→0
gin
5. Quotient rule. If f d and g are both differentiable, then
d
g(x) dx f (x) − f (x) dx g(x)
" #
d f (x)
En
= 2
.
dx g(x) [g(x)]
!′ f (x+h) f (x)
f (x) g(x+h) − g(x)
arn
Proof. = lim
g(x) h
h→0
( )
f (x + h)g(x) − g(x + h) f (x)
= lim
h→0 hg(x + h)g(x)
Le
( )
f (x + h)g(x) − f (x)g(x) + f (x)g(x) − g(x + h) f (x)
= lim
h→0 hg(x + h)g(x)
( )
w.
g(x)[ f (x + h) − f (x)] − f (x)[g(x + h) − g(x)]
= lim
h→0 hg(x + h)g(x)
f (x+h)− f (x)
− f (x) g(x+h)−g(x)
g(x)
h h
ww
= lim
g(x + h)g(x)
h→0
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
lim g(x) − lim f (x)
h→0 h h→0 h
=
lim g(x + h)g(x)
h→0
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26 Engineering Mathematics - I
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
lim g(x) lim − lim f (x) lim
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
=
g(x)g(x)
g(x) f ′ (x) − f (x)g′ (x)
= .
[g(x)]2
Derivatives of simple functions
.in
d
1. If c is a constant, prove that (c) = 0.
dx
Proof. Let f (x) = c.
ng
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
eri
c−c 0
= lim = lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h
d n
2. If n is a positive integer, then prove that
e dx
(x ) = nxn−1 .
gin
Proof. Let f (x) = xn .
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
En
(x + h)n − xn
= lim
h→0 h
x + C1 xn−1 h + nC2 xn−2 h2 + nC3 xn−3 h3 + · · · + hn − xn
n n
= lim
arn
h→0 h
n−1 n(n−1) n−2 2 n(n−1)(n−2) n−3 3
nx h + 2 x h + 6 x h + · · · + hn
= lim
h→0 h
n−1 n(n − 1) n−2 1 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 2
x h + · · · + hn−1
Le
= lim nx + x h +
h→0 2 6
n(n − 1) n−2 1 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 2
= lim nxn−1 + lim x h + lim x h + · · · + lim hn−1
h→0 h→0 2 h→0 6 h→0
w.
= nxn−1 + 0 + 0 + · · · + 0 = nxn−1 .
ww
d n
General rule. If n ia any real number, then (x ) = nxn−1 .
dx
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Differential calculus 27
d x
3. Derivative of e x . Prove that (e ) = e x .
dx
eh − 1
Definition of the number e. e is a number such that lim = 1.
h→0 h
Proof. Let f (x) = e x .
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
.in
h→0 h
e x+h − e x
= lim
h→0 h
ng
e e − ex
x h
= lim
h→0 h
h
!
x e −1
= lim e
eri
h→0 h
eh − 1
!
x
= lim e × lim = ex × 1 = ex .
h→0 h→0 h
Two important limits e
gin
sin θ
1. Prove that lim = 1.
θ→0 θ
En
D
Proof. Consider a circle with center
O and radius 1 unit. Let arc(AB) B
arn
subtends an angle θ at the centre E
π
and assume that 0 < θ < . Draw θ
2 A
BC perpendicular to OA. Let the 0 C
Le
tangents at A and B meet at E.
Produce AE and OB to intersect at D.
w.
Now we have arcAB = θ.
BC BC
ww
From ∆OAB, sin θ = OB = 1 .
∴ |BC| = sin θ.
From the figure we have
|BC| < |AB| < arcAB.
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28 Engineering Mathematics - I
∴ sin θ < θ.
sin θ
⇒ < 1. (1)
θ
Again form the figure,
arcAB < |AE| + |EB|
∴ θ = arcAB < |AE| + |EB| < |AB| + |ED| = |AD| = |OA| tan θ = tan θ.
.in
∴ θ < tan θ.
sin θ
i.e., θ <
ng
cos θ
θ cos θ < sin θ
sin θ
eri
cos θ < <1 [by(1)]
θ
Taking limit as θ → 0 we get
lim cos θ < lim
sin θ
< lim 1 e
gin
θ→0 θ→0 θ θ→0
sin θ
1 < lim <1
θ→0 θ
sin θ
By squeeze theorem lim = 1.
θ→0 θ
En
cos θ − 1
2. Prove that lim = 0.
arn
θ→0 θ
cos θ − 1 cos θ − 1 cos θ + 1
Proof. lim = lim ×
θ→0 θ θ→0 θ cos θ + 1
Le
2
cos θ − 1 − sin2 θ
= lim = lim
θ→0 θ(cos θ + 1) θ→0 θ(cos θ + 1)
sin θ sin θ 0
= − lim × lim = −1 × = 0.
w.
θ→0 θ θ→0 (cos θ + 1) 1+1
cos θ − 1
∴ lim = 0.
ww
θ→0 θ
Derivatives of trigonometric functions
d
1. Prove that (sin x) = cos x.
dx
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Differential calculus 29
Proof. Let f (x) = sin(x)
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
sin(x + h) − sin(x)
= lim
h→0 h
sin(x) cos(h) + cos(x) sin(h) − sin(x)
= lim
h→0 h
.in
sin(x)(cos(h) − 1) + cos(x) sin(h)
= lim
h→0 h
!
sin(x)(cos(h) − 1) cos(x) sin(h)
ng
= lim +
h→0 h h
!
(cos(h) − 1) sin(h)
= lim sin(x) + lim cos(x)
h→0 h h→0 h
eri
!
(cos(h) − 1) sin(h)
= sin(x) lim + cos(x) lim
h→0 h h→0 h
e
= sin(x) × 0 + cos(x) × 1 = 0 + cos(x) = cos(x).
gin
d
2. Prove that (cos x) = − sin x.
dx
Proof. Let f (x) = cos(x)
En
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
cos(x + h) − cos(x)
= lim
arn
h→0 h
cos(x) cos(h) − sin(x) sin(h) − cos(x)
= lim
h→0 h
cos(x)(cos(h) − 1) − sin(x) sin(h)
= lim
Le
h→0 h
!
cos(x)(cos(h) − 1) sin(x) sin(h)
= lim −
h→0 h h
w.
!
(cos(h) − 1) sin(h)
= lim cos(x) − lim sin(x)
h→0 h h→0 h
ww
= cos(x) × 0 − sin(x) × 1 = − sin(x).
f ′ (x) = − sin x.
d
3. Prove that (tan x) = sec2 x.
dx
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30 Engineering Mathematics - I
Proof. Let f (x) = tan(x)
d d
cos x dx (sin x) − sin x dx (cos x)
!
d d sin x
(tan x) = = 2
dx dx cos x cos x
cos x × cos x − sin x × (− sin x)
=
cos2 x
2
cos2 x + sin x 1
= = = sec2 x.
.in
cos2 x cos2 x
d
4. Prove that (cosecx) = −cosecx cot x.
dx
ng
d d
sin x dx (1) − 1 × dx (sin x)
!
d d 1
Proof. (cosecx) = =
dx dx sin x sin2 x
eri
sin x × 0 − 1 × (cos x)
=
sin2 x
− cos x −1 cos x
= = × = −cosecx cot x.
2
sin x
e
sin x sin x
gin
d
5. Prove that (sec x) = sec x tan x.
dx
d d
cos x dx (1) − 1 × dx (cos x)
!
d d 1
En
Proof. (sec x) = = 2
dx dx cos x cos x
cos x × 0 − 1 × (− sin x)
=
cos2 x
arn
sin x sin x 1
= 2
= × = sec x tan x.
cos x cos x cos x
d
6. Prove that (cot x) = −cosec2 x.
Le
dx
d d
d d cos x sin x dx (cos x) − cos x × dx (sin x)
Proof. (cot x) = =
dx dx sin x sin2 x
w.
sin x × (− sin x) − cos x × (cos x)
=
sin2 x
− sin2 x − cos2 x −(sin2 x + cos2 x)
ww
1
= 2
= 2
= − 2 = −cosec2 x.
sin x sin x sin x
The chain rule. If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x), then the
composite function F = f og defined by F(x) = f (g(x)) is differentiable at x and F ′ is
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Differential calculus 31
given by the product F ′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)) × g′ (x).
Proof. Let y = F(x) = f (g(x))
Let u = g(x) ⇒ y = f (u)
Let ∆x be a small change in x, then ∆u is the corresponding change in u.
∆u = g(x + ∆x) − g(x).
.in
Then the corresponding change in y is given by
∆y = f (u + ∆u) − f (u)
ng
dy ∆y
Now, = lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
∆y ∆u
= lim ×
eri
∆x→0 ∆u ∆x
∆y ∆u
= lim × lim
∆x→0 ∆u ∆x→0 ∆x
∆y ∆u
= lim
∆x→0 ∆u
× lim
∆x→0 ∆x e
[∆u → 0 as ∆x → 0]
gin
dy du
= ×
du dx
d d
= ( f (u)) × (g(x)) = f ′ (u) × g′ (x)
du dx
En
d
[F(x)] = f ′ (g(x)) × g′ (x)
dx
F ′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)) × g′ (x)
arn
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
1 + cos 2x
Le
Example 1.27. Evaluate limπ . [A.U.Jan. 2015]
x→ 2 (π − 2x)2
1 + cos 2x 2 cos2 x
w.
Solution. limπ = lim
x→ 2 (π − 2x)2 x→ π2 (π − 2x)2
π
Let −x=y
ww
2
π
As x → , y → 0
2
1 + cos 2x 2 cos2 x
∴ limπ = limπ
x→ 2 (π − 2x)2 x→ 2
2
4 π−x 2
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32 Engineering Mathematics - I
1 cos2 π2 − y
= lim
2 y→0 y2
1 sin2 y
= lim 2
2 y→0 y
!2
1 sin y
= lim
2 y→0 y
.in
!2
1 sin y 1 1
= lim = × 12 = .
2 y→0 y 2 2
ng
dy
Example 1.28. If y = x8 + 12x5 − 4x4 + 10x3 − 6x + 5, find .
dx
eri
Solution. Given, y = x8 + 12x5 − 4x4 + 10x3 − 6x + 5
dy d 8
=
dx dx e
x + 12x5 − 4x4 + 10x3 − 6x + 5
gin
d 8 d d d d d
= (x ) + (12x5 ) − (4x4 ) + (10x3 ) − (6x) + (5)
dx dx dx dx dx dx
d d d d
= 8x8−1 + 12 (x5 ) − 4 (x4 ) + 10 (x3 ) − 6 (x) + 0
dx dx dx dx
En
= 8x7 + 12 × 5(x5−1 ) − 4 × 4(x4−1 ) + 10 × 3(x3−1 ) − 6 × 1
= 8x7 + 60x4 − 16x3 + 30x2 − 6.
arn
dy d2 y
Example 1.29. If y = e x − x, find and 2 .
dx dx
Le
Solution. Given y = e x − x.
dy
= ex − 1
w.
dx
d2 y
= ex .
dx2
ww
dy
Example 1.30. If y = x2 sin x, find .
dx
Solution. Given y = x2 sin x.
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Differential calculus 33
Applying the product rule we obtain
dy d 2
= x sin x
dx dx
d d
= x2 (sin x) + sin x (x2 )
dx dx
= x2 × (cos x) + sin x × (2x)
.in
= x2 cos x + 2x sin x.
sec x dy
ng
Example 1.31. If f (x) = , find . For what values of x, does the graph of
1 + tan x dx
f , has a horizontal tangent.
sec x
Solution. Given f (x) = .
eri
1 + tan x
By the quotient rule, we have
d d
(1 + tan x) dx (sec x) − sec x dx (1 + tan x)
f ′ (x) =
(1 + tan x)2e
gin
(1 + tan x)(sec x tan x) − sec x 0 + sec2 x
=
(1 + tan x)2
sec x tan x + sec x tan2 x − sec3 x
En
=
(1 + tan x)2
sec x(tan x + tan2 x − sec2 x)
=
(1 + tan x)2
arn
sec x(tan x − (sec2 x − tan2 x))
=
(1 + tan x)2
sec x(tan x − 1)
Le
=
(1 + tan x)2
sec x(tan x − 1)
f ′ (x) = .
(1 + tan x)2
w.
The points where the graph of f has a horizontal tangent are given by f ′ (x) = 0
ww
sec x(tan x − 1)
i.e., =0
(1 + tan x)2
⇒ sec x(tan x − 1) = 0
But sec x , 0
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34 Engineering Mathematics - I
∴ tan x − 1 = 0
π
i.e., tan x = 1 ⇒ x = nπ + , n is an integer.
4
Example 1.32. Find the points on the curve y = x4 − 6x2 + 4 where the tangent line
is horizontal.
dy
.in
Solution. Horizontal tangent occur at points where = 0.
dx
i.e.,4x3 − 6 × 2x = 0
ng
4x3 − 12x = 0
4x(x2 − 3) = 0
eri
√
i.e.,x = 0 or x2 − 3 = 0 ⇒ x2 = 3 ⇒ x = ± 3.
When x = 0, y = 4.
e
gin
The point is (0, 4).
√ √ 4 √ 2
When x = 3, y = 3 − 6 3 + 4 = 9 − 18 + 4 = −5.
√
The point is ( 3, −5).
En
√ √ 4 √ 2
When x = − 3, y = − 3 − 6 − 3 + 4 = 9 − 18 + 4 = −5.
√
The point is (− 3, −5).
√ √
arn
The given curve has horizontal tangents at the points (0, 4), ( 3, −5) and (− 3, −5).
Example 1.33. At what point on the cure y = e x , is the tangent line parallel to the
Le
line y = 2x.
Solution. Given y = e x ⇒ y′ = e x .
slope of the tangent at x = e x .
w.
Since the tangent line is parallel to the line y = 2x,
Slope of the tangent = 2.
ww
i.e., e x = 2 ⇒ x = log 2.
When x = log 2, y = elog 2 = 2.
∴ The required point is (log 2, 2).
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Differential calculus 35
Example 1.34. If f (x) = xe x find f (n) (x).
Solution. Given f (x) = xe x .
d
f ′ (x) = xe x
dx
d x d
=x e + e x (x) = xe x + e x .1 = e x (x + 1).
dx dx
.in
d
f ′′ (x) = (x + 1)e x
dx
d x d
= (x + 1) e + e x (x + 1)
ng
dx dx
= (x + 1)e x + e x .1 = e x (x + 1 + 1) = e x (x + 2).
d
eri
f ′′′ (x) = (x + 2)e x
dx
d x d
= (x + 2) e + e x (x + 2)
dx dx
e
= (x + 2)e x + e x .1 = e x (x + 2 + 1) = e x (x + 3).
gin
Applying this process successively n times we get
En
f (n) (x) = e x (x + n).
x2 + x − 2 dy
Example 1.35. If y = 3
, find .
x +6 dx
arn
x2 + x − 2
Solution. Given y = .
x3 + 6
d d
(x3 + 6) dx (x2 + x − 2) − (x2 + x − 2) dx (x3 + 6)
Le
dy
=
dx (x3 + 6)2
(x3 + 6)(2x + 1) − (x2 + x − 2)(3x2 )
=
w.
(x3 + 6)2
2x + x + 12x + 6 − 3x4 − 3x3 + 6x2
4 3
=
(x3 + 6)2
ww
−x4 − 2x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 6
= .
(x3 + 6)2
ex
Example 1.36. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = at the
1 + x2
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36 Engineering Mathematics - I
e
point (1, ).
2
ex
Solution. Given y =
1 + x2
ex
!
dy d
=
dx dx 1 + x2
d d
(1 + x2 ) dx (e x ) − e x dx (1 + x2 )
=
.in
(1 + x2 )2
(1 + x2 )e x − e x 2x
=
(1 + x2 )2
ng
e x (1 + x2 − 2x) e x (1 − x)2
= =
(1 + x2 )2 (1 + x2 )2
!
dy e(1 − 1)
eri
e ! = = 0.
dx 1, (1 + 1)2
2
∴ Slope of the tangent m = 0.
Equation of the tangent line is e
gin
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
e
y − = 0(x − 1)
2
En
e
y − = 0.
2
√
Example 1.37. Find F ′ (x) if F(x) = x2 + 1.
arn
√ √
Solution. Let y = x2 + 1, let u = x2 + 1 and y = u.
dy du
NowF ′ (x) = × .
du dx
Le
1 −1 1 x
= u 2 × 2x = √ x = √ .
2 u 2
x +1
dy
w.
Example 1.38. Find if (i) y = sin(x2 ) (ii) y = sin2 x.
dx
Solution. (i) Given y = sin(x2 ).
ww
Let u = x2 . Then y = sin u.
dy dy du
Now = × .
dx du dx
= cos u × 2x = cos(x2 )2x = 2x cos(x2 ).
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Differential calculus 37
(ii) Given y = sin2 x
Let u = sin x. Then y = u2 .
dy dy du
Now = × .
dx du dx
= 2u cos x = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x.
.in
Example 1.39. Differentiate the following functions
ng
(iv) y = esin x .
3 100
(i) y = (x − 1) .
eri
(v) y = sin(cos(tan x)).
1
(ii) y = √ .
3
x2 + x + 1 (vi) y = esec 3x .
e x−2
!9
gin
(iii) y = (2x + 1)5 (x3 − x + 1)4 . (vii) y = .
2x + 1
Solution. (i) Given y = (x3 − 1)100
En
Let u = x3 − 1. Then y = u100 .
dy dy du
Now = × .
arn
dx du dx
= 100u99 × 3x2 = 300x2 (x3 − 1)99 .
1
Le
(ii) Given y = √
3
x2 +x+1
−1
Let u = x2 + x + 1. Then y = u 3 .
w.
dy dy du
Now = × .
dx du dx
−1 −1 −1
= u 3 × (2x + 1)
ww
3
−1 −4 −1 −(2x + 1)
= u 3 × (2x + 1) = 4 × (2x + 1) = 4
.
3 3u 3 3(x2 + x + 1) 3
(iii) Given y = (2x + 1)5 (x3 − x + 1)4
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38 Engineering Mathematics - I
−1
Let u = x2 + x + 1. Then y = u 3 .
dy d
Now = (2x + 1)5 (x3 − x + 1)4
dx dx
d 3 d
= (2x + 1)5 (x − x + 1)4 + (x3 − x + 1)4 (2x + 1)5
dx dx
= (2x + 1) 4(x − x + 1) (3x − 1) + (x − x + 1)4 5(2x + 1)4 × 2
5 3 3 2 3
.in
= 4(2x + 1)5 (x3 − x + 1)3 (3x2 − 1) + 10(x3 − x + 1)4 (2x + 1)4
= 2(2x + 1)4 (x3 − x + 1)3 {2(2x + 1)(3x2 − 1) + 5(x3 − x + 1)}
ng
= 2(2x + 1)4 (x3 − x + 1)3 {12x3 − 4x + 6x2 − 2 + 5x3 − 5x + 5)}
= 2(2x + 1)4 (x3 − x + 1)3 {17x3 + 6x2 − 9x + 3)}.
eri
(iv) Given y = esin x
dy
= esin x cos x. e
gin
dx
(v) Given y = sin (cos(tan x)).
dy
= cos (cos(tan x)) (− sin(tan x)) sec2 x
En
dx
= − cos (cos(tan x)) sin(tan x) sec2 x.
arn
(vi) Given y = esec 3x .
dy
Le
= esec 3x × sec 3x × tan 3x × 3 = 3 sec 3x tan 3xesec 3x .
dx
!9
x−2
w.
(vii) Given y = .
2x + 1
ww
!8 !
dy x−2 (2x + 1) × 1 − (x − 2) × 2
=9
dx 2x + 1 (2x + 1)2
!8
(x − 2)8
!
x−2 2x + 1 − 2x + 4
=9 = 45 .
2x + 1 (2x + 1)2 (2x + 1)10
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Differential calculus 39
1.5 Implicit differentiation, logarithmic differentiation and
Inverse trigonometric function.
Whenever an equation containing two variables x and y, it is not always
dy
possible to express y interns of x and it is not easy to find directly. In such
dx
case, we differentiate both sides with respect to x and then solve the resultant
.in
dy
equation for .
✎ ☞ dx
Worked Examples
ng
✍ ✌
dy
Example 1.40. If x2 + y2 = 25, find . Find also the equation of the tangent to the
dx
eri
circle at the point (3, 4).
Solution. Given x2 + y2 = 25.
Differentiating both sides w.r.to x we get
e
gin
dy
2x + 2y =0
dx
dy
x+y =0
dx
En
dy dy −x
y = −x ⇒ = .
dx dx y
dy −3
arn
At (3, 4) = .
dx 4
−3
Slope of the tangent at (3, 4) = m = .
4
Equation of the tangent is
Le
−3
y−4= (x − 3)
4
w.
4y − 16 = −3x + 9
3x + 4y = 16 + 9
ww
3x + 4y = 25.
dy
Example 1.41. If x3 +y3 = 6xy, find . Find the tangent to the Folium of Descartes
dx
x3 + y3 = 6xy at the point (3, 3). At what point in the first quadrant is the tangent
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40 Engineering Mathematics - I
line horizontal.
Solution. Given x3 + y3 = 6xy.
Differentiating both sides w.r.to x we get
" #
2 2 dy dy
3x + 3y =6 x +y×1
dx dx
" #
2 dy dy dy
.in
2
x +y = 2 x + y = 2x + 2y
dx dx dx
dy dy
y2 − 2x = 2y − x2
dx dx
ng
dy 2
(y − 2x) = 2y − x2
dx
dy 2y − x2
eri
= .
dx y2 − 2x
dy 2 × 3 − 32
At(3, 3) = = −1.
dx 32 − 2 × 3
e
gin
Slope of the tangent at (3, 3) = m = −1 .
The equation of the tangent is y − 3 = −1(x − 3) = −x + 3 ⇒ x + y = 6.
dy
The points at which the tangent line is horizontal are given by = 0.
dx
En
2y − x 2
i.e., 2 =0
y − 2x
i.e., 2y − x2 = 0
arn
x2
i.e., y = .
2
x2
Substituting y = in the equation of the curve we obtain
2
Le
!3
3 x2 x2
x + = 6x ×
2 2
w.
x6
!
x3 + = 3x3
8
x6
− 2x3 = 0
ww
8
3
!
3 x
x −2 =0
8
x3 x3 − 16 = 0
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Differential calculus 41
x3 = 0 or x3 − 16 = 0
x3 = 0 or x3 = 16
But x , 0
4
∴ x3 = 16 = 24 ⇒ x = 2 3 .
4 4 2 8 8 5
when x = 2 3 , y = 12 2 3 = 12 2 3 = 2 3 −1 = 2 3 .
.in
4 5
∴ In the first quadrant, the tangent line is horizontal at (2 3 , 2 3 ).
ng
dy
Example 1.42. Find if sin(x + y) = y2 cos x.
dx
Solution. Given sin(x + y) = y2 cos x.
eri
Differentiating both sides w.r.to x we get
!
dy dy
cos(x + y) 1 + = y2 (− sin x) + cos x × 2y
dx
dy e dy
dx
gin
cos(x + y) + cos(x + y) = −y2 sin x + 2y cos x
dx dx
dy dy 2
cos(x + y) − 2y cos x = −y sin x − cos(x + y)
dx dx
dy
En
(cos(x + y) − 2y cos x) = − y2 sin x + cos(x + y)
dx
2
dy − y sin x + cos(x + y)
=
arn
dx (cos(x + y) − 2y cos x)
y2 sin x + cos(x + y)
= .
2y cos x − cos(x + y)
Le
dy
Example 1.43. If sin y = x sin(a + y) find .
dx
Solution. Given sin y = x sin(a + y)
sin y
w.
∴x=
sin(a + y)
Differentiating with respect to y we get
ww
dx sin(a + y) cos y − sin y cos(a + y) sin(a + y − y) sin(a)
= 2
= 2
=
dy sin (a + y) sin (a + y) sin2 (a + y)
dy sin2 (a + y)
∴ = .
dx sin(a)
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42 Engineering Mathematics - I
p √ dy 1
Example 1.44. If x 1 + y + y 1 + x = 0, prove that =− .
p √ p dx √ (1 + x)2
Solution. Given x 1 + y + y 1 + x = 0 ⇒ x 1 + y = −y 1 + x
squaring both sides we get
x2 (1 + y) = y2 (1 + x)
x2 + x2 y = y2 + y2 x
.in
x2 + x2 y − y2 − y2 x = 0
ng
x2 − y2 + x2 y − y2 x = 0
(x − y)(x + y) + xy(x − y) = 0
eri
(x − y)(x + y + xy) = 0
∴ x − y = 0 or x + y + xy = 0
i.e.,x = y or x + y + xy = 0
e
gin
But x , y.
∴ x + y + xy = 0 (1)
En
Differentiating both sides w.r.to x we get
!
dy dy
1+ + x +y =0
dx dx
arn
dy dy
1+ +x +y=0
dx dx
dy
(1 + x) = −y − 1
dx
Le
dy −(y + 1)
= .
dx (1 + x)
−x
w.
But form (1) we have y(1 + x) = −x ⇒ y = .
x
1+x
dy 1 − 1+x 1+x−x 1
∴ =− =− 2
=− .
dx 1+x (1 + x) (1 + x)2
ww
r q √ dy
Example 1.45. If y = x + x + x + · · · ∞, find .
r dx
q √
Solution. Given y = x + x + x + · · · ∞.
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Differential calculus 43
√
y= x+y
y2 = x + y.
Differentiating w.r.to x we get
dy dy
2y =1+
dx dx
dy
(2y − 1) = 1
dx
.in
dy 1
= .
dx (2y − 1)
r
√
ng
q
dy
Example 1.46. If y = sin x + sin x + sin x + · · · ∞, find .
r dx
q √
Solution. Given y = sin x + sin x + sin x + · · · ∞.
eri
p
y = sin x + y.
Squaring on both sides we get
y2 = sin x + y.
e
gin
Differentiating w.r.to x we get
dy dy
2y = cos x +
dx dx
dy dy
En
2y − = cos x
dx dx
dy
(2y − 1) = cos x
dx
dy cos x
arn
= .
dx (2y − 1)
Example 1.47. Find y′′ if x4 + y4 = 16.
Solution. Given x4 + y4 = 16
Le
Differentiating w.r.to x we get
dy
w.
4x3 + 4y3 =0
dx
dy
x3 + y3 =0
ww
dx
3 dy
y = −x3
dx
dy x3
=− .
dx y3
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44 Engineering Mathematics - I
Again differentiating w.r.to x
dy
d2 y y3 × 3x2 − x3 × 3y2
=− dx
dx2 y6
! !
2 2 dy 2 2 dy
−3x y y − x −3x y y − x
dx dx
= =
y6 y6
.in
−x3
!!
2
−3x y − x 3
y −3x2 y4 + x4 −3x2 × 16 −48x2
= = = = .
ng
y4 y7 y7 y7
Derivative of Inverse Trigonometric functions
eri
dy
1. Find if y = sin−1 x.
dx
Solution. Given y = sin−1 x.
sin y = x.
e
gin
Differentiating w.r.to x
dy
cos y =1
dx
dy 1 1 1 1
= = p = q = √ .
En
dx cos y cos2 y 2 1 − x 2
1 − sin y
dy
2. If y = cos−1 x, find.
arn
dx
Solution. Given y = cos−1 x.
cos y = x.
Differentiating w.r.to x
Le
dy
− sin y =1
dx
dy −1 −1 −1 −1
= = q = p = √ .
w.
dx sin y 2 1 − cos 2y 1 − x 2
sin y
dy
3. If y = tan−1 x, find
ww
.
dx
Solution. Given y = tan−1 x.
tan y = x.
Differentiating w.r.to x
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Differential calculus 45
dy
sec2 y =1
dx
dy 1 1 1
= = = .
dx sec y 1 + tan y 1 + x2
2 2
dy
4. If y = cot−1 x, find.
dx
Solution. Given y = cot−1 x.
.in
cot y = x.
Differentiating w.r.to x
dy
ng
−cosec2 y =1
dx
dy −1 −1 −1
= = = .
dx cosec y 1 + cot y 1 + x2
2 2
eri
dy
5. If y = sec−1 x, find.
dx
Solution. Given y = sec−1 x.
sec y = x. e
gin
Differentiating w.r.to x
dy
sec y tan y =1
dx
dy 1 1 1 1
En
= = p = p = √ .
dx sec y tan y x tan2 y x sec2 y − 1 x x2 − 1
dy
6. If y = cosec−1 x, find.
arn
dx
Solution. Given y = cosec−1 x.
cosecy = x.
Le
Differentiating w.r.to x
dy
−cosecy cot y =1
dx
dy −1 −1 −1 −1
w.
= = p = p = √ .
dx cosecy cot y x cot y x cosec y − 1 x x2 − 1
2 2
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
ww
✍ ✌
1 √
Example 1.48. Find the derivatives of (i) −1 (ii) x tan−1 x.
sin x
1
−1 −1
Solution. (i) Let y = = sin x .
sin−1 x
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46 Engineering Mathematics - I
dy −2 1 1
= (−1) sin−1 x √ = 2 √ .
dx 1 − x2 sin−1 x
1 − x2
√
(ii) Let y = x tan−1 x .
√
dy 1 −1 √ x .1 = x −1 √ x .
1
= (x) √ 2 × 2√ x
+ tan 2(1+x) + tan
dx 1 + ( x)
√
Example 1.49. Differentiate w.r.to x (i) sin−1 x (ii) (1 + x2 ) tan−1 x
.in
cos x
(iii) sec−1 (x4 ) (iv) tan−1 .
√1 + sin x
Solution. (i) Let y = sin−1 ( x).
dy 1 1 1 1
ng
dx
= q √ 2 × 2 √ x = 2 √ x √1 − x = 2 √ x(1 − x) .
1− x
(ii) Let (1 + x2 ) tan−1 x.
eri
dy 1
= (1 + x2 ) × + tan−1 x × 2x = 1 + 2x tan−1 x.
dx 1 + x2
(iii) Let sec−1 (x4 ).
e
gin
dy 1 4
= q × 4x3 = √ .
dx 4 4
2 x x 8−1
x x −1
cos x
(iv) Let y = tan−1
En
.
1 + sin
x
sin π2 − x
−1
= tan .
π
1 + cos 2 − x
arn
sin 2 π4 − 2x
= tan−1 .
π x
1 + cos 2 4 − 2
Le
2 sin π4 − 2x cos π4 − 2x
= tan−1 .
2 π x
2 cos 4 − 2
π x
w.
= tan−1 tan − .
π x 4 2
y= −
4 2
ww
dy −1
= .
dx 2
!
−1 2x dy
Example 1.50. If y = tan 2
find .
1−x dx
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Differential calculus 47
!
−1 2x
Solution. Given y = tan .
1 − x2
Let x = tan θ !
−1 2 tan θ
∴y = tan = tan−1 (tan 2θ) = 2θ
1 − tan2 θ
y = 2 tan−1 x.
dy 2
= .
dx 1 + x2
.in
dy
Example 1.51. If sin−1 3x − 4x3 find .
dx
−1 3
ng
Solution. Let y = sin 3x − 4x .
Let x = sin θ.
y = sin−1 (3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ) = sin−1 (sin 3θ) = 3θ = 3 sin−1 x.
eri
dy 3
= √ .
dx 1 − x2
Example 1.52. If y = tan−1
a−x
find
dy
e
.
gin
a − x 1 + ax dx
Solution. y = tan−1
1 + ax
Let a = tan α, x = tan θ.
tan α − tan θ
En
∴ y = tan−1 = tan−1 (tan(α − θ)) = α − θ = α − tan−1 (x).
1 + tan α tan θ
dy −1
= .
dx 1 + x2
arn
Logarithmic Differentiation
dy
Result. If y = loge x, find .
dx
Solution. Given y = loge x
Le
∴ x = ey .
Differentiating w.r.to y
w.
dx
= ey = x
dy
dy 1
= .
ww
dx x
dy
Note. (i) If y = b x find .
dx
Solution. Given y = b = e x log b
x
Differentiating w.r.to x
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48 Engineering Mathematics - I
dy
= e x log b log b = b x log b.
dx
dy
(ii) If y = logb x find .
dx
Solution. Given y = logb x
∴ by = x.
Differentiating w.r.to x
.in
dy
by log b = 1.
dx
dy
= y1 = 1 .
dx b log b x log b ✎ ☞
ng
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
eri
Example 1.53.! Differntiate (i) log(x3 + 1) (ii) log(sin x) (iii) log(2 + sin x)
x+1 p
(iv) log √ (v) log |x| (vi) log(x).
x+2
e
gin
Solution. (i) Let y = log(x3 + 1).
dy 1 3x2
En
= 3 3x2 = 3 .
dx x + 1 x +1
(ii) Let y = log(sin x).
arn
dy 1
= cos x = cot x.
dx sin x
(iii) Let y = log10 (2 + sin x).
dy 1 cos x
Le
= cos x = .
dx (2 + sin x) log 10 (2 + sin x) log 10
!
x+1
(iv) Let y = log √ .
w.
x+2
√
= log (x + 1) − log x + 2 .
ww
= log (x + 1) − log (x + 2)1/2 .
1
= log (x + 1) −
log (x + 2) .
2
dy 1 1
= − .
dx (x + 1) 2(x + 2)
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Differential calculus 49
log x , if x > 0
(v) Let y = log |x| = .
log(−x) , if x < 0
1 1
, if x > 0 x , if x > 0
dy
x
= = .
dx
1 (−1) , if x < 0
1 , if x < 0
−x x
.in
dy 1
∴ = for allx , 0.
dx x
(vi) Let y = log x = log x 1/2 .
p
ng
dy 1 1 1
log x −1/2 =
= p .
dx 2 x 2x log x
eri
3 √
x 4 x2 + 1 dy
Example 1.54. If y = 5
, find .
(3x
√ + 2) dx
3
x 4 x2 + 1
Solution. Given y =
(3x + 2)5
e
gin
Taking log on both sides we get
p
log y = log x3/4 + log x2 + 1 − log(3x + 2)5
3 1
En
= log x + log(x2 + 1) − 5 log(3x + 2).
4 2
Differentiating w.r.to x we get
arn
1 dy 3 1 1 1 1 3 x 15
= × + × 2 2x − 5 ×3= + 2 −
y dx 4 x 2 x + 1 3x + 2√ 4x x + 1 3x + 2
" # 3 " #
dy 3 x 15 2
x x +1 3
4 x 15
∴ =y + 2 − = + − .
dx 4x x + 1 3x + 2 (3x + 2)5 4x x2 + 1 3x + 2
Le
√ dy
x
Example 1.55. If y = x find .
√ dx
Solution. Given y = x x .
w.
√
log y = x log x.
Differentiating w.r.t x
ww
1 dy √ 1 1
= x + log x √
y dx x 2 x
1 1
= √ + √ log x
x 2 x
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50 Engineering Mathematics - I
!
1 1
= √ 1 + log x
x 2
1
= √ 2 + log x
2 x
√
dy 1 x x
=y √ = √ .
dx 2 x 2 + log x 2 x 2 + log x
.in
d
Example 1.56. Find (sin x)cos x .
[A.U. Jan. 2015]
dx
Solution. Let y = (sin x)cos x .
ng
Taking logarithms on both sides we get
log y = log (sin x)cos x = cos x log (sin x).
eri
Differentiating w.r.to x.
1 dy 1
= cos x cos x + log(sin x)(− sin x)
y dx
cos2 x
sin x
e
gin
= − sin x log(sin x)
sin
" x2 # " 2 #
dy cos x cos x cos x
=y − sin x log(sin x) = (sin x) − sin x log(sin x) .
dx sin x sin x
En
dy
Example 1.57. If y = (sin x) x , find .
dx
Solution. Let y = (sin x) x .
arn
Taking log both sides we get
log y = log (sin x) x = x log sin x.
Differentiating w.r.t. x.
Le
1 dy 1
=x cos x + log sin x.1
y dx sin x
w.
= x cot x + log sin x.
dy
= y x cot x + log sin x = (sin x) x x cot x + log sin x .
ww
dx
∞
x··· dy
xx
Example 1.58. If y = x , find .
dx
···∞
xx
Solution. Let y = x x ⇒ y = xy .
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Differential calculus 51
Taking log both sides we get
log y = log xy = y log x.
Differentiating w.r.t. x.
1 dy 1 dy
= y + log x .
y dx x dx
1 dy dy y
− log x = .
y dx dx x
.in
!
dy 1 y
− log x = .
dx y ! x
dy 1 − y log x y
ng
= .
dx y x
dy y2
= .
dx x(1 − y log x)
eri
Hyperbolic functions
e x − e−x
We define sinh x =
2
e
gin
e x + e−x
cosh x =
2
sinh x
tanh x =
cosh x
En
1
cosechx =
sinh x
1
sechx =
arn
cosh x
cosh x
coth x =
sinh x
Hyperbolic identities
Le
1. sinh(−x) = − sinh x.
w.
2. cosh(−x) = cosh x.
3. cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1.
ww
4. 1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x.
5. sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y.
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52 Engineering Mathematics - I
6. cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y.
Derivatives of hyperbolic functions.
d
1. Prove that (sinh x) = cosh x.
dx
d e x − e−x e x + e−x
! !
d 1 x −x
Proof. (sinh x) = = (e − e (−1)) = = cosh x.
dx dx 2 2 2
.in
In the same way we can establish the following.
d
2. (cosh x) = sinh x.
dx
ng
d
3. (tanh x) = sech2 x.
dx
eri
d
4. (cosechx) = −cosechx coth x.
dx
d
5. (sechx) = sechx tanh x.
dx
e
gin
d
6. (coth x) = −cosech2 x.
dx
Inverse hyperbolic functions.
En
p
−1 2
1. Prove that sinh x = log x + x + 1 .
Proof. Let y = sinh−1 x.
ey − e−y
.
arn
∴ x = sinh y =
2
i.e., ey − e−y = 2x.
1
ey − y − 2x = 0.
e
Le
e2y − 2xey − 1 = 0.
This is a quadratic
√ in ey .√Solving for ey we get
2x ± 4x2 + 4 x ± x2 + 1 p
w.
ey = = = (x ± x2 + 1).
2 1
We have ey > 0 always.
√
But x − x2 − 1 < 0.
ww
√
∴ ey = x − x2 + 1 is not possible.
√ √
∴ ey = x + x2 + 1 y = log(x + x2 + 1).
In a similar way we can prove the following.
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Differential calculus 53
p
2. cosh−1 x) = log x + x2 − 1 .
!
−1 1 1+x
3. tanh x) = log .
2 1−x
Differentiation of Inverse hyperbolic functions.
d 1
1. Prove that (sinh−1 x) = √ .
.in
dx x2 + 1
Proof. y = sinh−1 x.
∴ sinh y = x.
ng
Differentiating w.r.t. x we get
dy
cosh y = 1.
eri
dx
dy 1 1 1 1
= = q = q = √ .
dx cosh y 1 + x2
cosh2 y 1 + sinh2 y
e
In a similar way we can prove the following.
gin
d 1
2. (cosh−1 x) = √ .
dx x2 − 1
d 1
3. (tanh−1 x) = .
En
dx 1 − x2
d −1
4. (cosech−1 x) = √ .
dx |x| 1 + x2
arn
d −1
5. (sech−1 x) = √ .
dx x 1 − x2
d 1
Le
6. (coth−1 x) = .
dx 1 − x2
Exercise 1 (E)
w.
1. Find the derivatives of the following functions.
ww
(i) x2 − 4xy + y2 = 4 (iv) y cos x = x2 + y2
√
(ii) x4 + x2 y2 + y3 = 5 (v) x + y = x4 + y4
x
x2
(iii) x+y = y2 + 1 (vi) e y = x − y
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54 Engineering Mathematics - I
(ix) cos(xy) = 1 + sin y
(vii) tan−1 (x2 y) = x + xy2
(viii) sin(xy) = cos(x + y) (x) x sin y + y sin x = 1
dy
2. If (sin x)cos y = (sin y)cos x , find .
.in
dx
∞
sin x··· dy
3. If y = (sin x)sin x , find .
dx
ng
dy
4. If x1+y + y1+x = a, where a is a constant, find .
dx
eri
5. Find the derivatives of the following using logarithmic differentiation.
(iv) xsin x
(i) (x2 + 2)2 (x4 + 4)4
e
(v) (cos x) x
gin
q
(x−1)
(ii) (x4 +1)
1
(iii) x x (vi) (tan x) x
En
6. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y sin 2x = x cos 2y at ( π2 , π4 ).
7. Find the equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola x2 − xy − y2 = 1 at the
arn
point (2, 1).
8. Find the equation to the tangent line to the Cardioid x2 + y2 = (2x2 + 2y2 − x)2
Le
at 0, 21 .
9. Find the derivative of the following functions.
w.
√
√ (v) cosh−1 ( x).
(i) tanh x.
√
ww
(vi) x sinh−1 x
3 − 9 + x2 .
(ii) sinh(log(x)).
(iii) ecosh 3x . (vii) coth−1 (sec x).
√
(iv) x coth 1 + x2 . (viii) tanh−1 (sin x).
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Differential calculus 55
10. At what point of the curve y = cosh x does the tangent have slope 1.
Definition. Let c be a number in the domain D of a function f . Then f (c) is the
absolute maximum value of f on D if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in D. f (c) is the absolute
minimum value of f on D if f (c) ≤ x for all x in D.
Maximum and minimum values of f are called extreme values of f .
.in
Definition. The number f (c) is a local maximum value of f if f (c) ≥ f (x) when x
is near c. f (c) is the local minimum value of f if f (c) ≤ f (x) when x is near c.
ng
Increasing and decreasing test
(i) If f ′ (x) > 0, on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.
eri
(ii) If f ′ (x) < 0, on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.
e
Fermat’s theorem. If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, and f ′ (c) exits,
gin
then f ′ (c) = 0.
Critical number. A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain
of f such that either f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ (c) does not exist.
En
Result. If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, then c is a Critical number
of f .
arn
First derivative test. Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous
function f .
Le
(i) If f ′ changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c.
(ii) If f ′ changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c.
w.
(iii) If f ′ is positive to the left and right of c or negative to the left and right of c,
then f has no local maximum or minimum at c.
ww
Second derivative test. Suppose f ′′ is continuous near c.
(i) If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at c.
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56 Engineering Mathematics - I
(ii) If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c.
Concavity. If the graph of f lies above all of its tangents on an interval I, then it
is called concave upward on I. If the graph of f lies below all of its tangents on I,
it is called concave downward on I.
.in
Concavity test
(i) If f ′′ (x) > 0, for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I.
ng
(ii) If f ′′ (x) < 0, for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I.
eri
Point of inflexion. A point P on a curve y = f (x) is called a point of inflexion
e
if f is continuous there and the curve changes from concave upward to concave
gin
downward or from concave downward to concave upward at P.
Note. Points of inflection occurs at points where f ′′ (x) = 0.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
En
Example 1.59. Find the intervals on which the function f (x) = sin x + cos x is
arn
increasing or decreasing. Also find the curve is concave upwards or concave
downwards. [A.U.Jan.2015]
Solution. f (x) = sin x + cos x.
Le
f ′ (x) = cos x − sin x.
f ′′ (x) = − sin x − cos x.
w.
At critical points f ′ (x) = 0
i.e., cos x − sin x = 0.
ww
i.e., sin x = cos x.
i.e., tan x = 1.
π 5π
∴x= , .
4 4
Let us evaluate the intervals at which f decrease or increases.
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Differential calculus 57
Interval f ′ (x) f
π π
0<x< + increases in (0, )
4 4
π 5π π 5π
<x< - decreases in ( , )
4 4 4 4
5π 5π
< x < 2π + increases in ( , 2π)
4 4
π
Since f ′ changes from positive to negative at x = ,
4
.in
π
f has a maximum at x = .
4
π π π 1 1 √
Maximum value of f = f ( ) = sin + cos = √ + √ = 2.
ng
4 4 4 2 2
′ 5π
Also f changes from negative to positive at x = .
4
5π 5π 5π 1 1 √
eri
Minimum value of f = f ( ) = sin + cos = − √ − √ = − 2.
4 4 4 2 2
Let us evaluate the intervals at which the curve is concave upwards or
concave downwards.
Making f ′′ = 0 we get e
gin
− sin x − cos x = 0.
i.e., sin x + cos x = 0. !
π 3π
En
cos x = − sin x = cos +x (or) cos x = cos −x
π2 π
2
Taking cos x = cos + x implies x = + x
2 2
π
arn
i.e., = 0 which is absurd.
2 !
3π 3π
Taking cos x = cos − x implies x = −x
2 2
3π 3π
Le
i.e., 2x = ⇒x=
2 4 ! !
3π 3π
The interval to be considered are 0, , , 2π
4 4
w.
Interval f ′ (x) f
3π
0<x< - concave downwards
4
ww
3π
< x < 2π + concave upwards
4
3π 3π
Since f ′′ changes sign from negative to positive at x = ,x= is a
4 4
point of inflexion.
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58 Engineering Mathematics - I
Example 1.60. Find the intervals on which the function f (x) = x4 − 2x2 + 3 is
increasing or decreasing. Also find the local maximum and minimum values of f
by using first derivative test. [A.U.Nov.2016]
Solution. f (x) = x4 − 2x2 + 3.
f ′ (x) = 4x3 − 4x = 4x(x2 − 1) = 4x(x − 1)(x + 1).
Critical numbers occur at points where f ′ (x) = 0
.in
i.e., 4x(x − 1)(x + 1) = 0.
x = −1, x = 0, x = 1.
ng
The critical numbers are x = −1, x = 0, x = 1.
Let us evaluate the intervals at which f decreases or increases.
eri
Interval 4x x−1 x+1 f ′ (x) f
x < −1 - - - - decreases in (−∞, −1)
−1 < x < 0 - - +
e + increases in (−1, 0)
gin
0<x<1 + - + - decreases in (0, 1)
x>1 + + + + increases in (1, ∞)
Since f ′ changes from negative to positive at x = −1,
En
f has a local minimum at x = −1.
Minimum value of f = f (−1) = 1 − 2 + 3 = 1.
arn
Also f ′ changes from positive to negative at x = 0.
∴ f has a maximum at x = 0.
Maximum value of f = f (0) = 3.
Le
Again f ′ changes from negative to positive at x = 1.
∴ f has a local minimum at x = 1.
w.
Minimum value of f = 1 − 2 + 3 = 2.
Example 1.61. Find the intervals on which the function f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 12x2 + 5
ww
is increasing and decreasing. Also find the local maximum and minimum values
of f by using first derivative test. [A.U.Nov.2016]
Solution. f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 12x2 + 5.
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Differential calculus 59
f ′ (x) = 12x3 − 12x2 − 24x = 12x(x2 − x − 2) = 12x(x − 2)(x + 1).
Critical numbers occur at points where f ′ (x) = 0
i.e., 12x(x − 2)(x + 1) = 0.
x = −1, x = 0, x = 2.
The critical numbers are x = −1, x = 0, x = 2.
.in
Let us evaluate the intervals at which f decreases or increases.
Interval 12x x−2 x+1 f ′ (x) f
ng
x < −1 - - - - decreases in (−∞, −1)
−1 < x < 0 - - + + increases in (−1, 0)
0<x<2 + - + - decreases in (0, 2)
eri
x>2 + + + + increases in (2, ∞)
Since f ′ changes from negative to positive at x = −1,
f has a local minimum at x = −1. e
gin
Minimum value of f = f (−1) = 3 + 4 − 12 + 5 = 20.
Also f ′ changes from positive to negative at x = 0.
∴ f has a local maximum at x = 0.
En
Maximum value of f = f (0) = 5.
Again f ′ changes from negative to positive at x = 2.
arn
∴ f has a minimum at x = 2.
Minimum value of f = 3 × 16 − 4 × 8 − 12 × 4 + 5 = 48 − 32 − 48 + 5 = −27.
Le
Example 1.62. Find the local maximum and minimum values of the function
f (x) = x + 2 sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
w.
Solution. f (x) = x + 2 sin x.
f ′ (x) = 1 + 2 cos x.
f ′′ (x) = −2 sin x.
ww
Local maximum and minimum occur at points where f ′ (x) = 0.
i.e., 1 + 2 cos x = 0.
2 cos x = −1.
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60 Engineering Mathematics - I
−1
cos x = 2 .
cos x is negative in the II and III quadrants.
2π 4π
x= 3 and x = 3 .
First derivative test
2π 2π 4π 4π
The intervals to be considered are 0 < x < , <x< , < x < 2π.
3 3 3 3
.in
Let us evaluate the intervals at which f decreases and increases.
Interval f ′ (x) = 1 + 2 cos x f
2π
ng
0<x< + increasing
3
2π 4π
<x< - decreasing
3 3
4π
eri
< x < 2π + increasing
3
2π
Since f ′ changes from positive to negative at 3 ,
f has a local maximum at x =
e 2π
3 .
gin
√ √
2π 3
∴ Maximum value of f = 3 + 2 sin 2π
3 =
2π
3 +2 2 = 2π
3 + 3.
4π
Since f ′ changes from negative to positive at x = 3 ,
4π
f has a minimum at x = 3 .
En
√ √
4π − 3
∴ Minimum value of f = 3 + 2 sin 4π
3 =
4π
3 +2 2 = 4π
3 − 3.
Second derivative test
√ √
arn
2π 3
When x = 3 , f ′′ (x) = −2 sin 2π
3 = −2 2 = − 3 < 0.
2π
∴ f has a maximum at x = 3 .
2π
√
Maximum value of f = 3 + 3.
Le
√ √
4π − 3
When x = f ′′ (x) = −2 sin 4π
3 , 3 = −2 2 = 3 > 0.
4π
∴ f has a minimum at x = .
3
w.
4π √
∴ Minimum value of f = − 3.
3
ww
Example 1.63. Find the local maxima and minima and the points of inflexion for
the function f (x) = x4 − 4x3 .
Solution. f (x) = x4 − 4x3 .
f ′ (x) = 4x3 − 12x2 .
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Differential calculus 61
f ′′ (x) = 12x2 − 24x.
Local maximum and minimum occur at points where f ′ (x) = 0
i.e., 4x3 − 12x2 = 0.
4x2 (x − 3) = 0.
x = 0, x = 3.
When x = 0, f ′′ (x) = 0.
.in
∴ f (x) does not have either mxaimum or minimum.
When x = 3, f ′′ (x) = 12 × 9 − 24 × 3 = 108 − 72 = 36 > 0
ng
∴ f has a local minimum at x = 3.
Minimum value of f = 81 − 4 × 27 = 81 − 108 = −27.
eri
At the points of inflexion, f ′′ (x) = 0
12x2 − 24x = 0 ⇒ 12x(x − 2) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = 2.
When x = 0, f (0) = 0.
e
gin
∴ (0, 0) is a point of inflexion.
When x = 2, f (2) = 24 − 4 × 23 = 16 − 32 = −16.
Another point of inflexion is (2, −16).
En
Example 1.64. Find the maxima and minima of the function f (x) = x2/3 (6 − x)1/3 .
Solution. f (x) = x2/3 (6 − x)1/3 .
arn
1 2
f ′ (x) = x2/3 (6 − x)−2/3 (−1) + (6 − x)1/3 x−1/3 .
3 3
2/3 1/3
" #
1 −x 2(6 − x)
Le
= + .
3 (6 − x)2/3 x1/3
" #
1 −x + 2(6 − x)
=
3 x1/3 (6 − x)2/3
w.
" #
1 −x + 12 − 2x
=
3 x1/3 (6 − x)2/3
ww
" # " #
1 12 − 3x 4−x
= = 1/3 .
3 x1/3 (6 − x)2/3 x (6 − x)2/3
Now, f ′ (x) = 0 when x = 4 and f ′ (x) does not exist when x = 0 and x = 6.
∴ The critical numbers are 0, 4, 6.
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62 Engineering Mathematics - I
Let us evaluate the intervals at which f increases or decreases.
Interval 4−x x1/3 (6 − x)2/3 f ′ (x) f
−∞ < x < 0 + - + - decreases on (−∞, 0)
0<x<4 + + + + increases on (0, 4)
4<x<6 - + + - decreases on (4, 6)
- + + - decreases on (6, ∞)
.in
x>6
Since f ′ changes from negative to positive at x = 0, f has a local minimum at x = 0.
∴ Minimum value of f = f (0) = 0.
ng
Also f ′ changes from positive to negative at x = 4.
∴ f has a local maximum at x = 0.
eri
∴ Maximum value of f = f (4) = 42/3 (6 − 4)1/3 = (22 )2/3 (21/3 ) = 24/3 21/3 = 25/3 .
Again f ′ does not changes sign at x = 6.
∴ f has no maximum or minimum at x = 6.
e
gin
Example 1.65. Using first derivative test, examine for maximum and minimum
of the function f (x) = x3 − 3x + 3, x ∈ R.
En
Solution. f (x) = x3 − 3x + 3.
f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 = 3(x2 − 1) = 3(x − 1)(x + 1).
Critical numbers occur at points where f ′ (x) = 0.
arn
i.e., 3(x − 1)(x + 1) = 0.
i.e., x = −1, x = 1.
Le
The critical numbers are x = −1, 1.
Let us evaluate the intervals at which f decreases or increases.
w.
Interval x−1 x+1 f ′ (x) f
x < −1 - - + increases in (−∞, −1)
−1 < x < 1 - + - decreases in (−1, 1)
ww
x>1 + + - increases in (1, ∞)
Since f ′ changes from positive to negative at x = −1.
f has a local maximum at x = −1.
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Differential calculus 63
∴ Maximum value of f = f (−1) = (−1)3 − 3(−1) + 3 = −1 + 3 + 3 = 5.
Also f ′ changes from negative to positive at x = 1.
∴ f has a local minimum at x = 1.
∴ Minimum value of f = f (1) = 13 − 1 × 3 + 3 = 1 − 3 + 3 = 1.
Example 1.66. Using first derivative test examine the maximum and minimum
.in
of f (x) = sin2 x, 0 < x < π.
Solution. f (x) = sin2 x.
ng
f ′ (x) = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x.
Critical numbers occur at points where f ′ (x) = 0.
eri
i.e., sin 2x = 0.
∴ 2x = 0, or 2x = π.
∴ x = 0, or x = π2 .
The critical numbers are x = 0, x = π2 . e
gin
Let us evaluate the intervals at which f decreases or increases.
Interval sin 2x f ′ (x) f
En
π
0<x< 2 + + increases in (0, π2 )
π
x> 2 - - decreases in ( π2 , π)
Since f ′ changes from positive to negative at x = π2 .
arn
∴ f has a maximum at x = π2 .
∴ Maximum value of f = f ( π2 ) = sin2 π
2 = 1.
Le
Example 1.67. Find the maximum and minimum of the function
f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 36x + 10.
w.
Solution. f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 36x + 10.
f ′ (x) = 6x2 − 6x − 36.
f ′′ (x) = 12x − 6.
ww
Critical pints occur at f ′ (x) = 0.
i.e., 6x2 − 6x − 36 = 0.
∴ x2 − x − 6 = 0.
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64 Engineering Mathematics - I
∴ (x − 3)(x + 2) = 0.
∴ x = −2, x = 3.
The critical points are at x = −2, x = 3.
At x = −2, f ′′ (x) = 12 × (−2) − 6 = −24 − 6 = −30 = −ve
∴ f is maximum at x = −2.
.in
Maximum value of
f = 2(−2)3 − 3(−2)2 − 36(−2) + 10 = −16 − 12 + 72 + 10 = 54.
At x = 3, f ′′ (x) = 12 × 3 − 6 = 36 − 6 = 30 = +ve.
ng
∴ f has minimum at x = 3.
∴ Minimum value of
eri
f = f (3) = 2 × 33 − 3 × 32 − 36 × 3 + 10 = 54 − 27 − 108 + 10 = −71.
Example 1.68. Find the maxima and minima of the function f (x) = sin x(1 + cos x),
0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. e
gin
Solution. Given f (x) = sin x(1 + cos x)
f ′ (x) = sin x(0−sin x)+(1+cos x)(cos x) = − sin2 x+cos x+cos2 x = cos x+cos 2x.
f ′′ (x) = − sin x − 2 sin 2x.
En
At critical points f ′ (x) = 0.
arn
cos x + cos 2x = 0
cos x + 2 cos2 x − 1 = 0
i.e., 2 cos2 x + cos x − 1 = 0
Le
√ √
−1 ± 1 − 4 × 2 × (−1) −1 ± 1 + 8 −1 ± 3
cos x = = =
2×2 4 4
−1 + 3 1 −1 − 3
w.
cos x = = or cos x = = −1.
4 2 4
1 π 5π
cos x = gives x = and .
ww
2 3 3
cos x = −1 gives x = π.
π √ √ √
When x = , f ′′ (x) = − sin π3 − 2 sin 2π
3 = − 23 − 2 23 = − 3 2 3 < 0.
3
π
∴ f has a maximum at x = .
3
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Differential calculus 65
√ √
3
Maximum value of f = f π π π
= sin 3 1 + cos 3 =
3 (1 + 21 ) = 3 4 3 .
5π ′′ √ √ √2 √ √
When x = , f (x) = − sin 3 − 2 sin 3 = − 2 − 2 − 23 = 23 + 2 23 = 3 2 3 > 0.
5π 10π − 3
3
5π
∴ f has a minimum at x = .
3 √
− 3 √ √
5π 5π
∴ Minimum value of f = f 3 = sin 3 1 + cos 5 3 = π
(1 + 21 ) = − 2 3 × 23 = −34 3 .
2
.in
When x = π, f ′′ (x) = − sin π − 2 sin 2π = 0.
∴ f has neiher maximum nor minimum at x = π.
√
3 3
ng
∴ Maximum value = 4√ .
−3 3
∴ Minimum value = 4 .
e eri
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
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.in
ng
eri
e
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
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2 Function of Several Variables
.in
2.1 Limits and Continuity
ng
Limit. Let f (x, y) be a function of two independent variables x and y. f (x, y) is said
eri
to have the limit ℓ as (x, y) tends to (x0 , y0 ), if corresponding to any positive number
ǫ, however small, there is a positive number η such that
e
| f (x, y) − ℓ| < ǫ where 0 < d < η,
gin
where d is the distance between (x, y) and (x0 , y0 ) given by d2 = (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 .
Note. If the limit exists, then it can be written as lim f (x, y) = ℓ.
En
x→x0
y→y0
Continuity. f (x, y) is said to be continuous at (x0 , y0 ) if, to any positive number ǫ,
arn
however small, there corresponds a positive number η such that
| f (x, y) − f (x0 , y0 )| < ǫ where 0 < d < η,
Le
where d is the distance between (x, y) and (x0 , y0 ) given above.
Result 1. The above definition is equivalent to lim f (x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ).
x→x0
w.
y→y0
Result 2. Usually the limit is the same irrespective of the path along which
the point (x, y) approaches (x0 , y0 ).
ww
( )
i.e., lim lim f (x, y) = lim lim f (x, y) .
x→x0 y→y0 y→y0 x→x0
But this is not true always.
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2 Function of Several Variables
.in
2.1 Limits and Continuity
ng
Limit. Let f (x, y) be a function of two independent variables x and y. f (x, y) is said
eri
to have the limit ℓ as (x, y) tends to (x0 , y0 ), if corresponding to any positive number
ǫ, however small, there is a positive number η such that
e
| f (x, y) − ℓ| < ǫ where 0 < d < η,
gin
where d is the distance between (x, y) and (x0 , y0 ) given by d2 = (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 .
Note. If the limit exists, then it can be written as lim f (x, y) = ℓ.
En
x→x0
y→y0
Continuity. f (x, y) is said to be continuous at (x0 , y0 ) if, to any positive number ǫ,
arn
however small, there corresponds a positive number η such that
| f (x, y) − f (x0 , y0 )| < ǫ where 0 < d < η,
Le
where d is the distance between (x, y) and (x0 , y0 ) given above.
Result 1. The above definition is equivalent to lim f (x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ).
x→x0
w.
y→y0
Result 2. Usually the limit is the same irrespective of the path along which
the point (x, y) approaches (x0 , y0 ).
ww
( )
i.e., lim lim f (x, y) = lim lim f (x, y) .
x→x0 y→y0 y→y0 x→x0
But this is not true always.
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68 Engineering Mathematics - I
Consider the following example.
x − 2y
Let f (x, y) = .
x + 2y
As (x, y) → (0, 0) along the line y = mx, we have
x − 2y
lim f (x, y) = lim
(x,y)→(0,0) (x,y)→(0,0) x + 2y
x − 2mx
.in
= lim
x→0 x + 2mx
x(1 − 2m)
= lim
x→0 x(1 + 2m)
ng
1 − 2m
= ,
1 + 2m
eri
which is (different for) lineswith different slopes.
x − 2y x
Also lim lim = lim =1
x→0 y→0 x + 2y
( ) x→0 x !
x − 2y −2y
and lim lim
y→0 x→0 x + 2y
= lim
y→0 2y
= −1.
e
gin
Hence, as (x, y) approaches (0, 0) along different paths, f (x, y) approaches different
limits. Hence, the two repeated limits are not equal and hence f (x, y) is
discontinuous at the origin.
En
Note. If a function is continuous at every point of the domain a ≤ x ≤ a′ ,
b ≤ y ≤ b′ , it is said to be continuous in that domain.
arn
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
2x2 y
Le
Example 2.1. Find lim .
x→1 x2 + y2 + 1
y→2
Solution.
2x2 y 2×1×2 4 2
w.
lim = = = .
x→1 x2 + y2 + 1 1 + 4 + 1 6 3
y→2
ww
xy + 1
Example 2.2. Find lim .
x→∞
y→2
x2 + 2y2
x y + 1x y + 1x
xy + 1 2
Solution. lim 2 2
= lim y 2
= lim y 2
= = 0.
x→∞ x + 2y
y→2
x→∞ 2
y→2 x 1 + 2 x
x→∞
y→2 x 1 + 2 x
∞
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Function of Several Variables 69
( )
x−y
Example 2.3. If f (x, y) = , show that lim lim f (x, y) , lim lim f (x, y) .
2x + y x→0 y→0 y→0 x→0
Solution.
( ) ( )
x−y
lim lim f (x, y) = lim lim
x→0 y→0 x→0 y→0 2x + y
x 1
= lim = .
x→0 2x 2
.in
( )
x−y
lim lim f (x, y) = lim lim
y→0 x→0 y→0 x→0 2x + y
!
−y
ng
= lim = −1.
y→0 y
∴ The two limits are not equal.
eri
x3 y2 + x2 y3 − 3
Example 2.4. If f (x, y) = , show that lim f (x, y) = lim f (x, y).
2 − xy x→0 y→0
y→0 x→0
Solution. lim f (x, y) = lim lim f (x, y)
!
e
gin
x→0 x→0 y→0
y→0
x3 y2 + x2 y3 − 3
!
= lim lim
x→0 y→0 2 − xy
!
−3 −3
En
= lim = .
x→0 2
2
lim f (x, y) = lim lim f (x, y)
y→0 y→0 x→0
arn
x→0
x3 y2 + x2 y3 − 3
!
= lim lim
y→0 x→0 2 − xy
!
−3 −3
Le
= lim = .
y→0 2 2
−3
∴ lim f (x, y) = lim f (x, y) = .
x→0 y→0 2
w.
y→0 x→0
2.2 Partial Derivatives
ww
We know that, if y is a continuous function of the independent variable x, and
∆y
∆y the increment in y corresponding to an increment ∆x in x, then lim if
∆x→0 ∆x
exists, is called the differential coefficient or the derivative of y with respect to x.
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70 Engineering Mathematics - I
Now let us consider a function of several independent variables.
Let u be a function of two independent variables x and y and let ∆u be the
increment in u corresponding to an increment in x, y remaining constant. If u is a
∆u
continuous function of x, the limit lim if exists is called the partial derivative
∆x→0 ∆x
∂u
of u with respect to x, and is represented by or u x .
∂x
.in
∂u u(x + ∆x, y) − u(x, y)
Hence, = lim .
∂x ∆x→0 ∆x
In the same way, if u is a continuous function of y, the increment ∆u in u,
ng
corresponding to an increment ∆y in y, x remaining constant, then the limit
u(x, y + ∆y) − u(x, y)
lim if exists is called the partial derivative of u with respect to
∆y→0 ∆y
eri
∂u
y and is represented by or uy .
∂y
It can be easily seen that the change in the value of u corresponding to a
e
change in the value of x will not in general be the same as the change in the value
gin
of u corresponding to an equal change in the value of y. For example, the area A of
a rectangular box is a function of the length x and the breadth y, being given by
the relation A = xy. When x alone changes,
En
∆A = (x + ∆x)y − xy = y∆x.
arn
When y alone changes, ∆A = x(y + ∆y) − xy = x∆y.
Though ∆x = ∆y, the values of ∆A will not be equal unless x = y. i.e., unless the
∂A ∂A
Le
box is in the form of a square. Hence, we can see that, in general , .
∂x ∂y
Likewise, if u is a continuous function of several independent variables
x, y, z, . . . , we can define the partial derivatives of u with respect to each of these
w.
independent variables. As an example, let us consider a function with three
independent variables x, y and z.
ww
∂u ∂u ∂u
Let u = f (x, y, z). The first partial derivative of u denoted by , and
∂x ∂y ∂z
treating x, y and z respectively alone as variables can be obtained. We can also
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
find the higher order derivatives 2 , 2 , 2 , , , , . . ..
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂x∂z
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Function of Several Variables 71
They are evaluated as follows.
∂2 u ∂ ∂u ∂2 u ∂ ∂u ∂2 u ∂ ∂u
= , = and = .
∂x2 ∂x ∂x ∂y2 ∂y ∂y ∂z2 ∂z ∂z
∂2 u ∂ ∂u
Also, =
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y
.in
∂2 u ∂ ∂u
and = .
∂y∂x ∂y ∂x
ng
∂2 u ∂2 u
Generally, = .
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
eri
The third and higher orders of the partial derivatives can be obtained similarly.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
e
Example 2.5. If V = πr2 h where r and h are independent variables, find
∂V
gin
and
∂r
∂V
.
∂h
Solution. Given: V = πr2 h.
En
Differentiating partially w.r.t. r,
∂V
= πh × 2r = 2πrh.
∂r
arn
Differentiating partially w.r.t. h,
∂V
= πr2 × 1 = πr2 .
∂h
Le
∂u ∂u
Example 2.6. If u = log(e x + ey ), show that + = 1.
∂x ∂y
Solution. Given: u = log(e x + ey ).
∂u ex
w.
= x .
∂x e +y ey
∂u e
= .
∂y e x + ey
ww
∂u ∂u e + eyx
+ = = 1.
∂x ∂y e x + ey
x ∂z ∂z
Example 2.7. If z = tan−1 , prove that x + y = 0.
y ∂x ∂y
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72 Engineering Mathematics - I
x
Solution. Given: z = tan−1 .
y
∂z 1 1 y2 1 y
= = = 2 .
∂x 1 + x2 y x + y y x + y2
2 2 2
y
∂z xy
x= 2 .
∂x x + y2
.in
∂z 1 x xy2 x
= 2
− 2
= − 2 2 2
=− 2
∂y x y y (x + y ) x + y2
1+ 2
y
ng
∂z xy
y =− 2
∂y x + y2
∂z ∂z xy xy
eri
x +y = 2 2
− 2 = 0.
∂x ∂y x + y x + y2
∂u ∂u ∂u
Example 2.8. If u = (x − y)4 + (y − z)4 + (z − x)4 , find the value of + + .
Solution. u = (x − y)4 + (y − z)4 + (z − x)4 . e ∂x ∂y ∂z
gin
∂u
= 4(x − y)3 + 4(z − x)3 (−1) = 4(x − y)3 − 4(z − x)3 .
∂x
En
∂u
= 4(y − z)3 − 4(x − y)3 .
∂y
∂u
= 4(z − x)3 − 4(y − z)3 .
arn
∂z
∂u ∂u ∂u
+ + = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Le
∂u ∂u ∂u 3
Example 2.9. If u = log(x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz), prove that + + = .
∂x ∂y ∂z x+y+z
Solution. u = log(x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz).
w.
∂u 3x2 − 3yz
= 3 .
∂x x + y3 + z3 − 3xyz
ww
∂u 3y2 − 3xz
= 3 .
∂y x + y3 + z3 − 3xyz
∂u 3z2 − 3yx
= 3 .
∂z x + y3 + z3 − 3xyz
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Function of Several Variables 73
∂u ∂u ∂u 3x2 + 3y2 + 3z2 − 3xy − 3yz − 3zx
+ + =
∂x ∂y ∂z x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz
3(x2 + y2 + z2 − xy − yz − zx) 3
= 2 2 2
= .
(x + y + z)(x + y + z − xy − yz − zx) x + y + z
∂u ∂u ∂u
Example 2.10. If u = (x − y)(y − z)(z − x), show that + + = 0.
.in
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution. Given, u = (x − y)(y − z)(z − x).
∂u
= (y − z){(x − y)(−1) + (z − x) · 1}
ng
∂x
= (y − z)(−x + y + z − x)
= (y − z)(y + z − 2x) = y2 − z2 − 2x(y − z).
eri
∂u
= (z − x){(x − y) · 1 + (y − z)(−1)}
∂y
= (z − x){x − y − y + z}
e
gin
= (z − x)(z + x − 2y)
= z2 − x2 − 2y(z − x).
∂u
= (x − y){(y − z) · 1 + (z − x) · (−1)}
En
∂z
= (x − y)(y − z − z + x)
arn
= (x − y)(x + y − 2z)
= x2 − y2 − 2z(x − y).
∂u ∂u ∂u
+ + = y2 − z2 − 2x(y − z) + z2 − x2 − 2y(z − x) + x2 − y2 − 2z(x − y)
Le
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −2{xy − xz + yz − xy + zx − yz} = −2 × 0 = 0.
w.
p ∂2 u ∂2 u
Example 2.11. If u = log x2 + y2 , show that 2 + 2 = 0.
p ∂x ∂y
2 2 1 2 2
Solution. u = log x + y = 2 log(x + y ).
ww
Differentiating partially w.r.t. x we get
∂u 1 1 x
= · 2 2
· 2x = 2 .
∂x 2 x + y x + y2
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74 Engineering Mathematics - I
Again differentiating partially w.r.t. x we get
∂2 u (x2 + y2 ) · 1 − x · 2x y2 − x2
= = .
∂x2 (x2 + y2 )2 (x2 + y2 )2
Differentiating u partially w.r.t. y we get
.in
∂u 1 1 y
= · 2 2
· 2y = 2 .
x + y2
ng
∂y 2 x + y
Again differentiating partially w.r.t. y we get
eri
∂2 u (x2 + y2 ) · 1 − y · 2y x2 − y2
= = .
∂y2 (x2 + y2 )2
e (x2 + y2 )2
gin
∂2 u ∂2 u y2 − x2 + x2 − y2
+ = = 0.
∂x2 ∂y2 (x2 + y2 )2
En
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
!
2 2 2
Example 2.12. If u = log(x2 + y2 + z2 ), prove that (x + y + z ) + + = 2.
arn
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2
Solution. Given, u = log(x2 + y2 + z2 )
Le
∂u 2x
= 2 .
∂x x + y2 + z2
∂2 u (x2 + y2 + z2 ) · 2 − 2x · 2x
=
w.
∂x2 (x2 + y2 + z2 )2
2x + 2y2 + 2z2 − 4x2
2
=
(x2 + y2 + z2 )2
ww
2y2 + 2z2 − 2x2
= 2
(x + y2 + z2 )2
2(y2 + z2 − x2 )
= 2 .
(x + y2 + z2 )2
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Function of Several Variables 75
Similarly, we have
∂2 u 2(x2 + z2 − y2 )
= 2
∂y2 (x + y2 + z2 )2
2
∂ u 2(x2 + y2 − z2 )
and 2 = 2 .
∂z (x + y2 + z2 )2
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u 2[y2 + z2 − x2 + x2 + z2 − y2 + x2 + y2 − z2 ]
Now, + + =
.in
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 (x2 + y2 + z2 )2
2(x2 + y2 + z2 )
= 2
(x + y2 + z2 )2
ng
2
= 2 .
x + y2 + z2
2 ∂2 u ∂2 u
!
2 ∂ u
eri
2 2
∴ (x + y + z ) + + =2
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2
∂u 2
2u 2u
! !2
∂ ∂ 1 ∂u
∂x
e
Example 2.13. If u = e xy , show that 2 + 2 =
∂y u ∂x
+
∂y
. [Jan 2013]
gin
Solution. u = e xy
∂u
= e xy · y = uy.
∂x
∂2 u ∂u
=y· = yuy = uy2 .
En
∂x 2 ∂x
∂u
= e xy · x = ux.
∂y
∂2 u
arn
∂u
2
= x· = x · ux = ux2 .
∂y ∂y
!2 !2
∂u ∂u
+ = u2 y2 + u2 x2
∂x ∂y
Le
= u[uy2 + ux2 ]
" 2
∂ u ∂2 u
#
=u +
w.
∂x2 ∂y2
!2 !2
1 ∂u ∂u ∂2 u ∂2 u
+ = + .
∂y ∂x2 ∂y2
u ∂x
ww
!
x y ∂u ∂u
Example 2.14. If u = y f +g find the value of x + y . [Dec 2012]
! y x ∂x ∂y
x y
Solution. u = y f +g
y x
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76 Engineering Mathematics - I
!
∂u ′ x 1 y −y
= yf · + g′
∂x y y x x2
!
∂u x y y
x = xf′ − g′ . (1)
∂x y x x
.in
! ! !
∂u ′ x −x x ′ y
1
= yf · 2 +f ·1+g · .
∂y y y y x x
ng
! !
∂u ′ x x y y
y = −x f + yf + g′ (2)
∂y y y x x
eri
!
∂u ∂u x
(1) + (2) ⇒ x + y = yf .
∂x ∂y y
e
gin
∂2 r ∂2 r ∂2 r 2
Example 2.15. If r2 = x2 + y2 + z2 , prove that + + = .
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 r
Solution. Given: r2 = x2 + y2 + z2 .
Differentiating w.r.t. x partially we get,
En
∂r ∂r x
2r= 2x ⇒ = .
∂x ∂x r
arn
∂r
2 r − x x 2 2
∂ r
= ∂x = r − x r = r − x .
∂x2 r2 r2 r3
2
∂ r r −y2 2
Le
Similarly, 2 =
∂y r3
∂ r r − z2
2 2
and 2 = .
∂z r3
w.
∂2 r ∂2 r ∂2 r 3r2 − (x2 + y2 + z2 )
+ + =
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 r3
ww
2
3r − r 2 2r2 2
= = = .
r3 r3 r
y x ∂2 u x2 − y2
Example 2.16. If u = x2 tan−1 − y2 tan−1 , prove that = 2 .
x y ∂x∂y x + y2
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Function of Several Variables 77
Solution. Differentiating u partially w.r.t. y, we get
∂u 1 1 h 2 1 −x y i
= x2 − y + tan−1 2y
∂y y2 x x2 y2 x
1+ 1+
x2 y2
x3 xy2 −1 y
= + − 2y tan
x2 + y2 x2 + y2 x
.in
2 2
x(x + y ) −1 x −1 x
= 2 − 2y tan = x − 2y tan
x + y2 y y
ng
Differentiating this partially w.r.t. x, we get
∂2 u 11 2y2
= 1 − 2y = 1 −
eri
∂x∂y x2 y x2 + y2
1+ 2
y
x + y − 2y2
2 2 x2 − y2
= = .
x2 + y2
e x2 + y2
gin
Example 2.17. If u = xy , show that u xxy = u xyx . [Jan 2012, Jun 2008]
Solution. Given: u = ey log x
En
uy = ey log x log x = xy log x
1
u xy = yxy−1 log x + xy
x
arn
= yxy−1 log x + xy−1 = xy−1 (y log x + 1)
y
u xxy = xy−1 + (y log x + 1)(y − 1)xy−2
x
Le
= xy−2 y + xy−2 (y log x + 1)(y − 1)
= xy−2 (y − y log x − 1 + y2 log x + y)
w.
= xy−2 (2y − 1 + y log x(y − 1))
= xy−2 (y(y − 1) log x + 2y − 1) (1)
ww
u = xy
u x = yxy−1 = ye(y−1) log x
uyx = ye(y−1) log x log x + e(y−1) log x .1
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78 Engineering Mathematics - I
= yxy−1 log x + xy−1 = xy−1 (y log x + 1)
y
u xyx = xy−1 + (y log x + 1)(y − 1)xy−2
x
= xy−2 y + xy−2 (y − 1)(y log x + 1)
= xy−2 (y + y2 log x + y − y log x − 1)
= xy−2 (2y − 1 + y log x(y − 1)) (2)
.in
From (1) and (2) we have u xxy = u xyx .
ng
y ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
eri
Example 2.18. If u = (x − y) f , find the value of x2 2 + 2xy + y2 2 .
x ∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
[May 2001]
y
Solution. u = (x − y) f
x
e
gin
∂u y −y y
= (x − y) f ′ + f .
∂x x x2 x
∂2 u y
′′ y
−y
′ y
En
= −(x − y) · f − (x − y) f · y(−2)x−3
∂x2 x2 x x2 x
y y y −y
− 2 · f′ · 1 + f′ .
x x x x2
arn
y2 ′′ y y ′ y
y y y y
= (x − y) 4 f + 2 3 (x − y) f − 2 f′ − 2 f′
x x x x x x x x
2
∂ u y 2 y 2y y y
x2 2 = 2 (x − y) f ′′ + (x − y) f ′ − 2y f ′ . (1)
∂x x x x x x
Le
∂u y 1
y
= (x − y) f ′ · +f (−1)
∂y x x x
y ′ y y
w.
= 1− f −f .
x x x
∂2 u y ′′ y 1 ′ y
−1 ! 1
′ y
= 1 − f · + f − f · .
∂y2 x x x x x x x
ww
(x − y) ′′ y 2 ′ y
= f − f
x2 x x x
2 2 2
2∂ u y ′′ y 2y ′ y
y = 2 (x − y) f − f . (2)
∂y2 x x x x
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Function of Several Variables 79
∂u
Differentiating w.r.t. x partially we get
∂y
∂2 u
!
y ′′ y −y ′ y
−1 ′ y
−y
= 1− f + f (−y) − f
∂x∂y x x x2 x x2 x x2
(x − y)y ′′ y y y y y
=− 3
f + 2 f′ + 2 f′
x x x x x x
(x − y) · y ′′ y 2y ′ y
=− f + 2f .
.in
x3 x x x
∂2 u −2y2 4y2 y
′′ y
2xy = 2 (x − y) f + f′ . (3)
∂x∂y x x x x
ng
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
(1) + (2) + (3) ⇒ x2 2 + 2xy + y2 2 = 0.
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
Homogeneous function. A function f (x, y) is said to be a homogeneous function
eri
in x and y of degree n if f (tx, ty) = tn f (x, y) for any positive t.
Example
e
(i) f (x, y) = x2 + y2 + 2xy is a homogeneous function of degree 3 in x and y.
gin
(ii) If tan−1 yx = u then tan u is a homogeneous function of degree 0.
Note. If u = f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y, then u can
y
be written as u = xn F .
En
x
3
x +y 3
Example. Let u = .
x+y
arn
t3 x3 + t3 y3 t3 (x3 + y3 ) x3 + y3
u(tx, ty) = = = t2 = t2 u.
tx + ty t(x + y) x+y
u is a homogeneous function of degree 2.
Le
y3
x3 1 + 3
Now u = x
y
x 1+
w.
x
y 3
1 + x
2
=x y
ww
1+
x
y 3
y y 1+
= x2 F where F x
= y .
x x 1+
x
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80 Engineering Mathematics - I
∴ u is a homogeneous function of degree 2 in x and y.
2.3 Euler’s Theorem
Statement. If f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y having
∂f ∂f
.in
continuous partial derivatives, then x +y = nf.
∂x ∂y
Proof.
Given that f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y.
ng
Hence f (x, y) can be written as
eri
y
f (x, y) = xn F .
x
∂f y y −y
= nxn−1 F + xn F ′
x x2
∂x
= nxn−1 F
x
y
e
− xn−2 yF ′ .
y
gin
x x
∂f n ′ y 1
n−1 ′ y
=x F =x F .
∂y x x x
∂f ∂f y y y
En
x +y = nxn F − xn−1 yF ′ + xn−1 yF ′
∂x ∂y x x x
y
= nxn F
x
arn
∂f ∂f
x +y = n f (x, y).
∂x ∂y
Extension. If f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is a homogeneous function of degree n in
Le
∂f ∂f ∂f
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , then x1 + x2 + · · · + xn = nf.
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn
Euler’s theorem on higher partial derivatives
w.
Statement. If f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y then,
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
x2 2 + 2xy + y2 2 = n(n − 1) f .
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
ww
Proof. Given, f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y.
∴ By Euler’s theorem we have
∂f ∂f
x +y = n f. (1)
∂x ∂y
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Function of Several Variables 81
Differentiating this partially w.r.t. x we obtain
∂2 f ∂ f ∂2 f ∂f
x + + y =n .
∂x2 ∂x ∂x∂y ∂x
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂f ∂f ∂f
=⇒ x + y =n − = (n − 1) .
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂x ∂x ∂x
.in
Multiplying both sides by x we get
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂f
x2
ng
2
+ xy = (n − 1)x . (2)
∂x ∂x∂y ∂x
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. y we get
eri
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂ f ∂f
x +y 2 + =n
∂y∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
e
gin
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂f ∂f ∂f
x +y 2 =n − = (n − 1) .
∂y∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
∂2 f ∂2 f
Since the partial derivatives of f are continuous we have = .
En
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂f
∴x + y 2 = (n − 1) .
∂x∂y ∂y ∂y
arn
Multiplying both sides by y we get
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂f
Le
xy + y2 2 = (n − 1)y . (2)
∂x∂y ∂y ∂y
w.
∂2 f ∂2 f 2
2∂ f
∂f ∂f
(1) + (2) =⇒ x2 + 2xy + y = (n − 1) x + y
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2 ∂x ∂y
ww
= (n − 1)n f [By Euler’s theorem]
= n(n − 1) f.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
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82 Engineering Mathematics - I
∂u ∂u ∂u
Example 2.19. If u = (x − y)(y − z)(z − x) prove that + + = 0 and
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂u ∂u
x +y +z = 3u.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution. u = (x − y)(y − z)(z − x).
∂u
= (y − z) (x − y)(−1) + z − x
.in
∂x
= (y − z)(−x + y + z − x)
= (y − z)(y + z − 2x).
ng
∂u ∂u
Similarly,= (z − x)(z + x − 2y) and = (x − y)(x + y − 2z).
∂y ∂z
eri
∂u ∂u ∂u
+ + = y2 − z2 − 2x(y − z) + z2 − x2 − 2y(z − x) + x2 − y2 − 2z(x − y).
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −2xy + 2xz − 2yz + 2xy − 2xz + 2yz = 0
e
Also, u(tx, ty, tz) = (tx − ty)(ty − tz)(tz − tx)
gin
= t3 (x − y)(y − z)(z − x) = t3 u.
En
∴ u is a homogeneous function of degree 3 in x, y, z.
∂u ∂u ∂u
∴ By Euler’s theorem, x + y + z = 3u.
∂x ∂y ∂z
arn
x3 + y3 ∂u ∂u
Example 2.20. If u = log , prove that x + y = 2.
x+y ∂x ∂y
x3 + y3 x3 + y3
Le
Solution. Given: u = log ⇒ eu =
x+y x+y
w.
t3 x3 + t3 y3 t3 (x3 + y3 )
eu(tx,ty) = =
tx + ty t(x + y)
3
x +y 3
= t2 = t2 eu .
ww
x+y
∴ eu is a homogeneous function of degree 2.
Here n = 2.
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Function of Several Variables 83
∴ By Euler’s theorem,
∂ u ∂
(e ) + y (eu ) = 2eu .
x
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
=⇒ xeu + yeu = 2eu
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
eu x + y = 2eu .
∂x ∂y
.in
∂u ∂u
x +y = 2.
∂x ∂y
y z ∂u ∂u ∂u
ng
Example 2.21. If u = + , find the value of x + y + z .
x x ∂x ∂y ∂z
y z
Solution. Given: u = + .
x x
eri
ty tz y z
u(tx, ty, tz) = + = t0 + = t0 u.
tx tx x x
=⇒ u is a homogeneous function in x, y, z of degree 0.
By Euler’s theorem, e
gin
∂u ∂u ∂u
x
+y +z = nu = 0.u = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
x y z ∂u ∂u ∂u
Example 2.22. If u = + + , then show that x + y + z = 0. [Jun 2012]
En
y z x ∂x ∂y ∂z
x y z
Solution. u(x, y, z) = + + .
y z x
tx ty tz
arn
u(tx, ty, tz) = + +
ty tz tx
tx y z
= + +
t y z x
= t0 u(x, y, z).
Le
u is a homogeneous function of degree 0 in x, y, z.
∂u ∂u ∂u
w.
∴ By Euler’s theorem, x + y + z = 0.u = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
x2 y2 ∂u ∂u
Example 2.23. If sin u = , show that x + y = 3 tan u.
ww
x+y ∂x ∂y
x2 y2
Solution. sin u(x, y) = .
x+y
t2 x2 t2 y2 t4 (x2 y2 )
sin u(tx, ty) = = = t3 sin u.
tx + ty t(x + y)
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84 Engineering Mathematics - I
sin u is a homogeneous function of degree 3 in x and y.
By Euler’s theorem,
∂ ∂
(sin u) + y (sin u) = 3 sin u.
x
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
x cos u + y cos u = 3 sin u
∂x ∂y
.in
∂u ∂u
cos u x + y = 3 sin u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 3 sin u 3 sin u
x +y = = = 3 tan u.
ng
∂x ∂y cos u cos u
x y z ∂u ∂u ∂u
Example 2.24. If u = f , , , prove that x + y + z = 0.
y z x ∂x ∂y ∂z
eri
Solution.
x y z
u(x, y, z) = f , ,
e
y z x
tx ty tz
gin
u(tx, ty, tz) = f , ,
ty tz tx
x y z
= f , ,
y z x
En
= u(x, y, z) = t0 u(x, y, z)
u is a homogeneous function of degree 0 in x, y, z.
∂u ∂u ∂u
arn
∴ By Euler’s theorem, x + y + z = 0.u = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
x3 + y3 ∂u ∂u
Example 2.25. If u = tan−1 show that x +y = sin 2u.
x−y ∂x ∂y
Le
x3 + y3
Solution. tan u = .
x−y
tan u is a homogeneous function of degree 2 in x and y.
w.
By Euler’s theorem
∂ ∂
x (tan u) + y (tan u) = 2 tan u
ww
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
sec2 ux + sec2 uy = 2 tan u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 2 tan u 2 sin u
x +y = = cos2 u
∂x ∂y sec2 u cos u
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Function of Several Variables 85
= sin 2u.
x+y ∂u ∂u 1
Example 2.26. If u = sin−1 √ √ prove that x + y = tan u. [Jun 2009]
x+ y ∂x ∂y 2
x+y x+y
Solution. u = sin−1 √ √ ⇒ sin u = √ √ .
x+ y x+ y
sin u is a homogeneous function of degree 21 in x and y.
.in
By Euler’s theorem,
∂ ∂ 1
x (sin u) + y (sin u) = sin u.
ng
∂x ∂y 2
∂u ∂u 1
cos ux + cos uy = sin u
∂x ∂y 2
eri
∂u ∂u 1
x +y = tan u.
∂x ∂y 2
x + y ∂u ∂u −1
Example 2.27. If u = cos √ −1
x+ ye√ , prove that x + y
∂x ∂y
=
2
cot u. [Dec 2011]
gin
x + y
Solution. u = cos−1 √ √ .
x + y
x + y
cos u = √ √ .
En
x+ y
cos u is a homogeneous function of degree 21 in x and y.
∴ By Euler’s theorem
arn
∂ ∂ 1
x (cos u) + y (cos u) = · cos u.
∂x ∂y 2
∂u ∂u 1
x(− sin u) + y(− sin u) = cos u.
Le
∂x ∂y 2
!
∂u ∂ 1
− sin u x + y = cos u.
∂x ∂y 2
w.
∂u ∂ −1 cos u −1
∴ x +y = = cot u.
∂x ∂y 2 sin u 2
x y
ww
Example 2.28. Verify Euler’s theorem for the function u = sin−1 + tan−1 .
x y y x
Solution. Given: u = sin−1 + tan−1 .
y x
tx ty
u(tx, ty) = sin−1 + tan−1
ty tx
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86 Engineering Mathematics - I
x y
= t0 sin−1 + tan−1
y x
= t0 u(x, y).
=⇒ u is a homogeneous function of degree 0 in x and y.
∂u ∂u
∴ By Euler’s theorem, x + y = 0.
∂x ∂y
Verification.
.in
∂u 1 1 1 −y
= s +
∂x
x2
y y2 x2
ng
1− 2 1 +
y x2
y 1 x2 y
= p − 2 2
eri
2
y2 − x2 y x (x + y )
1 y
= p − 2 .
2
y −x 2 x + y2
x
∂u
= p
x
e − 2
xy
(1)
gin
∂x 2
y −x 2 x + y2
∂u 1 −x 1 1
= s 2
+
∂y
x2 y y2 x
1− 2 1 +
En
y x2
−xy x
= p + 2 2
y2 y2 − x2 x + y
arn
x x
=− p + 2
2
y y −x 2 x + y2
∂u x xy
y =−p + 2 (2)
Le
∂y 2
y −x 2 x + y2
∂u ∂u
(1) + (2) =⇒ = x +y = 0.
∂x ∂y
w.
Hence, Euler’s theorem is verified.
ww
1 1
Example 2.29. Verify Euler’s theorem for the function u = x 2 + y 2 (xn + yn ).
Solution. It is easy to verify that u is a homogeneous function of degree n + 21 in
x and y.
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Function of Several Variables 87
Hence, by Euler’s theorem we have
∂u ∂u 1
x +y = n + u. (1)
∂x ∂y 2
Verification
∂u 1 1 1 1
= x 2 + y 2 nxn−1 + (xn + yn ) x− 2
.in
∂x 2
∂u 1 1 1 1
x = n x 2 + y 2 xn + (xn + yn )x 2 .
∂x 2
ng
Since the function is symmetric in x and y we have
∂u 1 1 1 1
= n x 2 + y 2 yn + (xn + yn )y 2 .
y
eri
∂y 2
∂u ∂u 1 1 1 1 1
x +y = n x 2 + y 2 (xn + yn ) + (xn + yn ) x 2 + y 2
∂x ∂y 2
= n+
1 1
2
1
e
x 2 + y 2 (xn + yn )
gin
1
= n + u,
2
which verifies Euler’s theorem.
En
y x
Example 2.30. If u = x2 tan−1 − y2 tan−1 , find the value of
x y
∂2 u ∂2 u 2
2∂ u
arn
x2 + 2xy + y .
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2
Solution. u is a homogeneous function of degree 2 in x and y.
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
By Euler’s theorem, x2 2 + 2xy + y2 2 = 2(2 − 1)u = 2u [n = 2].
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
Le
y y ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
Example 2.31. If z = x f + g , show that x2 2 + 2xy + y2 2 = 0.
x x ∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
y y
w.
Solution. Let u = x f and v = g .
x x
∴ z = u + v.
ww
u is a homogeneous function of degree 1 in x and y.
∴ By Euler’s theorem,
∂2 u ∂2 u 2
2∂ u
x2 + 2xy + y = n(n − 1)u = 1(1 − 1)u = 0. (1)
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2
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88 Engineering Mathematics - I
v is a homogeneous function of degree 0 in x and y.
By Euler’s theorem,
∂2 v ∂2 v 2
2∂ v
x2 + 2xy + y = 0(0 − 1)v = 0. (2)
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2
∂2 (u + v) ∂2 (u + v) 2
2 ∂ (u + v)
(1) + (2) ⇒ x2 + 2xy + y =0
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2
.in
∂2 z ∂2 z 2
2∂ z
x2 + 2xy + y = 0.
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2
ng
3 3
!
−1 x + y
Example 2.32. If u = tan , prove that
x−y
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
x2 2 + 2xy + y2 2 = 2 sin u cos 3u.
eri
∂x ∂x∂y !∂y
x 3 + y3
Solution. u = tan−1 .
x−y
tan u =
x3 + y3
!
e
gin
x−y
tan u is an homogeneous function of degree 2 in x and y.
By Euler’s theorem,
∂ ∂
x (tan u) + y (tan u) = 2 tan u.
En
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
x · sec2 u + y · sec2 u = 2 tan u.
∂x ∂y
arn
!
2 ∂u ∂u
sec u x + y = 2 tan u.
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 2 tan u sin u
x +y = 2
=2· · cos2 u
∂x ∂y sec u cos u
Le
= 2 sin u cos u
∂u ∂u
w.
x +y = sin 2u. (1)
∂x ∂y
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. x we get
∂2 u ∂u ∂2 u
ww
∂u
x· 2 + +y = 2 cos 2u .
∂x ∂x ∂x∂y ∂x
Multiplying by x we get
∂2 u ∂u ∂2 u ∂u
x2 2
+ x + xy = 2 cos 2u · x . (2)
∂x ∂x ∂x∂y ∂x
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Function of Several Variables 89
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. y we get
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂u ∂u
x +y 2 + = 2 cos 2u .
∂y∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
Multiplying w.r.t. y we get
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂u ∂u
xy + y2 2 + y = 2 cos 2u · y . (3)
∂y∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
.in
(2) + (3) ⇒
2 ∂2 u 2
!
2∂ u 2∂ u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
x + 2xy +y +x +y = 2 cos 2u x + y
ng
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2 ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
2 2 2
!
∂ u ∂ u ∂ u ∂u ∂u
x2 2 + 2xy + y2 2 = (2 cos 2u − 1) x + y
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
eri
= (2 cos 2u − 1) sin 2u
= sin 2u{2(2 cos2 u − 1) − 1}
e = sin 2u{4 cos2 u − 3}
gin
= 2 sin u cos u(4 cos2 u − 3)
= 2 sin u(4 cos3 u − 3 cos u)
En
= 2 sin u · cos 3u.
arn
2.4 Total Derivative - Implicit functions
dy dy du
We know that if y = f (u) and u = φ(x), then = . We shall now extend this
dx du dx
Le
result to function of several variables.
Let z = f (x, y) possess continuous partial derivatives and let x, y be differentiable
w.
functions of an independent variable t. Let ∆x, ∆y and ∆z be increments in x, y and
z respectively, corresponding to an increment ∆t in t. Then the total increment in z
ww
is given by
∆z = f (x + ∆x, y + ∆y) − f (x, y)
= f (x + ∆x, y + ∆y) − f (x, y + ∆y) + f (x, y + ∆y) − f (x, y).
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90 Engineering Mathematics - I
By mean value theorem, f (x + ∆x, y + ∆y) − f (x, y + ∆y) = f x (x + θ1 x, y + ∆y)∆x and
f (x, y + ∆y) − f (x, y) = fy (x, y + θ2 ∆y)∆y, 0 < θ1 , θ2 < 1.
∆z = f x (x + θ1 x, y + ∆y)∆x + fy (x, y + θ2 ∆y)∆y (1)
where θ1 and θ2 are positive proper fractions.
.in
∆z ∆x ∆y
∴ = f x (x + θ1 x, y + ∆y) + fy (x, y + θ2 ∆y) .
∆t ∆t ∆t
ng
Taking limits as ∆t → 0, we get the total derivative
dz dx dy
= f x (x, y) + fy (x, y) .
dt dt dt
eri
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
i.e., = + . (2)
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
e
In the same way if u = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) possesses continuous partial derivatives
gin
with respect to each of the independent variables and if x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are
differentiable functions of an independent variable t, then the total derivative of u
with respect to t is given by
En
du ∂u dx1 ∂u dx2 ∂u dxn
= + + ··· + . (3)
dt ∂x1 dt ∂x2 dt ∂xn dt
arn
Note. (2) expresses the rate of change of z w.r.t. t along the curve
x = x(t), y = y(t).
Le
Composite functions. Let z = f (u, v) and u and v are themselves functions of the
independent variables x, y so that u = φ(x, y) and v = ψ(x, y).
∂z
w.
To find , we consider y as a constant so that u and v may be supposed to be
∂x
functions of x only. Hence, by the above result we have
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v ∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
ww
= + . Similarly = + .
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x ∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y
Now, in (2), if we replace t by x then y is a function of x we get
dz ∂z ∂z dy
= + .
dx ∂x ∂y dx
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Function of Several Variables 91
dz ∂z dx ∂z
Similarly = + .
dy ∂x dy ∂y
Implicit Functions. Let f (x, y) = c, where c is a constant, define y as an implicit
function of x.
If u = f (x, y), then we have
du ∂ f ∂ f dy
.in
= + .
dx ∂x ∂y dx
du
But = 0, since u = f (x, y) = c
ng
dx
∂ f ∂ f dy
i.e., + =0
∂x ∂y dx
eri
∂f
dy fx
∴ = − ∂x = − .
dx ∂f fy
∂y
e
gin
dx fy
Similarly =− .
dy fx
Total differential. The total differential dz of z is defined as the principal part of
the increment ∆z which is given by
En
∂z ∂z
dz = dx + dy.
∂x ∂y
✎ ☞
arn
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
dz
Example 2.33. If z = xn ym where x = cos at, y = sin bt, find .
dt
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
Le
Solution. We have = + .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
∂z ∂z
Now = nxn−1 ym , = mxn ym−1
∂x ∂y
w.
dx dy
= −a sin at, = b cos bt.
dt dt
dz
= −anxn−1 ym sin at + bmxn ym−1 cos bt
ww
∴
dt
an bm
= −xn ym sin at − cos bt
x y
= − cosn at sinm bt(an tan at − bm cot bt).
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92 Engineering Mathematics - I
du
Example 2.34. If u = x2 y3 , x = log t, y = et , find . [Jan 2000]
dt
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
Solution. We have = + .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
∂u
= y3 2x = 2xy3
∂x
∂u
= x2 3y2 = 3x2 y2
.in
∂y
dx 1 dy
= = et
dt t dt
ng
du 1
= 2xy3 + 3x2 y2 et
dt t
eri
2 log te3t
= + 3(log t)2 e2t et
t
2
e
= e3t log t + 3 log t
t
gin
e3t log t
= (2 + 3t log t).
t
du
Example 2.35. Find when u = x2 y, x = t2 , y = et .
En
dt
Solution.
∂u ∂u
= 2xy, = x2
∂x ∂y
arn
dx dy
= 2t = et
dt dt
Le
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
we have = + = 2xy.2t + x2 et
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
= 4t2 et t + t4 et = 4t3 et + t4 et = t3 et (4 + t).
w.
1 du
Example 2.36. If u = xy + yz + zx where x = , y = et and z = e−t find . [Jun 2013]
t dt
ww
Solution.
∂u ∂u ∂u
= y + z, = x + z, = x+y
∂x ∂y ∂z
dx −1 dy dz
= 2, = et , = −e−t
dt t dt dt
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Function of Several Variables 93
du ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz
we have = + +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
−1
= (y + z) 2 + (x + z)et + (x + y)(−e−t )
t
et + e−t 1 1
=− 2
+ (e−t + )et − + et e−t
t t t
−2 et e−t
= 2 cos ht + 1 + − −1
.in
t t t
−2 2 sin ht
= 2 cos ht +
t t
2
ng
= 2 (2t sin ht − cos ht).
t
eri
du
Example 2.37. Find when u = sin yx , x = et , y = t2 .
dt
Solution.
∂u
= cos
x1
, e ∂u x
= − 2 cos
x
gin
∂x y y ∂y y y
dx dy
= et = 2t
En
dt dt
arn
du ∂u dx ∂u dy 1 x x x
= + = cos et − cos 2t
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt y y y2 y
x et 2tet ! x 1 2t
!
et (t − 2) et
= cos 2
− 4 = cos et − = cos .
y t t y t2 t4 t3 t2
Le
du 3
Example 2.38. If u = sin−1 (x − y) where x = 3t, y = 4t3 , show that = √ .
w.
dt 1 − t2
Solution.
∂u 1 ∂u −1
ww
= p , = p
∂x 1 − (x − y)2 ∂y 1 − (x − y)2
dx dy
=3 = 12t2
dt dt
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94 Engineering Mathematics - I
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
1 1
= p 3− p 12t2
1 − (x − y) 2 1 − (x − y) 2
3 − 12t 2 3 − 12t2
= p = p
1 − (3t − 4t3 )2 1 − (9t2 + 16t6 − 24t4 )
3 − 12t 2 3 − 12t2
.in
= √ = p
1 − 9t2 − 16t6 + 24t4 −(16t6 − 24t4 + 9t2 − 1)
3(1 − 4t2 ) 3(1 − 4t2 )
= p = p
ng
−(t2 − 1)(16t4 − 8t2 + 1) −(t2 − 1)(1 − 4t2 )2
3(1 − 4t2 ) 3
= p = √ .
(1 − 4t2 ) (1 − t2 ) 1 − t2
eri
du
Example 2.39. Find if u = cos(x2 + y2 ) and a2 x2 + b2 y2 = c2 . [Jan 2001]
dx
∂u ∂u e
gin
Solution. We have du = dx + dy
∂x ∂y
du ∂u ∂u dy dy
= + = − sin(x2 + y2 )2x − sin(x2 + y2 )2y
En
dx ∂x ∂y dx dx
Given that a2 x2 + b2 y2 = c2 .
arn
Diff. w.r.t. x we get
dy dy dy a2 x
2a2 x + 2b2 y = 0 ⇒ b2 y = −a2 x ⇒ =− 2
Le
dx dx dx b y
du dy −a2 x
∴ = −2 sin(x2 + y2 ) x + y = −2 sin(x2 + y2 ) x + y 2
dx dx b y
w.
a2 − b2 2(a2 − b2 )x
= 2 sin(x2 + y2 ) xy = sin(x2 + y2 ).
b2 y b2
ww
dz
q
Example 2.40. If z = x2 + y2 and x3 + y3 + 3axy = 5a2 , find the value of when
dx
x = y = a.
p
Solution. Given z = x2 + y2 .
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Function of Several Variables 95
We have
∂z ∂z
dz =dx + dy
∂x ∂y
∂z 2x x
Now = p = p
∂x 2 x2 + y2 x2 + y2
∂z y
= p .
.in
∂y x2 + y2
Also x3 + y3 + 3axy = 5a2
ng
Diff.w.r.t. x we get
dy h dy i
3x2 + 3y2 + 3a x + y = 0
dx dx
eri
dy dy
x2 + y2 + ax + ay = 0
dx dx
dy 2
dx e
(y + ax) = −ay − x2
gin
dy −(x2 + ay)
= 2 .
dx y + ax
En
−(x2 + ay)
!
dz ∂z ∂z dy x y
∴ = + = p + p 2
dx ∂x ∂y dx x2 + y2 x2 + y2 y + ax
dz a a −2a2 a a
arn
= √ + √ = √ − √ = 0.
dx x=y=a a 2 a 2 2a2 a 2 a 2
Example 2.41. If z is a function of x and y and x = eu + e−v , y = e−u − ev , show that
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
Le
− = x −y . [Jun 2001]
∂u ∂v ∂x ∂y
Solution. z is a composite function of u and v.
We have
w.
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z u ∂z ∂z u ∂z −u
= + = e + (−e−u ) = e − (e ).
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
ww
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
= + = (−e−v ) + (−ev ) = − e−v − (ev ).
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂z u ∂z ∂z ∂z
− = (e + e−v ) − (e−u − ev ) = x − y .
∂u ∂v ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
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96 Engineering Mathematics - I
Example 2.42. If z = f (x, y) where x = eu cos v, y = eu sin v, show that
∂z ∂z ∂z
y + x = e2u . [Jan 2000]
∂u ∂v ∂y
Solution. z is a composite function of u and v.
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z u ∂z
= + = e cos v + eu sin v.
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z
(−eu sin v) + eu cos v.
.in
= + =
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z u ∂z u ∂z ∂z
y = y e cos v + y e sin v = eu sin veu cos v + eu sin veu sin v
∂u ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
ng
∂z ∂z
= e2u sin v cos v + e2u sin2 v .
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂z
eri
x = −eu sin veu cos v + eu cos veu cos v
∂v ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
= −e2u sin v cos v + e2u cos2 v
∂x ∂y
e
gin
∂z ∂z ∂z
Adding we get y + x = e2u .
∂u ∂v ∂y
y − x z − x ∂u ∂u ∂u
Example 2.43. If u = f , prove that x2 + y2 + z2 = 0.
xy zx ∂x ∂y ∂z
En
y − x z − x
Solution. Given: u = f ,
xy zx
y−x z−x 1 1 1 1
Let r = ,s= ,r = − , s = − .
arn
xy zx x y x z
∴ u = f (r, s).
∴ u is a function of r and s and r and s are functions of x, y and z.
Now
Le
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u −1 ∂u −1
= + = +
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂s ∂x ∂r x2 ∂s x2
w.
∂u ∂u ∂u
∴ x2 =− − . (1)
∂x ∂r ∂s
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u −1 ∂u
= + = + (0)
ww
∂y ∂r ∂y ∂s ∂y ∂r y2 ∂s
∂u ∂u
y2 = . (2)
∂y ∂r
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u ∂u 1
= + = (0) +
∂z ∂r ∂z ∂s ∂z ∂r ∂s z2
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Function of Several Variables 97
∂u ∂u
z2 = . (3)
∂z ∂s
∂u ∂u ∂u
(1) + (2) + (3) =⇒ x2 + y2 + z2 = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂v
Example 2.44. If u2 + 2v2 = 1 − x2 + y2 and u2 + v2 = x2 + y2 − 2, find and .
∂x ∂x
.in
Solution. Consider u and v as functions of x and y.
u2 + 2v2 = 1 − x2 + y2 .
ng
Differentiating partially w.r.t. x
eri
∂u ∂v
2u + 4v = −2x
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
u + 2v
∂x ∂x
e
= −x. (1)
gin
u2 + v2 = x2 + y2 − 2
Differentiating partially w.r.t. x
En
∂u ∂v
2u + 2v = 2x
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
arn
u +v = x. (2)
∂x ∂x
∂v
(1) − (2) ⇒ v = −2x
∂x
∂v −2x
Le
⇒ =
∂x v
∂u (−2x)
(1) ⇒ u + 2v = −x.
∂x v
w.
∂u
u = 3x
∂x
∂u 3x
ww
⇒ = .
∂x u
Example 2.45. If z is a function of x and y and
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 u
x = u cos α − v sin α, y = u sin α + v cos α, show that + = + . [Jun 2000]
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂u2 ∂v2
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98 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution.
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z
= + = cos α + sin α.
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂x ∂y
∂2 z ∂ ∂z ∂x ∂ ∂z ∂y
= +
∂u2 ∂x ∂u ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂u
∂ ∂z ∂z ∂ ∂z ∂z
= cos α + sin α cos α + cos α + sin α sin α
.in
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
2
∂ z 2
∂ z 2
∂ z ∂2 z
= 2 cos2 α + sin α cos α + cos α sin α + 2 sin2 α. (1)
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂y
ng
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z
= + = (− sin α) + cos α.
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂x ∂y
∂2 z ∂ ∂z ∂x ∂ ∂z ∂y
eri
= +
∂v2 ∂x ∂v ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂v
∂ ∂z ∂z ∂ ∂z ∂z
= − sin α + cos α (− sin α) + − sin α + cos α cos α.
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
2
∂ z
= 2 sin2 α −
2
∂ z
sin α cos α − e2
∂ z 2
∂ z
cos α sin α + 2 cos2 α. (2)
gin
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂y
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z 2 2 ∂2 z
(1) + (2) ⇒ + = (sin α + cos α) + (sin2 α + cos2 α)
∂u2 ∂v2 ∂x2 ∂y2
En
∂2 z ∂2 z
= + .
∂x2 ∂y2
Example 2.46. If F is u u
" 2a function # of x and y and if x = e sin v, y = e cos v, prove
arn
2
∂ F ∂ F 2 ∂ F ∂ F 2
that 2 + 2 = e−2u + 2 [Jan 2013]
∂x ∂y ∂u2 ∂v
∂F ∂F ∂x ∂F ∂y
Solution. = · + ·
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u
Le
∂F u ∂F u
= · e sin v + · e cos v.
∂x ∂y
∂2 F
! !
∂ ∂F ∂x ∂ ∂F ∂y
w.
2
= +
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂u
" # " #
∂ ∂F u ∂F u ∂x ∂ ∂F u ∂F u ∂y
= · e sin v + · e cos v + · e sin v + · e cos v
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂u ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂u
ww
" 2
∂2 F u
" 2
∂2 F u
# #
∂ F u u ∂ F u
= · e sin v + · e cos v · e sin v + · e cos v + · e sin v · eu cos v
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2 ∂y∂x
∂2 F ∂2 F 2u ∂2 F 2u ∂2 F
= 2 · e2u sin2 v + · e sin v cos v + · e sin v cos v + 2 · e2u cos2 v (1)
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂y
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Function of Several Variables 99
∂F ∂F ∂x ∂F ∂y
= · + · .
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
∂F u ∂F u
= · e cos v − · e sin v.
∂x ∂y
∂2 F
! !
∂ ∂F ∂x ∂ ∂F ∂y
= +
∂v2 ∂x ∂v ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂v
" # " #
∂ ∂F u ∂F u u ∂ ∂F u ∂F u
· e sin v (−eu sin v)
.in
= · e cos v − · e sin v e cos v + · e cos v −
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂2 F ∂2 F 2u ∂2 F 2u ∂2 F
= 2 · e2u cos2 v − · e sin v cos v − · e sin v cos v + 2 · e2u sin2 v. (2)
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂y
ng
∂2 F ∂2 F ∂2 F 2u ∂2 F 2u
(1) + (2) ⇒ 2 + 2 = 2 e + 2 · e
∂u ∂v ∂x ∂y
" 2
∂2 F
#
2u ∂ F
eri
=e + 2
∂x2 ∂y
" 2 2
# 2 2
∂ F ∂ F ∂ F ∂ F
e−2u + 2 = 2 + 2.
∂u 2 ∂v ∂x ∂y
e
gin
Example 2.47. Transform the equation z xx + 2z xy + zyy = 0 by changing the
independent variables using u = x − y and v = x + y. [Jun 2012]
En
Solution. Consider z as a function of u and v and u and v are functions of x and y.
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
= · + ·
arn
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x
∂z ∂z
= ·1+ ·1
∂u ∂v
∂z ∂z
= + .
Le
∂u ∂v!
∂2 z
!
∂ ∂z ∂u ∂ ∂z ∂v
= · + ·
∂x2 ∂u ∂x ∂x ∂v ∂x ∂x
w.
! !
∂ ∂z ∂z ∂ ∂z ∂z
= + ·1+ + ·1
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u ∂v
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
ww
= 2+ + + 2
∂u ∂u∂v ∂v∂u ∂v
i.e.,z xx = zuu + zuv + zvu + zvv (1)
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
= · + ·
∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y
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100 Engineering Mathematics - I
∂z ∂z
= (−1) + ·1
∂u ∂v
∂z ∂z
=− + .
∂u !∂v
∂2 z
!
∂ ∂z ∂u ∂ ∂z ∂v
= +
∂y2 ∂u ∂y ∂y ∂v ∂y ∂y
! !
∂ ∂z ∂z ∂ ∂z ∂z
= − + (−1) + − + ·1
.in
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u ∂v
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
= 2− − + 2.
∂u ∂u∂v ∂v∂u ∂v
ng
i.e., zyy = zuu − zuv − zvu + zvv (2)
∂2 z
!
∂ ∂z
=
eri
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y
! !
∂ ∂z ∂u ∂ ∂z ∂v
= +
∂u ∂y ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂x
=
∂ ∂z ∂z
− +
!
·1+
∂
e
− +
∂z ∂z
!
·1
gin
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u ∂v
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
=− 2 + − + 2.
∂u ∂u∂v ∂v∂u ∂v
i.e., z xy = −zuu + zuv − zvu + zvv (3)
En
(1) + (2) + 2 × (3) ⇒
z xx + 2z xy + zyy = 2zuv − 2zvu + 4zvv
arn
0 = 2zuv − 2zvu + 4zvv .
∴ zuv − zvu + 2zvv = 0
Le
which is the required equation.
w.
Example 2.48. If z = f (x, y)! where x = u2 − v2 and y = 2uv, prove that
∂2 z ∂2 z 2
2
2 ∂ z ∂2 z
+ = 4(u + v ) + . [Jan 2012, Jan 2010]
∂u2 ∂v2 ∂x2 ∂y2
ww
Solution. z is a function of x and y and x and y are functions of u and v.
∴ z is a composite function of u and v.
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= · + ·
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u
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Function of Several Variables 101
∂z ∂z
= · 2u + · 2v.
∂x ∂y
∂2 z
!
∂ ∂z
=
∂u2 ∂u ∂u
! !
∂ ∂z ∂x ∂ ∂z ∂y
= · + · .
∂x ∂u ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂u
" # " #
∂ ∂z ∂z ∂ ∂z ∂z
.in
= · 2u + · 2v 2u + · 2u + · 2v 2v
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
= 2 · 4u2 + 4uv + 4uv + 2 · 4v2 .
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂y
ng
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= · + ·
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
eri
∂z ∂z
= · (−2v) + · 2u
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
= −2v + 2u .
∂2 z ∂ ∂z
∂x
!
∂y
e
gin
=
∂v2 ∂v ∂v
! !
∂ ∂z ∂x ∂ ∂z ∂y
= + .
∂x ∂v ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂v
En
" # " #
∂ ∂z ∂z ∂ ∂z ∂z
= −2v + 2u (−2v) + −2v · + 2u · 2u
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
= 4v2 2 − 4uv − 4uv + 4v2 2
arn
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂y
∂2 z ∂2 z 2
∂ z 2
∂ z
+ = 2 (4u2 + 4v2 ) + 2 (4u2 + 4v2 )
∂u2 ∂v2 ∂x ∂y
" 2
∂2 z
Le
#
2 2 ∂ z
= 4(u + v ) + .
∂x2 ∂y2
Example 2.49. If g(x, y) = χ(u, 2 2
! v) where u = x − y , v = 2xy, prove that
w.
2
∂ g ∂ g2 2 2
∂ χ ∂ χ
2
+ 2 = 4(x2 + y2 ) + .
∂x ∂y ∂u2 ∂v2
Solution.
ww
Similar to the previous problem.
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102 Engineering Mathematics - I
du
Example 2.50. If u = x2 + y2 + z2 and x = e2t , y = e2t cos 3t, z = e2t sin 3t, find .
dt
[Dec 2011]
Solution.
du ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz
= · + · + ·
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
.in
h i
= 2x · 2e2t + 2y −3e2t sin 3t + 2e2t cos 3t
h i
+ 2z 3e2t cos 3t + 2e2t sin 3t
ng
h i
= 2e2t · 2e2t + 2e2t cos 3t −3e2t sin 3t + 2e2t cos 3t
h i
+ 2e2t sin 3t 3e2t cos 3t + 2e2t sin 3t
eri
= 4e4t − 6e4t cos 3t sin 3t + 4e4t cos2 3t + 6e4t sin 3t cos 3t + 4e4t sin2 3t
= 4e4t + 4e4t (cos2 3t + sin2 3t) = 4e4t + 4e4t = 8e4t .
dy e 2 2 2
gin
Example 2.51. Find if x and y are connected by the relation x 3 + y 3 = a 3 .
dx 2 2 2
Solution. Let f (x, y) = x 3 + y 3 − a 3
∂f 2 1
= x− 3 .
En
fx =
∂x 3
∂f 2 1
fy = = y− 3 .
∂y 3
arn
dy fx x − 13 y 31
Now =− =− =− .
dx fy y x
dy y
Example 2.52. Find if f (x, y) = log(x2 + y2 ) + tan−1 .
Le
dx x
Solution.
∂f 2x 1 y 2x y 2x − y
w.
fx = = 2 + − = 2 − 2 = 2 .
∂x x + y2 y2 x 2 x +y 2 x +y 2 x + y2
1+
x2
∂f 2y 1 1 2y x 2y + x
ww
fy = = 2 + = + 2 = 2 .
∂y x + y2 y2 x x2 +y 2 x +y 2 x + y2
1+
x2
dy fx 2x − y y − 2x
Now =− =− = .
dx fy 2y + x x + 2y
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Function of Several Variables 103
2.5 Jacobian and its Properties
Definition. If u and v are continuous functions of two independent variables x
and y having first order partial derivatives, then the Jacobian determinant or
the Jacobian of u and v is defined by
.in
∂(u, v) u, v ∂u ∂u
or J or J = ∂x ∂y
.
∂(x, y) x, y ∂v ∂v
∂x ∂y
ng
If u, v, w are continuous functions of three independent variables x, y, z having first
order partial derivatives, then the Jacobian of u, v, w w.r.t. x, y, z is defined as
eri
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂(u, v, w) ∂v ∂v ∂v .
=
e
∂(x, y, z) ∂x
∂w
∂y
∂w
∂z
∂w
gin
∂x ∂y ∂z
Properties of Jacobians
Property I. If u and v are functions of r and s where r and s are functions of x, y
En
then
∂(u, v) ∂(u, v) ∂(r, s)
= .
∂(x, y) ∂(r, s) ∂(x, y)
arn
Proof. Since u and v are functions of x and y, we have
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s
Le
ux = = + = ur r x + u s s x .
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂s ∂x
w.
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s
uy = = + = ur ry + u s sy .
∂y ∂r ∂y ∂s ∂y
ww
∂v ∂v ∂r ∂v ∂s
vx = = + = vr r x + v s s x .
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂s ∂x
∂v ∂v ∂r ∂v ∂s
vy = = + = vr ry + v s sy .
∂y ∂r ∂y ∂s ∂y
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104 Engineering Mathematics - I
∂(u, v) ∂(r, s) ur u s r x ry
Now =
∂(r, s) ∂(x, y) vr v s s x
sy
ur u s r x s x
=
v v r s
r s y y
ur r x + u s s x ur ry + u s sy
.in
=
v r + v s v r + v s
r x s x r y s y
u x uy
ng
=
v v
x y
∂(u, v)
= .
eri
∂(x, y)
Property II. If J1 is the Jacobian of u, v with respect to x, y and J2 is the Jacobian
of x, y w.r.t. u, v then J1 J2 = 1. i.e., •
e
∂(u, v) ∂(x, y)
= 1.
gin
∂(x, y) ∂(u, v)
Proof. u is a function of x and y.
Differentiating partially with respect to u and v we get
En
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
1= + = u x xu + uy yu .
∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u
arn
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
0= + = u x xv + uy yv .
∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
Le
v is a function of x and y.
Differentiating with respect to u and v partially we get
w.
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y
0= + = v x xu + vy yv .
ww
∂x ∂u ∂y ∂v
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y
1= + = v x xv + vy yv .
∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
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Function of Several Variables 105
∂(u, v) ∂(x, y) u x uy xu xv
Now =
∂(x, y) ∂(u, v) v x vy yu
yv
u x uy xu yu
=
v v x y
x y v v
u x xu + uy yv u x xv + uy yv
.in
=
v x + v y v x + v y
x u y u x v y v
1 0
ng
=
0 1
J1 J2 = 1.
eri
Property III. If the functions u, v, w of three independent variables x, y, z are not
e
independent, then the Jacobian of u, v, w with respect to x, y, z vanishes.
gin
Solution. Given: u, v and w are not independent variables.
=⇒ There exists a relation F(u, v, w) = 0.
Differentiating this w.r.t x, y and z we get
En
∂F ∂u ∂F ∂v ∂F ∂w
+ + =0
∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x ∂w ∂x
arn
∂F ∂u ∂F ∂v ∂F ∂w
+ + =0
∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y ∂w ∂y
∂F ∂u ∂F ∂v ∂F ∂w
+ + = 0.
Le
∂u ∂z ∂v ∂z ∂w ∂z
∂F ∂F ∂F
Eliminating , and from the above three equations we get
∂u ∂v ∂w
w.
∂u ∂v ∂w
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v ∂w = 0.
ww
∂y ∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂w
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂(u, v, w)
=⇒ = 0.
∂(x, y, z)
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106 Engineering Mathematics - I
Functional relationship. Let u1 , u2 , . . . , un be functions of x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn . Then,
a necessary and sufficient condition that u1 , u2 , . . . , un are not independent is that
∂(u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
the Jacobian = 0.
∂(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Example 2.53. If x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, find the Jacobian of x and y w.r.t r and θ.
.in
[Jan 2001]
Solution.
ng
∂x ∂x
x = r cos θ =⇒ = cos θ, = −r sin θ.
∂r ∂θ
∂u ∂u
y = r sin θ =⇒ = sin θ, = r cos θ.
eri
∂r ∂θ
∂(x, y) ∂x
∂r
∂x
∂θ
cos θ −r sin θ
= r cos2 θ + r sin2 θ = r.
Now, = =
∂(r, θ) ∂y ∂y sin θ r cos θ
∂r ∂θ
e
gin
Example 2.54. The transformation equations in spherical polar coordinates is
x = r sin θ cos ϕ, y = r sin θ sin ϕ, z = r cos θ. Compute the Jacobian of x, y, z w.r.t. r, θ, ϕ.
[May 2011, Jan 2009]
En
Solution.
∂x ∂x ∂x sin θ cos ϕ r cos θ cos ϕ −r sin θ sin ϕ
arn
∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ
∂(x, y, z) ∂y ∂y ∂y
= ∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ
= sin θ sin ϕ r sin ϕ cos θ r sin θ cos ϕ
∂(r, θ, ϕ)
∂z ∂z ∂z cos θ −r sin θ 0
∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ
Le
sin θ cos ϕ cos θ cos ϕ − sin ϕ
= r2 sin θ sin θ sin ϕ sin ϕ cos θ cos ϕ
w.
cos θ − sin θ 0
= r2 sin θ sin θ cos ϕ(0 + sin θ cos ϕ) − cos θ cos ϕ(0 − cos θ cos ϕ)
ww
− sin ϕ(− sin2 θ sin ϕ − cos2 θ sin ϕ)
= r2 sin θ sin2 θ cos2 ϕ + cos2 θ cos2 ϕ + sin2 θ sin2 ϕ + cos2 θ sin2 ϕ
= r2 sin θ(cos2 ϕ + sin2 ϕ) = r2 sin θ.
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Function of Several Variables 107
Example 2.55. In cylindrical polar coordinates, x = ρ cos φ, y = ρ sin φ, z = z. Show
∂(x, y, z)
that = ρ.
∂(ρ, φ, z)
Solution.
∂x ∂x ∂x cos φ −ρ sin φ 0
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
∂(x, y, z) ∂y ∂y ∂y
= ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z = sin φ ρ cos φ 0
∂(ρ, φ, z)
.in
∂z ∂z ∂z 0 0 1
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
= 1(ρ cos2 φ + ρ sin2 φ) = ρ.
ng
∂(u, v)
Example 2.56. If u = 2xy, v = x2 − y2 , x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, evaluate without
∂(r, θ)
eri
actual substitution. [Jan 2009]
Solution. Given that u and v are functions of x and y. x and y are functions of r
and θ.
∴ By property (1) of the Jacobians we have e
gin
∂(u, v) ∂(u, v) ∂(x, y)
= .
∂(r, θ) ∂(x, y) ∂(r, θ)
En
∂u ∂u
∂(u, v) ∂x ∂y
2y 2x
= =
∂(x, y) ∂v ∂v 2x −2y
∂x ∂y
= −4y2 − 4x2 = −4(x2 + y2 ) = −4r2 .
arn
∂x ∂x
∂(x, y) ∂r ∂θ cos θ −r sin θ
= =
∂(r, θ) ∂y ∂y sin θ r cos θ
∂r ∂θ
Le
= r cos2 θ + r sin2 θ = r
∂(u, v)
= −4(r2 )r = −4r3 .
w.
∂(r, θ)
u+v ∂(u, v)
Example 2.57. If x = uv, y = , find .
u−v ∂(x, y)
ww
∂(u, v) ∂(x, y) ∂(u, v) 1
Solution. We know that =1⇒ = .
∂(x, y) ∂(u, v) ∂(x, y) ∂(x, y)
∂(u, v)
x = uv.
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108 Engineering Mathematics - I
∂x ∂x
= v, = u.
∂u ∂v
u+v
y= .
u−v
∂y u − v − (u + v) u − v − u − v −2v
= 2
= 2
= .
∂u (u − v) (u − v) (u − v)2
∂y (u − v).1 − (u + v)(−1) 2u
.in
= 2
= .
∂v (u − v) (u − v)2
ng
∂x ∂x v u
∂(x, y) ∂u ∂v
= = −2v 2u
∂(u, v) ∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v (u − v)2
(u − v)2
eri
2uv 2uv 4uv
= 2
+ 2
=
(u − v) (u − v) (u − v)2
∂(u, v) (u − v)2
∂(x, y)
=
4uv
.
e
gin
Example 2.58. If x = u(1 − v), y = uv then compute J1 and J2 and prove that
J1 J2 = 1.
Solution. We have
En
∂(x, y) ∂(u, v)
J1 = , J2 =
∂(u, v) ∂(x, y)
arn
x = u − uv, y = uv.
∂x
∂x 1 − v −u
J1 = ∂u
∂v
= = u − uv + uv = u.
∂y
∂y v u
∂u ∂v
Le
We shall express u and v interms of x and y.
x = u − uv = u − y ⇒ x + y = u.
w.
y y
y = uv ⇒ v = = .
u x+y
ww
1
we get J2 = .
u
1
Now J1 J2 = u = 1.
u
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Function of Several Variables 109
x2 x3 x3 x1 x1 x2 ∂(y1 , y2 , y3 )
Example 2.59. If y1 = , y2 = , y3 = , prove that = 4.
x1 x2 x3 ∂(x1 , x2 , x3 )
[Jan 2014]
∂y1 ∂y1 ∂y1
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂(y1 , y2 , y3 ) ∂y2 ∂y2 ∂y2
Solution. = ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂(x1 , x2 , x3 ) 1 2 3
∂y3 ∂y3 ∂y3
∂x1 ∂x2
∂x3
.in
2 −x2 x3 x3 x2
x1 x1 x1
= xx32 −x3 x1 x1
x22 x2
ng
x2 x1 −x1 x2
x3 x3 2
x3
2
x12 x3 x1 x2 x3 x1 x2
−x2 x3 x1 x2 x3 x2 x1 x3 x1 x2 x3
= 2 2 − − − − + + 2
x12 x2 x3 x1 x2 x32
eri
x2 x3 x2 x3 x1 x2 x3 x2 x3
= −1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4.
Example 2.60. If u = x + y + z, uv = y + z, uvw = z, find e ∂(x, y, z)
.
gin
∂(u, v, w)
[Jan 2012, Jan 2010]
Solution. Given u = x + y + z ⇒ u = x + uv ⇒ x = u − uv = u(1 − v).
En
uv = y + z ⇒ uv = y + uvw ⇒ y = uv − uvw = uv(1 − w), uvw = z.
∂x ∂x ∂x 1 − v −u 0
∂u ∂v ∂w
∂(x, y, z) ∂y
arn
∂y ∂y
= ∂u ∂v
= v(1 − w) u(1 − w) −uv
∂w
∂(u, v, w)
∂z ∂z ∂z vw uw uv
∂u ∂v ∂w
1 − v −1 0
Le
= u(uv) v(1 − w) 1 − w −1
vw w 1
w.
= u2 v {(1 − v)(1 − w + w) + 1(v(1 − w) + vw)}
= u2 v {(1 − v) + (v − vw + vw)}
ww
= u2 v {1 − v + v} = u2 v.
∂(x, y, z)
Example 2.61. If u = xyz, v = x2 + y2 + z2 , w = x + y + z, find .
∂(u, v, w)
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110 Engineering Mathematics - I
∂(x, y, z) ∂(u, v, w) ∂(x, y, z) 1
Solution. We have =1⇒ = .
∂(u, v, w) ∂(x, y, z) ∂(u, v, w) ∂(u, v, w)
∂(x, y, z)
∂u ∂u ∂u yz xz xy
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂(u, v, w) ∂v ∂v
∂v =
= ∂x ∂y ∂z 2x 2y 2z
∂(x, y, z)
∂w ∂w ∂w
1 1 1
.in
∂x ∂y ∂z
= yz(2y − 2z) − xz(2x − 2z) + xy(2x − 2y)
ng
= 2(yz(y − z) − xz(x − z) + xy(x − y))
= 2(y2 z − yz2 − x2 z + xz2 + xy(x − y))
eri
= 2(z2 (x − y) + xy(x − y) − z(x2 − y2 ))
= 2(z2 (x − y) + xy(x − y) − z(x − y)(x + y))
e
= 2(x − y)(z2 + xy − xz − yz)
gin
= 2(x − y)(z(z − x) − y(z − x))
= 2(x − y)(z − x)(z − y)
En
= −2(x − y)(y − z)(z − x).
∂(x, y, z) 1 1
Now, ⇒ = = .
∂(u, v, w) ∂(u, v, w) −2(x − y)(y − z)(z − x)
arn
∂(x, y, z)
Example 2.62. If u = x + 2y + z, v = x − 2y + 3z and w = 2xy − xz + 4yz − 2z2 , show that
Le
they are not independent. Find the relation between u, v and w.
Solution. Given: u = x + 2y + z.
w.
∂u ∂u ∂u
= 1, = 2, = 1.
∂x ∂y ∂z
ww
v = x − 2y + 3z.
∂v ∂v ∂v
= 1, = −2, = 3.
∂x ∂y ∂z
w = 2xy − xz + 4yz − 2z2 .
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Function of Several Variables 111
∂w ∂w ∂w
= 2y − z, = 2x + 4z, = −x + 4y − 4z.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂u ∂u 1 2 1
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂(u, v, w) ∂v ∂v ∂v
= ∂x = 1 −2 3
.in
∂(x, y, z) ∂y ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂w
2y − z 2x + 4z −x + 4y − 4z
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 1(−2(−x + 4y − 4z) − 3(2x + 4z)) − 2(−x + 4y − 4z − 3(2y − z))
ng
+ 1(2x + 4z + 2(2y − z))
= 2x − 8y + 8z − 6x − 12z + 2x − 8y + 8z + 12y − 6z + 2x + 4z + 4y − 2z = 0.
eri
Hence, u, v, w are not independent.
Now u + v = 2x + 4z, u − v = 4y − 2z. e
gin
(u + v)(u − v) = 2(x + 2z).2(2y − z)
En
u2 − v2 = 4(2xy − xz + 4yz − 2z2 )
u2 − v2 = 4w.
arn
2.6 Taylor’s expansion for functions of two variables
Le
We know that for a function f (x) of one single variable x, the Taylor’s expansion
w.
is
h2 ′′ h3 ′′′
f (x + h) = f (x) + h f ′ (x) +
ww
f (x) + f (x) + · · ·
2! 3!
Now let f (x, y) be a function of two independent variables x, y defined in a region
R of the xy−plane and let (a, b) be a point in R. Suppose f (x, y) has all its partial
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112 Engineering Mathematics - I
derivatives in a neighbourhood of (a, b) then
∂ ∂
f (a + h, b + k) = f (a, b) + h + k f (a, b)
∂x ∂y
1 ∂ ∂ 2 1 ∂ ∂ 3
+ h +k f (a, b) + h +k f (a, b) + · · · +
2! ∂x ∂y 3! ∂x ∂y
= f (a, b) + h f x (a, b) + k fy (a, b)
.in
1 2
+ h f xx (a, b) + 2hk f xy (a, b) + k2 fyy (a, b)
2!
1 3
ng
+ h f xxx (a, b) + 3h2 k f xxy (a, b) + 3hk2 f xyy (a, b)
3!
+ k3 fyyy (a, b) + · · · .
eri
Put x = a + h, y = b + k then h = x − a, k = y − b.
∴ The Taylor’s series can be written as
e
gin
f (x, y) = f (a, b) + (x − a) f x (a, b) + (y − b) fy (a, b)
1
+ (x − a)2 f xx (a, b) + 2(x − a)(y − b) f xy (a, b) + (y − b)2 fyy (a, b)
2!
En
1
+ (x − a)3 f xxx (a, b) + 3(x − a)2 (y − b) f xxy (a, b)
3!
+ 3(x − a)(y − b)2 f xyy (a, b) + (y − b)3 fyyy (a, b) + · · · .
arn
This is known as the Taylor’s expansion of f (x, y) in the neighbourhood of (a, b) or
about the point (a, b).
Le
Put a = 0, b = 0. we get
f (x, y) = f (0, 0) + x f x (0, 0) + y fy (0, 0)
w.
1 2
+ x f xx (0, 0) + 2xy f xy (0, 0) + y2 fyy (0, 0)
2!
1 3
ww
+ x f xxx (0, 0) + 3x2 y f xxy (0, 0) + 3xy2 f xyy (0, 0) + y3 fyyy (0, 0) + · · · .
3!
This is called Maclaurin’s series for f (x, y) in powers of x and y.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
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Function of Several Variables 113
Example 2.63. Expand e x sin y in powers of x and y as far as the terms of third
degree. [Jun 2013]
Solution. f (x, y) = e x sin y f (0, 0) = 0
f x (x, y) = e x sin y f x (0, 0) = 0
fy (x, y) = e x cos y
.in
fy (0, 0) = 1
f xx (x, y) = e x sin y f xx (0, 0) = 0
ng
f xy (x, y) = e x cos y f xy (0, 0) = 1
fyy (x, y) = −e x sin y fyy (0, 0) = 0
eri
f xxx (x, y) = e x sin y f xxx (0, 0) = 0
f xxy (x, y) = e x cos y
e
f xxy (0, 0) = 1
gin
f xyy (x, y) = −e x sin y f xyy (0, 0) = 0
fyyy (x, y) = −e x cos y fyyy (0, 0) = −1.
En
arn
1 2
Now f (x, y) = f (0, 0) + x f x (0, 0) + y fy (0, 0) + x f xx (0, 0) + 2xy f xy (0, 0) + y2 fyy (0, 0)
2!
Le
1 3
+ x f xxx (0, 0) + 3x2 y f xxy (0, 0) + 3xy2 f xyy (0, 0) + y3 fyyy (0, 0) + · · ·
3!
1
= 0 + x.0 + y.1 + x2 .0 + 2xy.1 + y2 .0
w.
2
1 3
x .0 + 3x y.1 + 3xy2 .0 + y3 (−1) + · · ·
2
6
ww
x2 y y3
= y + xy + − + ··· .
2 6
Example 2.64. Expand e x loge (1 + y) in powers of x and y upto terms of third
degree. [Jan 2014, Dec 2011, Jan 2003]
Solution.
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114 Engineering Mathematics - I
2e x
fyyy =
(1 + y)3
f (x, y) = e x loge (1 + y)
f (0, 0) = 0
f x (x, y) = e x loge (1 + y)
.in
ex f x (0, 0) = 0
fy (x, y) =
1+y fy (0, 0) = 1
ng
x
f xx = e log(1 + y)
f xx (0, 0) = 0
ex
f xy = f xy (0, 0) = 1
1+y
eri
−e x fyy (0, 0) = −1
fyy =
(1 + y)2
f xxx (0, 0) = 0
f xxx = e x log(1 + y)
e
gin
ex f xxy (0, 0) = 1
f xxy =
1+y f xyy (0, 0) = −1
−e x
f xyy = fyyy (0, 0) = 2
(1 + y)2
En
By Maclaurin’s series we have,
f (x, y) = f (0, 0) + x f x (0, 0) + y fy (0, 0)
arn
1 2
+ x f xx (0, 0) + 2xy f xy (0, 0) + y2 fyy (0, 0)
2!
1 3
+ x f xxx (0, 0) + 3x2 y f xxy (0, 0)
3!
Le
+ 3xy2 f xyy (0, 0) + y3 fyyy (0, 0) + · · · .
1
e x loge (1 + y) = 0 + x.0 + y.1 + (x2 .0 + 2xy.1 + y2 (−1))+
w.
2
1 3
[x · 0 + 3x2 y · 1 + 3xy2 (−1) + y3 (2)] + . . . .
6
y2 x2 y xy2 y3
ww
= y + xy − + − + − ···
2 2 2 3
Example 2.65. Expand x2 y + 3y − 2 in powers of x − 1 and y + 2 upto third degree
terms. [Jun 2012]
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Function of Several Variables 115
Solution. f (x, y) = x2 y + 3y − 2. f (1, −2) = 1 × (−2) + 3(−2) − 2
= −2 − 6 − 2 = −10.
f x (x, y) = 2xy.
f x (1, −2) = −4.
2
fy (x, y) = x + 3.
fy (1, −2) = 4.
.in
f xx (x, y) = 2y.
f xx (1, −2) = −4.
f xy (x, y) = 2x.
f xy (1, −2) = 2.
ng
fyy (x, y) = 0.
fyy (1, −2) = 0.
f xxx (x, y) = 0.
f xxx (1, −2) = 0.
eri
f xxy (x, y) = 2.
f xxy (1, −2) = 2.
f xyy (x, y) = 0.
fyyy (x, y) = 0. e f xyy (1, −2) = 0.
gin
fyyy (1, −2) = 0.
En
By Taylor’s theorem we have,
arn
f (x, y) = f (a, b) + (x − a) f x (a, b) + (y − b) fy (a, b)
1 h i
+ (x − a)2 f xx (a, b) + 2(x − a)(y − b) f xy (a, b) + (y − b)2 fyy (a, b)
2!
Le
1 h
+ (x − a)3 f xxx (a, b) + 3(x − a)2 (y − b) f xxy (a, b)
3!
i
+3(x − a)(y − b)2 f xyy (a, b) + (y − b)3 fyyy (a, b) + · · ·
w.
x2 y + 3y − 2 = f (1, −2) + (x − 1) f x (1, −2) + (y + 2) fy (1, −2)
1 h
ww
i
+ (x − 1)2 f xx (1, −2) + 2(x − 1)(y + 2) f xy (1, −2) + (y + 2)2 fyy (1, −2)
2!
1 h
+ (x − 1)3 f xxx (1, −2) + 3(x − 1)2 (y + 2) f xxy (1, −2)
3!
i
+3(x − 1)(y + 2)2 f xyy (1, −2) + (y + 2)3 fyyy (1, −2) + · · ·
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116 Engineering Mathematics - I
1h i
= −10 − 4(x − 1) + 4(y + 2) + −4(x − 1)2 + 2(x − 1)(y + 2)
2
1h i
+ 6(x − 1)2 (y + 2) + · · ·
6
= −10 − 4(x − 1) + 4(y + 2) − 2(x − 1)2 + (x − 1)(y + 2) + (x − 1)2 (y + 2) + · · ·
Example 2.66. Find the Taylor’s series expansion of x2 y2 + 2x2 y + 3y2 in powers of
.in
(x + 2) and y − 1 upto third degree terms. [Jan 2012, Jun 2010, Jan 2010]
Solution.
ng
f (x, y) = x2 y2 + 2x2 y + 3y2 . f (−2, 1) = 4 + 8 + 3 = 15.
f x (x, y) = 2xy2 + 4xy. f x (−2, 1) = −4 − 8 = −12.
eri
fy (x, y) = 2x2 y + 2x2 + 6y. fy (−2, 1) = 8 + 8 + 6 = 22.
f xx (x, y) = 2y2 + 4y. f xx (−2, 1) = 2 + 4 = 6.
e
gin
f xy (x, y) = 4xy + 4x. f xy (−2, 1) = −8 − 8 = −16.
fyy (x, y) = 2x2 + 6. fyy (−2, 1) = 8 + 6 = 14.
f xxx (x, y) = 0. f xxx (−2, 1) = 0.
En
f xxy (x, y) = 4y + 4. f xxy (−2, 1) = 4 + 4 = 8.
f xyy (x, y) = 4x. f xyy (−2, 1) = −8.
arn
fyyy (x, y) = 0. fyyy (−2, 1) = 0.
Le
By Taylor’s theorem we have,
w.
f (x, y) = f (a, b) + (x − a) f x (a, b) + (y − b) fy (a, b)
1 h
ww
i
+ (x − a)2 f xx (a, b) + 2(x − a)(y − b) f xy (a, b) + (y − b)2 fyy (a, b)
2!
1 h
+ (x − a)3 f xxx (a, b) + 3(x − a)2 (y − b) f xxy (a, b)
3!
i
+3(x − a)(y − b)2 f xyy (a, b) + (y − b)3 fyyy (a, b) + · · ·
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Function of Several Variables 117
x2 y2 + 2x2 y + 3y2 = 15 − 12(x + 2) + 22(y − 1)
1h i
+ 6(x + 2)2 − 2 × 16(x + 2)(y − 1) + 14(y − 1)2
2
1h i
+ 24(x + 2)2 (y − 1) − 24(x + 2)(y − 1)2 + · · ·
6
= 15 − 12(x + 2) + 22(y − 1) + 3(x + 2)2 − 16(x + 2)(y − 1) + 7(y − 1)2
.in
+ 4(x + 2)2 (y − 1) − 4(x + 2)(y − 1)2 + · · ·
Example 2.67. Use Taylor’s formula to expand the function defined by f (x, y) =
ng
x3 + y3 + xy2 in powers of (x − 1) and (y − 2). [May 2011]
Solution.
eri
f (x, y) = x3 + y3 + xy2 . f (1, 2) = 1 + 8 + 4 = 13.
f x (x, y) = 3x2 + y2 .
e f x (1, 2) = 3 + 4 = 7.
gin
fy (x, y) = 3y2 + 2xy. fy (1, 2) = 12 + 4 = 16.
f xx (x, y) = 6x. f xx (1, 2) = 6.
f xy (x, y) = 2y. f xy (1, 2) = 4.
En
fyy (x, y) = 6y + 2x. fyy (1, 2) = 12 + 2 = 14.
f xxx (x, y) = 6. f xxx (1, 2) = 6.
arn
f xxy (x, y) = 0. f xxy (1, 2) = 0.
f xyy (x, y) = 2. f xyy (1, 2) = 2.
Le
fyyy (x, y) = 6. fyyy (1, 2) = 6.
w.
ww
By Taylor’s theorem we have,
f (x, y) = f (a, b) + (x − a) f x (a, b) + (y − b) fy (a, b)
1 h i
+ (x − a)2 f xx (a, b) + 2(x − a)(y − b) f xy (a, b) + (y − b)2 fyy (a, b)
2!
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118 Engineering Mathematics - I
1 h
+ (x − a)3 f xxx (a, b) + 3(x − a)2 (y − b) f xxy (a, b)
3!
i
+3(x − a)(y − b)2 f xyy (a, b) + (y − b)3 fyyy (a, b) + · · ·
1h i
x3 + y3 + xy2 = 13 + 7(x − 1) + 16(y − 2) + 6(x − 1)2 + 8(x − 1)(y − 2) + 14(y − 2)2
2
1h i
+ 6(x − 1)3 + 6(x − 1)(y − 2)2 + 6(y − 2)3 + · · ·
6
.in
= 13 + 7(x − 1) + 16(y − 2) + 3(x − 1)2 + 4(x − 1)(y − 2) + 7(y − 2)2
+ (x − 1)3 + (x − 1)(y − 2)2 + (y − 2)3 + · · ·
ng
Example 2.68. Expand e−x log y as a Taylor’s series in powers of x and y − 1 upto
third degree terms. [Jun 2011]
eri
Solution.
f (x, y) = e−x log y.
e
f (0, 1) = 0.
gin
f x (x, y) = −e−x log y. f x (0, 1) = 0.
e−x
fy (x, y) = . fy (0, 1) = 1.
y
En
f xx (x, y) = e−x log y. f xx (0, 1) = 0.
e−x
f xy (x, y) = − . f xy (0, 1) = −1.
arn
y
e−x
fyy (x, y) = − . fyy (0, 1) = −1.
y2
Le
f xxx (x, y) = −e−x log y. f xxx (0, 1) = 0.
e−x
f xxy (x, y) = . f xxy (0, 1) = 1.
y
w.
e−x
f xyy (x, y) = . f xyy (0, 1) = 1.
y2
ww
2e−x
fyyy (x, y) = . fyyy (0, 1) = 2.
y3
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Function of Several Variables 119
By Taylor’s theorem we have,
f (x, y) = f (a, b) + (x − a) f x (a, b) + (y − b) fy (a, b)
1 h i
+ (x − a)2 f xx (a, b) + 2(x − a)(y − b) f xy (a, b) + (y − b)2 fyy (a, b)
2!
1 h
+ (x − a)3 f xxx (a, b) + 3(x − a)2 (y − b) f xxy (a, b)
3!
.in
i
+3(x − a)(y − b)2 f xyy (a, b) + (y − b)3 fyyy (a, b) + · · ·
1 1
e−x log y = y − 1 + [−2x(y − 1) − (y − 1)2 ] + [3x2 (y − 1) + 3x(y − 1)2 + 2(y − 1)3 ] + · · ·
2! 3!
ng
y
Example 2.69. Expand f (x, y) = tan−1 about (1, 1) upto the second degree terms.
x
Hence compute f (1.1, 0.9) approximately. [Jan 2005]
eri
y
Solution. Given, f (x, y) = tan−1
x
(a, b) = (1, 1) a = 1, b = 1
f (1, 1) = tan−1
1 π
=
e
gin
1 4
1 −y x2 y −y −1
fx = 2 2
= − 2 + y2 )x2
= 2 2
f x (1, 1) =
y
1 + x2 x (x x + y 2
En
1 1 x2 x 1
fy = 2
= 2 2 )x
= 2 2
fy (1, 1) =
y x (x + y x + y 2
1 + x2
2xy 2 1
f xx = −y(−1)(x2 + y2 )−2 2x = 2 f xx (1, 1) = =
arn
(x + y ) 2 2 4 2
2 2
x + y − x2x 2
y −x 2
f xy = 2 2 2
= 2 f xy (1, 1) = 0
(x + y ) (x + y2 )2
−2xy −1
Le
fyy = x(−1)(x2 + y2 )−2 2y = 2 2 2
fyy (1, 1) =
(x + y ) 2
w.
By Taylor’s theorem we have
ww
f (x, y) = f (a, b) + (x − a) f x (a, b) + (y − b) fy (a, b)
1
+ (x − a)2 f xx (a, b) + 2(x − a)(y − b) f xy (a, b) + (y − b)2 fyy (a, b) + · · ·
2!
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120 Engineering Mathematics - I
y
tan−1 = f (1, 1) + (x − 1) f x (1, 1) + (y − 1) fy (1, 1)
x
1
+ (x − 1)2 f xx (1, 1) + 2(x − 1)(y − 1) f xy (1, 1) + (y − 1)2 fyy (1, 1)
2!
π −1 1 1 1
= + (x − 1) + (y − 1) + (x − 1)2 + 2(x − 1)(y − 1)0
4 2 2 2 2
2 (−1)
+ (y − 1) + ···
2
.in
π 1 11 1
= − (x − 1 − y + 1) + (x − 1)2 − (y − 1)2 + · · ·
4 2 2 2 2
π 1 1 2 2
= − (x − y) + (x − y − 2x + 2y) + · · ·
ng
4 2 4
y π 1 1 1 1
tan−1 = − (x − 1) + (y − 1) + (x − 1)2 − (y − 1)2 + · · · .
x 4 2 2 4 4
eri
π 1 1 1 1
f (1.1, 0.9) = − (0.1) + (−0.1) + (0.1)2 − (−0.1)2 approximately
4 2 2 4 4
π
= − 0.1 = 0.685 approximately.
4
e
gin
π
Example 2.70. Find the Taylor’s series expansion of e x sin y at the point − 1,
4
upto third degree terms. [Jan 2009]
Solution.
En
π 1
f (x, y) = e x sin y f − 1, = √
4 e 2
arn
π 1
f x (x, y) = e x sin y f x − 1, = √
4 e 2
π 1
fy (x, y) = e x cos y fy − 1, = √
4 e 2
Le
π 1
f xx = e x sin y f xx − 1, = √
4 e 2
π 1
w.
f xy = e x cos y f xy − 1, = √
4 e 2
π 1
fyx = e x cos y fyx − 1, = √
ww
4 e 2
π −1
fyy = −e x sin y fyy − 1, = √
4 e 2
π 1
f xxx = e x sin y f xxx − 1, = √
4 e 2
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Function of Several Variables 121
π 1
f xxy = e x cos y f xxy − 1, = √
4 e 2
π −1
f xyy = −e x sin y f xyy − 1, = √
4 e 2
π −1
fyyx = −e x sin y fyyx − 1, = √
4 e 2
π −1
fyyy = −e x sin y
fyyy − 1, = √
.in
4 e 2
ng
eri
By Taylor’s theorem we have
e
f (x, y) = f (a, b) + (x − a) f x (a, b) + (y − b) fy (a, b)
gin
1
+ (x − a)2 f xx (a, b) + 2(x − a)(y − b) f xy (a, b) + (y − b)2 fyy (a, b)
2!
1
+ (x − a)3 f xxx (a, b) + 3(x − a)2 (y − b) f xxy (a, b)
3!
En
+ 3(x − a)(y − b)2 f xyy (a, b) + (y − b)3 fyyy (a, b) + · · · .
π π π π
e x sin y = f − 1, + (x + 1) f x − 1, + (y − ) fy − 1,
4 4 4 4
arn
1 2 π π π
+ (x + 1) f xx − 1, + 2(x + 1)(y − ) f xy − 1,
2! 4 4 4
π 2 π
+ (y − ) fyy − 1,
4 4
Le
1 π π π
3
+ (x + 1) f xxx − 1, + 3(x + 1)2 (y − ) f xxy − 1,
6 4 4 4
π 2 π π 3 π
+ 3(x + 1)(y − ) f xyy − 1, + (y − ) fyyy − 1, + ··· .
w.
4 4 4 4
1 1 1 π 1
= √ + √ (x + 1) + √ y − + √ (x + 1)2
e 2 e 2 e 2 4 2 2e
ww
1 π 1 π 1
+ √ (x + 1) y − − √ y − 2 + √ (x + 1)3
2e 4 2 2e 4 6 2e
√ √
2 π 2 π 1 π
+ (x + 1)2 y − − (x + 1) y − 2 − √ y − 3 + · · · .
e 4 e 4 6 2e 4
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122 Engineering Mathematics - I
π
Example 2.71. Expand e x cos y near the point 1, by Taylor’s series as far as
4
quadratic terms. [Jan 1996]
Solution.
π e
f (x, y) = e x cos y f 1, = √
4 2
π π e
.in
f x (x, y) = e x cos y f x 1, = e cos = √
4 4 2
π e
fy (x, y) = −e x sin y fy 1, =−√
4 2
ng
π e
f xx = e x cos y f xx 1, = √
4 2
π −e
eri
f xy = −e x sin y f xy 1, = √
4 2
π −e
fyy = −e x cos y fyy 1, = √
4
e 2
gin
En
By Taylor’s theorem we have
f (x, y) = f (a, b) + (x − a) f x (a, b) + (y − b) fy (a, b)
arn
1
+ (x − a)2 f xx (a, b) + 2(x − a)(y − b) f xy (a, b) + (y − b)2 fyy (a, b)
2!
x π π π π
e cos y = f 1, + (x − 1) f x 1, + (y − ) fy 1,
4 4 4 4
Le
1 π π π
(x − 1)2 f xx 1, + 2(x − 1)(y − ) f xy 1,
+
2! 4 4 4
π 2 π
w.
+ (y − ) fyy 1, + ···
4 4
e e π (−e)
= √ + (x − 1) √ + y − √
2 2 4 2
ww
1 e π (−e) π 2 (−e)
+ (x − 1)2 √ + 2(x − 1) y − √ + y− √ + ···
2 2 4 2 4 2
!
e π 1 π 1 π
= √ 1 + (x − 1) − y − + (x − 1)2 − y − (x − 1) − y − 2 + · · · .
2 4 2 4 2 4
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Function of Several Variables 123
2.7 Maxima and Minima for functions of two variables
Definition. Let f (x, y) be a continuous function defined in a closed and bounded
domain D of the xy plane and let (a, b) be an interior point of D.
(i) f (a, b) is said to be a local maximum value of f (x, y) at the point (a, b) if there
exists a neighborhood N of (a, b) such that f (x, y) < f (a, b) for all points (x, y) in
.in
N.
(ii) f (a, b) is said to be a local minimum if f (x, y) > f (a, b) for all points (x, y) in N
ng
other than (a, b).
f (x, y) f (x, y)
eri
f (a, b)
f (a, b)
eX X
gin
(x, y) (a, b) (x, y) (x, y) (a, b) (x, y)
Y Y
En
Local maximum or local minimum values are called extreme values.
Stationary point of f (x, y)
arn
A point (a, b) satisfying f x = 0 and fy = 0 is called a stationary point of f (x, y).
Necessary conditions for Maximum or minimum
If f (a, b) is an extreme value of f (x, y) at (a, b), then (a, b) is a stationary point of
Le
f (x, y) if f x and fy exist at (a, b) and f x (a, b) = 0, fy (a, b) = 0.
Sufficient conditions for extreme values of f (x, y)
w.
Let (a, b) be a stationary point of the differentiable function f (x, y).
i.e., f x (a, b) = 0, fy = (a, b) = 0.
ww
Let us define f xx (a, b) = r, f xy (a, b) = s, fyy (a, b) = t.
(i) If rt − s2 > 0 and r < 0, then f (a, b) is a maximum value.
(ii) If rt − s2 > 0 and r > 0 then f (a, b) is a minimum value.
(iii) If rt − s2 < 0, then f (a, b) is not an extreme value but (a, b) is a saddle point of
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124 Engineering Mathematics - I
f (x, y).
(iv) If rt − s2 = 0, then no conclusion is possible and further investigation is
required.
Working rule to find maxima and minima of f (x, y)
∂f ∂f
step (1). Find f x = and fy = and solve for f x = 0 and fy = 0 as simultaneous
∂x ∂y
.in
equations in x and y.
Let (a, b), (a1 , b1 ), . . . be the solutions which are stationary points of f (x, y).
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
step (2). Find r = 2 , s = ,t = 2 .
ng
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
step (3). Evaluate r, s, t at each stationary point.
At the point (a, b) if
eri
(i) rt − s2 > 0 and r < 0 then f (a, b) is a maximum value of f (x, y).
(ii) rt − s2 > 0 and r > 0 then f (a, b) is a minimum value of f (x, y).
e
(iii) rt − s2 < 0 then (a, b) is called a saddle point.
gin
(iv) rt − s2 = 0, no conclusion can be made, further investigation is required.
Critical Point
A point (a, b) is a critical point of f (x, y) if f x = 0 and fy = 0 at (a, b) or f x and fy do
En
not exist at (a, b).
Maxima or Minima occur at a critical point.
✎ ☞
arn
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Example 2.72. Examine f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 12x − 3y + 20 for its extreme values.
Le
[ Jun 2013, Jan 2012, May 2011, Jun 2010]
Solution. Given f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 12x − 3y + 20.
w.
f x = 3x2 − 12 fy = 3y2 − 3
r = f xx = 6x s = f xy = 0 t = fyy = 6y
ww
For stationary points, solve f x = 0 and fy = 0.
f x = 0 ⇒ 3x2 − 12 = 0 ⇒ x2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ x2 = 4 ⇒ x = ±2.
fy = 0 ⇒ 3y2 − 3 = 0 ⇒ y2 = 1 ⇒ y = ±1.
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Function of Several Variables 125
Stationary points are (2, 1), (2, −1), (−2, 1) and (−2, −1).
rt − s2 = 6x6y − 0 = 36xy.
At (2, 1), rt − s2 = 36 × 2 × 1 = 72 > 0.
At (2, 1), r = 6(2) = 12 > 0.
∴ (2, 1) is a minimum point.
.in
Minimum value is f (2, 1) = 8 + 1 − 24 − 3 + 20 = 29 − 27 = 2.
At (2, −1), rt − s2 = 36 × 2 × −1 = −72 < 0.
∴ (2, −1) is a saddle point.
ng
At (−2, 1), rt − s2 = 36 × (−2) × 1 = −72 < 0.
∴ (−2, 1) is a saddle point.
eri
At (−2, −1), rt − s2 = 36 × −2 × −1 = 72 > 0.
r = 6(−2) = −12 < 0.
∴ (−2, −1) is a maximum point.
e
gin
Maximum value f (−2, −1) = −8 − 1 + 24 + 3 + 20 = 47 − 9 = 38.
Example 2.73. Examine f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 3axy for maximum and minimum
En
values. [Jan 1999]
Solution.
Given f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 3axy.
arn
f x = 3x2 − 3ay
fy = 3y2 − 3ax
Le
r = f xx = 6x
s = f xy = −3a t = fyy = 6y.
w.
For stationary points, solve f x = 0 and fy = 0.
x2
f x = 0 ⇒ 3x2 − 3ay = 0 ⇒ ay = x2 ⇒ y = .
a
ww
2 x4
fy = 0 ⇒ 3y − 3ax = 0 ⇒ 2 − ax = 0.
a
x3
3 3
x 2 − a = 0 ⇒ x(x − a ) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or x = a.
a
x=0⇒y=0
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126 Engineering Mathematics - I
a2
x=a⇒y= a = a.
Stationary points are (0, 0) and (a, a).
At (0, 0), rt − s2 = 6x6y − 9a2 = 36xy − 9a2 = −9a2 < 0.
r = 6x = 0.
∴ No maximum or minimum at (0, 0).
.in
∴ (0, 0) is a saddle point.
At (a, a), rt − s2 = 36a2 − 9a2 = 27a2 > 0 if a , 0.
r = 6x = 6a.
ng
If a < 0, r < 0.
∴ (a, a) is a maximum point if a < 0.
eri
If a > 0, r > 0.
∴ (a, a) is a minimum point if a > 0.
Maximum value = a3 + a3 − 3a3 = −a3 if a < 0
e
gin
Minimum value = −a3 if a > 0.
Example 2.74. Discuss the maxima and minima of f (x, y) = x3 y2 (1 − x − y).
En
[Jan 2014]
Solution. Given: f (x, y) = x3 y2 (1 − x − y) = x3 y2 − x4 y2 − x3 y3 .
arn
f x = y2 [x3 (−1) + (1 − x − y)3x2 ] = x2 y2 [−x + 3 − 3x − 3y]
= x2 y2 [−4x − 3y + 3].
Le
fy = 2x3 y − 2x4 y − 3x3 y2 .
r = f xx = y2 [−12x2 − 6xy + 6x].
w.
s = f xy = 6x2 y − 8x3 y − 9x2 y2 .
t = fyy = 2x3 − 2x4 − 6x3 y.
ww
For stationary points, solve f x = 0 and fy = 0.
f x = 0 ⇒ x2 y2 [−4x − 3y + 3] = 0.
⇒ x = 0, y = 0, 4x + 3y = 3.
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Function of Several Variables 127
fy = 0 ⇒ x3 y(2 − 2x − 3y) = 0.
x = 0, y = 0, 2x + 3y = 2.
Solving 4x + 3y = 3 (1)
2x + 3y = 2 (2)
.in
1
we get 2x = 1 ⇒ x = .
2
1 1
When x = , (1) ⇒ 2 + 3y = 3 ⇒ 3y = 1 ⇒ y = .
2 3
ng
1 1
∴ The stationary points are (0, 0), , .
2 3
At (0, 0), rt − s2 = 0.0 − 0 = 0.
eri
We can not say maximum or minimum. Further investigation is required.
1 1
At , ,
2 3
1 1 1 1
e 1
gin
r= − 12 × − 6 × × + 6 ×
9 4 2 3 2
1 1 1
= − 3 − 1 + 3 = (−1) − .
9 9 9
1 1 11 1 1 1 1
En
t =2 −2 −6 = − − =− .
8 16 83 4 8 4 8
11 11 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
2
s = 6 −8 −9 = − −
43 83 49 2 3 4
arn
1 1 2 1 2 1
= − = − = .
4 3 12 144
1 1 1
rt − s2 = − − −
9 8 144
Le
1 1 2−1
= − = > 0 and r < 0.
72 144 144
1 1
∴ , is a maximum point.
w.
2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 − 3 − 2 1 1
Maximum value is f , = 1− − = = = .
2 3 89 2 3 72 6 72 × 6 432
ww
Example 2.75. Find the extreme values of the function f (x, y) = x4 + y2 + x2 y.
Solution. Given: f (x, y) = x4 + y2 + x2 y.
f x = 4x3 + 2xy. r = f xx = 12x2 + 2y.
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128 Engineering Mathematics - I
fy = 2y + x2 . s = f xy = 2x. t = fyy = 2.
For stationary points, solve f x = 0 and fy = 0.
f x = 0 ⇒ 4x3 + 2xy = 0 ⇒ 2x(y + 2x2 ) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, y + 2x2 = 0 ⇒ y = −2x2 .
fy = 0 ⇒ 2y + x2 = 0 ⇒ −4x2 + x2 = 0 ⇒ −3x2 = 0 ⇒ x = 0.
When x = 0, y = 0.
.in
∴ The only stationary point is (0, 0).
ng
rt − s2 = (12x2 + 2y)2 − 4x2 .
eri
At (0, 0), rt − s2 = 0.
We can not say maximum or minimum.
e
We shall investigate the nature of the function in a neighbourhood of (0, 0).
gin
We have f (0, 0) = 0. In a neighbourhood of (0, 0) on the x−axis, take the point (h, 0),
f (h, 0) = h4 > 0.
On the y−axis take the point (0, k), f (0, k) = k2 > 0.
En
On y = mx, for any m, take the point (h, mh).
arn
f (h, mh) = h4 + m2 h2 + mh3 = h2 [h2 + m2 + mh].
For the quadratic in m, m2 + mh + h2
Le
discriminant = B2 − 4AC = h2 − 4.1.h2 = −3h2 < 0 if m , 0.
∴ f (h, mh) > 0 for all m , 0.
w.
∴ In a neigbourhood of (0, 0) for all points (x, y), f (x, y) > 0.
∴ f (0, 0) is minimum and the minimum value = 0.
ww
Example 2.76. Find the maximum and minimum values of x2 − xy + y2 − 2x + y.
[ Jun 2012, Jun 2010]
Solution. f (x, y) = x2 − xy + y2 − 2x + y.
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Function of Several Variables 129
f x = 2x − y − 2.
fy = −x + 2y + 1.
r = f xx = 2.
s = f xy = −1.
t = fyy = 2.
.in
For stationary points, solve f x = 0, fy = 0
(1)
ng
2x − y − 2 = 0.
−x + 2y + 1 = 0. (2)
eri
(1) ⇒ y = 2x − 2.
e
(2) ⇒ −x + 2(2x − 2) + 1 = 0
gin
−x + 4x − 4 + 1 = 0
3x − 3 = 0
En
3x = 3
x = 1.
arn
∴ y = 2 − 2 = 0.
The stationary point is (1, 0).
Le
rt − s2 = 4 + 1 = 5 > 0 and r = 2 > 0.
w.
∴ (1, 0) is a minimum point.
Minimum value of f = 1 − 2 = −1.
ww
Example 2.77. Find the extreme values of the function f (x, y) = x3 +y3 −3x−12y+20.
[Jan 2012]
Solution. f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 3x − 12y + 20.
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130 Engineering Mathematics - I
f x = 3x2 − 3.
fy = 3y2 − 12.
r = f xx = 6x.
s = f xy = 0.
t = fyy = 6y.
.in
For stationary points, solve f x = 0, fy = 0.
3x2 − 3 = 0. 3y2 − 12 = 0.
ng
3x2 = 3. 3y2 = 12.
eri
x2 = 1. y2 = 4.
x = ±1. e y = ±2.
gin
The stationary points are (1, 2), (−1, 2), (1, −2), (−1, −2).
At (1, 2), rt − s2 = 36xy = 36 × 1 × 2 = 72 > 0.
En
r = 6 > 0.
∴ (1, 2) is a minimum point.
arn
Minimum value of f = 1 + 8 − 3 − 24 + 20 = 2.
At (−1, 2), rt − s2 = 36xy = 36 × (−1) × 2 = −72 < 0.
∴ (−1, 2) is a saddle point.
Le
At (1, −2), rt − s2 = 36xy = 36 × 1 × (−2) = −72 < 0.
∴ (1, −2) is a saddle point.
w.
At (−1, −2), rt − s2 = 36xy = 72 > 0.
r = 6 × (−1) = −6 < 0.
ww
∴ (−1, −1) is a maximum point.
Maximum value of f = −1 − 8 + 3 + 24 + 20 = 38.
Maxima = 38.
Minima = 2.
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Function of Several Variables 131
Example 2.78. Test for maxima and minima of the function f (x, y) = x3 y2 (6 − x − y).
[Jan 2013]
Solution. f (x, y) = x3 y2 (6 − x − y)
= 6x3 y2 − x4 y2 − x3 y3 .
f x = 18x2 y2 − 4x3 y2 − 3x2 y3 .
fy = 12x3 y − 2x4 y − 3x3 y2 .
.in
r = f xx = 36xy2 − 12x2 y2 − 6xy3 .
ng
s = f xy = 36x2 y − 8x3 y − 9x2 y2 .
t = fyy = 12x3 − 2x4 − 6x3 y.
For stationary points, f x = 0, fy = 0.
eri
f x = 0 ⇒ 18x2 y2 − 4x3 y2 − 3x2 y3 = 0
e
gin
x2 y2 (18 − 4x − 3y) = 0
i.e., 4x + 3y = 18. (1)
En
fy = 0 ⇒ 12x3 y − 2x4 y − 3x3 y2 = 0
arn
x3 y(12 − 2x − 3y) = 0
2x + 3y = 12. (2)
Le
(1) − (2) ⇒ 2x = 6
w.
x = 3.
(1) ⇒ 12 + 3y = 18
ww
3y = 6
y = 2.
The stationary point is (3, 2)
At (3, 2),
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132 Engineering Mathematics - I
r = 36 × 3 × 4 − 12 × 9 × 4 − 6 × 3 × 8
= 432 − 432 − 144
= −144 < 0.
t = 12 × 9 − 2 × 81 − 6 × 27 × 2
= 108 − 162 − 324
.in
= −378.
s = 34 × 9 × 2 − 8 × 27 × 2 − 9 × 9 × 4
ng
= 612 − 432 − 324
eri
= −144.
rt − s2 = (−144)(−378) − (−144)2
= 54432 − 20736
e
gin
= 33696 > 0
Since rt − s2 > 0 and r < 0, (3, 2) is a maximum point.
∴ Maximum value of f = 27 × 4(6 − 3 − 2) = 108.
En
Example 2.79. Examine for minimum and maximum values sin x + sin y + sin(x + y).
Solution. We have f (x, y) = sin x + sin y + sin(x + y).
arn
f x = cos x + cos(x + y) fy = cos y + cos(x + y).
r = f xx = − sin x − sin(x + y)
Le
s = f xy = − sin(x + y)
t = fyy = − sin y − sin(x + y).
w.
For stationary points, solve f x = 0 and fy = 0.
ww
i.e., cos x + cos(x + y) = 0. (1)
cos y + cos(x + y) = 0. (2)
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Function of Several Variables 133
(1) − (2) =⇒ cos x − cos y = 0.
i.e., cos x = cos y
=⇒x = y
Now (1) =⇒ cos x + cos 2x = 0
i.e., cos 2x = − cos x.
.in
cos 2x = cos(π − x)
=⇒2x = π − x.
ng
i.e., 3x = π
π
eri
x= .
3
π π
When x = , y = .
π π 3 3
∴ , is a stationary point.
e
gin
3 3
π π
At ,
3 3
√ √
π 2π − 3 3 √
r = − sin − sin = − = − 3 < 0.
En
3 √3 2 √ 2√
2π 3 3 3 √
s = − sin =− ,t = − − = − 3.
3 2 2 2
arn
2 3 9
rt − s = 3 − = > 0.
4 4
π π
Since rt − s2 > 0 and r < 0, f (x, y) has a maximum value at , .
√ 3√ 3 √ √
Le
π π π π 2π 3 3 3 3 3
∴ Maximum value = f , = sin + sin + sin = + + = .
3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2
Example 2.80. Find the maximum and minimum values of
w.
sin x sin y sin(x + y), 0 < x, y < π. [Jan 1997]
Solution. Given f (x, y) = sin x sin y sin(x + y).
ww
f x = sin y[sin x cos(x + y) + sin(x + y) cos x] = sin y sin(2x + y).
r = f xx = 2 sin y cos(2x + y).
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134 Engineering Mathematics - I
fy = sin x[sin y cos(x + y) + sin(x + y) cos y] = sin x sin(x + 2y).
s = f xy = sin x cos(x + 2y) + sin(x + 2y) cos x = sin(2x + 2y).
t = fyy = 2 sin x cos(x + 2y).
For stationary points, solve f x = 0 and fy = 0.
.in
f x = 0 ⇒ sin y sin(2x + y) = 0.
fy = 0 ⇒ sin x sin(x + 2y) = 0.
Since, x, y , 0& , π ⇒ sin x , 0, sin y , 0.
ng
∴ sin(2x + y) = 0 and sin(x + 2y) = 0.
Since, 0 < x < π, 0 < 2x < 2π
eri
0 < y < π ⇒ 0 < 2x + y < 3π.
Similarly 0 < x + 2y < 3π. Since, sin(2x + y) = 0 ⇒ 2x + y = π or 2π.
Similarly x + 2y = π or 2π.
e
gin
If 2x + y = π (1)
and x + 2y = π (2)
En
then x − y = 0 ⇒ x = y.
π
∴ (1) ⇒ 3x = π ⇒ x = .
arn
3
π
∴y= .
3 π π
∴ one stationary point is , .
3 3
Le
If 2x + y = π and x + 2y = 2π then, x − y = −π ⇒ x = y − π.
∴ 2(y − π) + y = π ⇒ 3y − 2π = π ⇒ 3y = 3π ⇒ y = π,
which is not admissible since y , π.
w.
Similarly, 2x + y = 2π and x + 2y = π is also not possible.
Now take 2x + y = 2π and x + 2y = 2π
ww
⇒ x−y=0⇒ x=y
2π
⇒ 3x = 2π ⇒ x =
3
2π
∴y= .
3
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Function of Several Variables 135
2π 2π
∴ Another stationary point is , .
π π 3 3
At , .
3 3 √
π 3(−1)
r = 2 sin cos π = 2 < 0.
3 2
√
4π π π 3
s = sin = sin π + = − sin = − .
3 3 3 2
.in
√
π 2 3(−1) √
t = 2 sin cos π = = − 3.
3 2
√
ng
√ √ − 3 2 3 9
rt − s2 = (− 3)(− 3) − = 3 − = > 0.
2 4 4
π π
eri
∴ , is a maximum point.
3 3 √ √
π π π π 2π 3 3 π
Maximum value = f , = sin . sin sin = sin π −
√3 √ 3 √ 3 √ 3 3 2 2 3
=
3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2
=
8
.
e
gin
2π 2π
At ,
3 3 √
2π 6π 3 √
r = 2 sin cos =2 .1 = 3 > 0.
3 3 2
En
2π 6π √
t = 2 sin cos = 3.
3 3 √
8π π 3
s = sin = sin 3π − = .
arn
3 √ 3 2
√ √ 3 2 3 9
rt − s2 = 3 3 − = 3 − = > 0.
2 4 4
2π 2π
∴ , is a minimum point.
3 3
Le
√ √ √ √
2π 2π 2π 2π 4π 3 3 3 −3 3
Minimum value = f , = sin sin sin = − = .
3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 8
w.
Example 2.81. In a plane triangle, find the maximum value of cos A cos B cos C.
[Jan 2000]
Solution. The angles of the ∆le ABC satisfy 0 < A, B, C < π and A + B + C = π,
ww
=⇒ C = π − (A + B). Replacing C, we get
f (A, B) = cos A cos B cos(π − (A + B)) = − cos A cos B cos(A + B), 0 < A, B < π.
fA = − cos B[cos A(− sin(A + B)) + cos(A + B)(− sin A)] = cos B sin(2A + B).
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136 Engineering Mathematics - I
fB = − cos A[− sin(A + 2B)] = cos A sin(A + 2B).
r = fAA = 2 cos B cos(2A + B).
s = fAB = cos A cos(A + 2B) + sin(A + 2B)(− sin A) = cos(2A + 2B).
t = fBB = 2 cos A cos(A + 2B).
For stationary points, solve fA = 0, fB = 0.
.in
i.e., cos B sin(2A + B) = 0 and cos A sin(A + 2B) = 0.
ng
cos B = 0 or sin(2A + B) = 0 and cos A = 0 or sin(A + 2B) = 0
π
=⇒ B = or 2A + B = π or 2π
2
eri
and
π
A= or A + 2B = π or 2π.
2
e
gin
Different possibilities
π π
case (i) Let B = and A = .
2 2
⇒ A+B=π
En
=⇒ C = 0 not possible.
π
case (ii) If B = and A + 2B = π.
2
arn
⇒ A + π = π ⇒ A = 0 not possible.
π
case (iii) If B = and A + 2B = 2π.
2
⇒ A + π = 2π ⇒ A = π not possible.
π
Le
case (iv) A = , 2A + B = π.
2
⇒ π + B = π ⇒ B = 0 not possible.
π
w.
case (v) A = , 2A + B = 2π ⇒ B = π not possible.
2
case (vi) If 2A + B = π, A + 2B = π.
Subtracting A − B = 0 ⇒ A = B.
ww
π
∴ 3A = π ⇒ A = .
3
π π
=⇒ B = , C = .
3 3
case (vii) If 2A + B = π and A + 2B = 2π ⇒ A − B = −π not possible.
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Function of Several Variables 137
Finally 2A + B = 2π and A + 2B = 2π ⇒ A − B = 0 ⇒ A = B.
2π 2π
3A = 2π ⇒ A = ,B = .
3 3
2π 2π π
A+B= + = 4 > π not possible.
3 3 3 π π
∴ The only stationary point is , .
π π 3 3
At , ,
3 3
.in
π 1
r = 2 cos cos π = 2 (−1) < 0.
3 2
π
t = 2 cos cos π = −1.
ng
3
4π π 1
s = cos = cos π + =− .
3 3 2
2
−1 2 1 3
rt − s = (−1)(−1) − = 1 − = > 0.
eri
π π 2 4 4
∴ , is a maximum point.
3 3
π π π π π 1
∴ Maximum value of f is f , = cos cos cos = .
3 3 3
e
3 3 8
gin
Example 2.82. A flat circular plate is heated so that the temperature at any
point (x, y) is U(x, y) = x2 + 2y2 − x. Find the coldest point on the plate. [Jan 2005]
Solution. Given U = x2 + 2y2 − x.
En
U x = 2x − 1 Uy = 4y.
arn
r = U xx = 2. s = U xy = 0. t = Uyy = 4.
Le
rt − s2 = 8 > 0 and r = 2 > 0.
∴ All points are minimum points.
w.
At minimum, U x = 0 and Uy = 0.
1
U x = 0 ⇒ 2x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = .
2
ww
Uy = 0 ⇒ 4y = 0 ⇒ y = 0.
1
∴ The minimum point is , 0 .
2
1
∴ The coldest point on the plate is , 0 .
2
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138 Engineering Mathematics - I
2.8 Constrained Maxima and Minima - Lagrange’s Method
Lagrange’s Method
Let f (x, y, z) be the function for which the extreme values are to be found subject to
the condition
φ(x, y, z) = 0. (1)
.in
Construct the auxiliary function F(x, y, z) = f (x, y, z) + λφ(x, y, z), where λ is an
undetermined parameter independent of x, y, z which is called the Lagrange’s
ng
multiplier. Any relative extremum of f (x, y, z) subject to (1) must occur at a
stationary point of F(x, y, z).
eri
∂F ∂F ∂F ∂F
The stationary points of F are given by = 0, = 0, = 0, = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂λ
⇒ f x + λφ x = 0, fy + λφy = 0, fz + λφz = 0, φ(x, y, z) = 0.
fx fy fz
=
φ x φy φz
= = −λ and φ(x, y, z) = 0.
e
gin
Solving these equations we can find the values of x, y, z which are stationary
points of F and the values of f at these points give the maximum and minimum
values of f (x, y, z).
✎ ☞
En
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Example 2.83. Find the maximum value of xm yn z p subject to x + y + z = a.
arn
[Jan 2009]
Solution. Let f = xm ym z p .
φ = x + y + z − a = 0. (1)
Le
We have to maximise f subject to (1).
Let F = f + λφ where λ is the Lagrange’s multiplier.
w.
F = xm yn z p + λ(x + y + z − a).
ww
F x = mxm−1 yn z p + λ, Fy = nxm yn−1 z p + λ, Fz = pxm yn z p−1 + λ.
To find the stationary points, solve F x = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0, φ = 0.
F x = 0 ⇒ mxm−1 yn z p = −λ.
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Function of Several Variables 139
Fy = 0 ⇒ nxm yn−1 z p = −λ.
F x = 0 ⇒ pxm yn z p−1 = −λ.
From the above three equations we get
mxm−1 yn z p = nxm yn−1 z p = pxm yn z p−1 .
.in
m n p m+n+ p m+n+ p
Dividing by xm yn z p we get, = = = = .
x y z x+y+z a
ma na pa
ng
x= ,y = ,z = .
m+n+ p m+n+ p m+n+ p
!
ma na pa
The stationary point is , , .
eri
m+n+ p m+n+ p m+n+ p
am+n+p mm nn p p
∴ Max. value of f = .
(m + n + p)m+n+p
e
Example 2.84. Find the minimum value of x2 yz3 subject to 2x + y + 3z = a.
gin
[Jan 2007]
Solution. Given f = x2 yz3 .
En
φ = 2x + y + 3z − a = 0. (1)
Let F = f + λφ where λ is the Lagrange’s multiplier.
arn
F = x2 yz3 + λ(2x + y + 3z − a).
F x = 2xyz3 + 2λ, Fy = x2 z3 + λ, Fz = 3x2 yz2 + 3λ.
Le
To find the stationary points, solve F x = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0, φ = 0.
F x = 0 ⇒ 2xyz3 + 2λ = 0 ⇒ xyz3 = −λ.
w.
Fy = 0 ⇒ x2 z3 = −λ.
ww
Fz = 0 ⇒ 3x2 yz2 + 3λ = 0 ⇒ x2 yz2 = −λ.
Therefore
xyz3 = x2 z3 = x2 yz2
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140 Engineering Mathematics - I
xyz3 = x2 z3 ⇒ y = x.
x2 z3 = x2 yz2 ⇒ y = z.
x = y = z.
a
(1) ⇒ 2x + x + 3x = a ⇒ 6x = a ⇒ x = = y = z.
6
.in
a a a
∴ The stationary point is , , .
6 6 6
a 2 a a 3 a6 a 6
Minimum value = = 6 = .
ng
6 6 6 6 6
Example 2.85. If u = x2 + y2 + z2 where ax + by + cz − p = 0, find the stationary value
eri
of u. [Jan 2006]
Solution. Given f = x2 + y2 + z2 .
e
φ = ax + by + cz − p = 0. (1)
gin
Let F = f + λφ where λ is the Lagrange’s multiplier.
F = x2 + y2 + z2 + λ(ax + by + cz − p).
En
F x = 2x + aλ, Fy = 2y + bλ, Fz = 2z + cλ.
arn
To find the stationary points, solve F x = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0, φ = 0.
−aλ −a2 λ
2x + λa = 0 ⇒ x = ⇒ ax = .
2 2
Le
Similarly
−b2 λ −c2 λ
by = , cz = .
w.
2 2
−a2 λ b2 λ c2 λ
(1) ⇒ − − =p
2 2 2
ww
a2 + b2 + c2 −2p
λ = −p ⇒ λ = 2 .
2 a + b2 + c2
ap bp cp
∴x= 2 2 2
,y = 2 2 2
,z = 2 .
a +b +c a +b +c a + b2 + c2
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Function of Several Variables 141
Stationary value of u is
a2 p2 b2 p2 c2 p2
u= + +
(a2 + b2 + c2 )2 (a2 + b2 + c2 )2 (a2 + b2 + c2 )2
p2 (a2 + b2 + c2 ) p2
= = .
(a2 + b2 + c2 )2 a2 + b2 + c2
.in
Example 2.86. The temperature T at any point (x, y, z) in space is T = 400xyz2 .
Find the highest temperature on the surface of the unit sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 1.
ng
[Jan 2005]
Solution. We have to maximize
eri
T = 400xyz2 (1)
subject to φ = x2 + y2 + z2 − 1 = 0. (2)
e
gin
Consider F = T + λφ, where λ is the Lagrange multiplier.
F = 400xyz2 + λ(x2 + y2 + z2 − 1).
F x = 400yz2 + 2λx, Fy = 400xz2 + 2λy, Fz = 400xyz + 2λz.
En
To find the stationary points, solve F x = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0, φ = 0.
200yz2
arn
F x = 0 ⇒ 400yz2 + 2λx = 0 ⇒ −λ = .
x
200xz 2
Fy = 0 ⇒ 400xz2 + 2λy ⇒ −λ = .
y
Le
Fz = 0 ⇒ 800xyz + 2λz = 0 ⇒ −λ = 400xy.
200yz2 200xz2
∴ = = 400xy.
x y
200yz2 200xz2
w.
Taking = we get x2 = y2 ⇒ y = ±x.
x y
200yz2 z2 √
Taking = 400xy we get = 2x ⇒ z2 = 2x2 ⇒ z = ± 2x.
x x
ww
200xz2 z2 √
Taking = 400xy we get = 2y ⇒ z2 = 2y2 ⇒ z = ± 2y.
y y
Substituting in x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 we get
1 1
x2 + x2 + 2x2 = 1 ⇒ 4x2 = 1 ⇒ x2 = ⇒ x = ±
4 2
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142 Engineering Mathematics - I
1 √ 1 1
∴ y = ± ,z = ± 2 = ± √ .
2 2 2
1 1 1
The stationary points are given by x = ± , y = ± , z = ± √ .
2 2 2
To have maximum value, we must have xy positive.
1 1 1 1 1 −1 −1 −1 1 −1 −1 −1
∴ The points are , , √ , , , √ , , , √ , , , √ .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
111 0
.in
∴ Maximum T = 400 = 50 C.
222
Example 2.87. Find the shortest and longest distance from the point (1, 2, −1) to
ng
the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 24 using Lagrange’s method of constrained maxima and
minima. [Jun 2011, Jan 2002]
eri
Solution. Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the sphere.
Let A be the point (1, 2, −1).
AP =
q
e
(x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 + (z + 1)2 .
gin
Let f (x, y, z) = (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 + (z + 1)2 . (1)
AP is minimum or maximum if f is minimum or maximum.
En
∴ The problem is now reduced to minimise or maximise f subject to
φ(x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 − 24 = 0.
arn
Consider the auxiliary function
F = f + λφ = (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 + (z + 1)2 + λ(x2 + y2 + z2 − 24) where λ is the
Lagrange’s multiplier.
Le
F x = 2(x − 1) + 2λx, Fy = 2(y − 2) + 2λy, Fz = 2(z + 1) + 2λz.
To find the stationary points solve
w.
F x = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0, φ = 0.
x−1 1
F x = 0 ⇒ 2(x − 1) + 2λx = 0 ⇒ x − 1 = −λx ⇒ −λ = =1− .
x x
y−2 2
ww
Fy = 0 ⇒ 2(y − 2) + 2λy = 0 ⇒ y − 2 = −λy ⇒ −λ = =1− .
y y
z+1 1
Fz = 0 ⇒ 2(z + 1) + 2λz = 0 ⇒ z + 1 = −λz ⇒ −λ = =1+ .
z z
1 2 1
∴1− =1− =1+ .
x y z
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Function of Several Variables 143
1 2 1 2
Taking 1 − = 1 − we get = ⇒ y = 2x.
x y x y
1 1
Taking 1 − = 1 + we get z = −x.
x z
2 1 −y
Taking 1 − = 1 + we get z = = −x.
y z 2
We have x2 + y2 + z2 = 24 ⇒ x2 + 4x2 + x2 = 24 ⇒ 6x2 = 24 ⇒ x2 = 4 ⇒ x = ±2.
When x = 2, y = 4, z = −2, the first point is (2, 4, −2). Let this point be P1 .
.in
When x = −2, y = −4, z = 2, the second point is (−2, −4, 2). Let this point be P2 .
√ √ √ √ √
P1 A = 1 + 4 + 1 = 6, P2 A = 9 + 36 + 9 = 54 = 3 6
ng
√
∴ Shortest distance = 6
√
Longest distance = 3 6.
eri
Example 2.88. A rectangular box open at the top is to have a volume of 32cc.
Find the dimensions of the box which requires least amount of material for its
construction. e
[Jun 2012, Dec 2011, Jun 2010, Jan 2005]
gin
Solution. Let the dimensions of the box be Length = x, Breadth = y, height = z.
Given: Volume = 32cc.
(1)
En
=⇒ xyz = 32, x, y, z > 0.
We have to minimize the amount of material used for the construction of the box.
Let S be the surface area of the box whose top is open
arn
∴ S = xy + 2xz + 2yz (2)
Le
By Lagrange’s method
Let F = s + λφ = xy + 2yz + 2xz + λ(xyz − 32) where λ is the Lagrange’s multiplier.
F x = y + 2z + λyz, Fy = x + 2z + λxz, Fz = 2y + 2x + λxy.
w.
To find the stationary points, solve
ww
F x = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0, φ = 0
F x = 0 ⇒ y + 2z + λyz = 0
=⇒ y + 2z = −λyz
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144 Engineering Mathematics - I
y 2z
⇒ + = −λ
yz yz
1 2
⇒ + = −λ (3)
z y
Fy = 0 ⇒ x + 2z + λxz = 0
=⇒ x + 2z = −λxz
.in
i.e., xy + 2yz = −λxyz.
xy 2yz
⇒ + = −λ
ng
xyz xyz
1 2
⇒ + = −λ (4)
z x
eri
Fz = 0 ⇒ 2y + 2x + λxy = 0
=⇒ 2x + 2y = −λxy
e
2xz + 2yz = −λxyz.
gin
2xz 2yz
⇒ + = −λ
xyz xyz
2 2
⇒ + = −λ (5)
En
y x
(3) − (4) ⇒
2 2
− =0
arn
y x
1 1
=
y x
⇒x=y (6)
Le
(3) − (5) ⇒
1 2
− =0
w.
z x
1 2
=
z x
ww
⇒ x = 2z (7)
From (6)and(7) we obtain x = y = 2z.
(1)⇒ 2z.2z.z = 32 ⇒ 4z3 = 32 ⇒ z3 = 8 ⇒ z = 2.
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Function of Several Variables 145
∴ x = 4, y = 4.
The stationary point is (4, 4, 2).
The dimensions are 4cm, 4cm, 2cm.
Example 2.89. Find the dimensions of the rectangular box open at the top of
maximum capacity whose surface area is 432 sq.m. [Jun 2013]
.in
Solution. Let the dimensions of the box be x, y, z.
Given, surface area= 432.
ng
xy + 2xz + 2yz = 432 (1)
eri
Let V be the volume of the box.
We have to maximize V.
e
V = xyz (2)
gin
By lagrange’s method
F = V + λφ, where λ is the lagrange multiplier.
F = xyz + λ(xy + 2xz + 2yz − 432).
En
F x = yz + λ(y + 2z).
Fy = xz + λ(x + 2z).
arn
Fz = xy + λ(2x + 2y).
Fλ = xy + 2xz + 2yz − 432.
Le
For stationary points, F x = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0, Fλ = 0.
F x = 0 ⇒ yz + λ(y + 2z) = 0
w.
⇒ xyz + λ(xy + 2xz) = 0. (1)
ww
Fy = 0 ⇒ xz + λ(x + 2z) = 0
⇒ xyz + λ(xy + 2yz) = 0. (2)
Fz = 0 ⇒ xy + λ(2x + 2y) = 0
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146 Engineering Mathematics - I
xyz + λ(2xz + 2yz) = 0. (3)
(1) + (2) + (3) ⇒
3xyz + λ(2xy + 4xz + 4yz) = 0
3xy + 2λ(xy + 2xz + 2yz) = 0
3xyz + 2λ × 432 = 0
.in
3xyz = −864λ
3xyz xyz
ng
λ=− =−
864 288
Substituting the value of λ in F x = 0 we get
eri
xyz
yz − (y + 2z) = 0
288
x
1−
288 e
(y + 2z) = 0
gin
x
1= (y + 2z)
288
En
xy + 2xz = 288 (4)
xyz
Fy = 0 ⇒ xz − (x + 2z) = 0
288
arn
y
1− (x + 2z) = 0
288
Le
y y
1− (x + 2z) = 0, 1 = (x + 2z)
288 288
xy + 2yz = 288 (5)
w.
xyz
Fz = 0 ⇒ xy − (2x + 2y) = 0
288
ww
z z
1− (2x + 2y) = 0, 1 = (2x + 2y)
288 288
2xz + 2yz = 288 (6)
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Function of Several Variables 147
(4) − (5) ⇒ 2z(x − y) = 0, z , 0
∴ x−y=0
⇒ x = y.
(5) − (6) ⇒ xy − 2xz = 0
x(y − 2z) = 0, x , 0
.in
∴ y − 2z = 0
y = 2z.
ng
∴ x = y = 2z
eri
(4) ⇒ 2z × 2z + 2 · 2z · z = 288
4z2 + 4z2 = 288
e
z2 = 36.
gin
z = ±6.
z = −6 is not possible
∴ z = 6.
En
∴ y = 2z = 12
x = 2z = 12
arn
The dimensions of the box to have maximum capacity are
Le
Length = 12m
Breadth = 12m
w.
Height = 6m.
ww
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.in
ng
eri
e
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
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3 Integral Calculus
.in
ng
3.1 The definite integral
Integration as the limit of a sum
y = f (x)
e eri
gin
n rectangles
f (xk )
·········
En
∆x
x1 = a x2 x3 xn+1 = b
arn
Consider the graph of the positive function y = f (x). Let us find the area
under the curve y = f (x),between the x−axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b.
Le
b−a
Divide this area into n rectangles of equal width ∆x = . Let the x− co ordinates
n
at the left hand side of the rectangles be x1 = a, x2 , x3 , . . . xn+1 = b. Consider a typical
w.
rectangle, the kth one with height f (xk ). The area of this rectangle is f (xk )∆x. The
sum of all the areas of the n rectangles is
ww
f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + · · · + f (xn )∆x.
n
P
In summation convention form, this can be written as f (xk )∆x. This
k=1
gives an estimate of the area under the curve but it is not exact. To improve the
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150 Engineering Mathematics - I
estimate we must take a large number of very thin rectangles. This can be
achieved by allowing n → ∞ and making ∆x → 0.
n
P
∴ Area under the curve = lim f (xk )∆x.
n=∞ k=1
The lower and upper limits on the sum correspond to the first and the
last rectangle where x = a and x = b respectively. Hence the above limit can be
b
.in
P
written as lim f (x)∆x. Since the number of rectangles increase without bound,
∆x→0 x=a
we drop the subsript k from xk and write f (x) which is the value of f at a typical
value of x. If this can actually be found, it is called the definite integral of f (x)
ng
Rb
from x = a and x = b and it is written as f (x)dx.
a
Rb
eri
n
P b
P
∴ f (x)dx = lim f (xk )∆x = lim f (x)∆x.
n=∞ k=1 ∆x→0 x=a
a
Note. If we approximate each strip by a rectangle that has the same base as the
e
strip and whose height is the same as the right edge of the strip; (i.e., xk is taken
gin
at the right end points of the kth rectangle and f (xk ) as the height ) then also the
above result will be achieved.
Definition of a definite integral. If f is a function defined for a ≤ x ≤ b, we
En
b−a
divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal width ∆x = . We let
n
x0 (= a), x1 , x2 , · · · xn (= b) be the end points of these subintervals and if we choose
arn
x1∗ , x2∗ , · · · xn∗ as any sample ponits in these subintervals, so that xi∗ lies in the ith
subinterval [xi−1 , xi ]. Then the definite integral of f from a to b is defined as
Rb n
f (xi∗ )∆x, provided that the limit exists and gives the same value
P
f (x)dx = lim
Le
n=∞ i=1
a
for all possible choices of sample points. If it does exist, we say that f is
integrable on [a, b].
w.
Rb n
ww
f (xi∗ )∆x can also be written as, for ∈> 0, there is an
P
Result (1). f (x)dx = lim
n=∞ i=1
a
Rb n
f (xi∗ )∆x <∈ for every integer n > N and for
P
integer N such that f (x)dx −
a i=1
every choice of xi∗ in [xi−1 , xi ].
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Integral Calculus 151
n
f (xi∗ )∆x is called the Reimann sum.
P
Result (2). The sum
i=1
Theorem 1. If f is continuos on [a, b], (or) if f has only a finite number of jump
Rb
discontinuities, then f is integrable on [a, b].[i.e., f (x)dx exists].
a
Rb n
P
Theorem 2.If f is integrable on [, b], then f (x)dx = lim f (xi )∆x where ∆x =
.in
n=∞ i=1
a
b−a
and xi = a + i∆x.
n ✎ ☞
ng
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
R1
eri
Example 3.1. Using the area property evaluate x2 dx. Show that the sum of the
0
1
areas of the upper approximating rectangles approaches .
3
e
Solution. Consider the function y = f (x) = x2 . Divide the area under the curve
1−0 1
gin
y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 1 into 4 rectangles of equal width ∆x = = .
4 4
1
The width of each rectangle is .
" # " 4# " # " #
1 1 1 1 3 3
En
The subintervals are 0, , , , , and , 1 .
4 4 2 2 4 4
The height of the rectangles is approximated to the value of the
1 1 3
ordinates at x = 0, , & .
arn
4 2 4
! ! !
1 1 3
∴ Area of the required portion = f (0)∆x + f ∆x + f ∆x + f ∆x.
4 2 4
Le
!2 !2 !2
2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
=0 . + . + . + .
4 4 4 2 4 4 4
" #
1 1 1 9
w.
= 0+ + +
4 16 4 16
" #
1 1+4+9
=
ww
4 16
1 14 7
= × = .
4 16 32
If the height of the rectangles is approximated to the value of the
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152 Engineering Mathematics - I
ordinates at the right edge of each rectangle then,
! ! !
1 1 3
Area = f ∆x + f ∆x + f ∆x + f (1)∆x.
4 2 4
!2 !2 !2
1 1 1 1 3 1 1
= . + . + . + 12 ·
4 4 2 4 4 4 4
" # " #
1 1 1 9 1 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 1 30 15
= + + +1 = = × = .
.in
4 16 4 16 4 16 4 16 32
Now, let us divide the area " into # "n rectangles
# " each of their
# with width
1−0 1 1 1 2 n−1 n
ng
∆x = = . The subintervals are 0, , , , · · · , , =1 .
n n n n n n n
The heights of the rectangle are the values of the function f (x) = x2 at
1 2 3 n
eri
the points , , · · · .
n n n n
!2 !2 !2 n 2 1
1 1 2 1 3 1
∴ Area = . + . + . + ··· + .
n n n n
e n n n n
gin
1 12 22 32 n2
" #
= + + + · · · +
n n2 n2 n2 n2
1 h i
= 3 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2
n "
En
#
1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) (n + 1)(2n + 1)
= 3 =
n 6 6n2
(n + 1)(2n + 1)
lim (Area) = lim
arn
n=∞ n=∞ 6n2
n (1 + 1n )(2 + 1n ) 2 1
2
= lim = = .
n=∞ 6n2 6 3
Le
Properties of definite integrals.
The following properties can be easily proved using Riemann sums.
w.
Ra Rb
(i) f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
b a
ww
Ra
(ii) f (x)dx = 0.
a
Rb
(iii) cdx = c(b − a),where c is any constant.
a
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Integral Calculus 153
Rb Rb Rb
(iv) [ f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx.
a a a
Rb Rb
(v) c f (x)dx = c f (x)dx,where c is any constant.
a a
Rb Rb Rb
(vi) [ f (x) − g(x)]dx = f (x)dx − g(x)dx.
.in
a a a
Rb Rc Rb
(vii) If a < c < b then f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
ng
a a c
Comparison properties of the integral.
eri
Rb
(i) If f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b, then f (x)dx ≥ 0.
a
(ii) If f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b, then
Rb
e
f (x)dx ≥
Rb
g(x)dx.
gin
a a
Rb
(iii) If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for a ≤ x ≤ b, then m(b − a) ≤ f (x)dx ≤ M(b − a).
a
En
Proof. Given m ≤ f (x) ≤ M
Integrating between a and b we get
Rb Rb Rb
arn
mdx ≤ f (x)dx ≤ Mdx
a a a
Rb Rb Rb
m dx ≤ f (x)dx ≤ M dx
a a a
Le
Rb
m(b − a) ≤ f (x)dx ≤ M(b − a).
a
The first fundamental theorem of calculus
w.
Statement. If f is continuous on [a, b], then the function g defined by
Rx
ww
g(x) = f (t)dt, a ≤ x ≤ b
a
is continuous on [a, b] and is differentiable on (a, b) and g′ (x) = f (x).
Proof.Choose x and x + b ∈ (a, b).
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154 Engineering Mathematics - I
y
Zx+h Zx
Now, g(x + h) − g(x) = f (t)dt − f (t)dt
a a
Zx Zx+h Zx
= f (t)dt + f (t)dt − f (t)dt m M
a x a
Zx+h
.in
= f (t)dt. 0 x u v x+h x
x
ng
g(x + h) − g(x) 1 x+h
R
Hence, for h , 0, we have = f (t)dt. (1)
h h x
Let us assume that h > 0. Since f is continuous on [x, x + h], by the
eri
extreme value theorem, there exists numbers u and v in [x, x + h] such that
f (u) = m and f (v) = M, where m and M are the absolute minimum and maximum
e
values of f on [x, x + h]. By the comparison property of the definite integral we
gin
have
x+h
R
mh ≤ f (t)dt ≤ Mh.
x
x+h
En
R
f (u)h ≤ f (t)dt ≤ f (v)h.
x
Since h > 0, dividing throughout by h we get
x+h
arn
R
f (u) ≤ h1 f (t)dt ≤ f (v). (2)
x
(2) can be proved in a similar way for h < 0.
Now, allowing h → 0 and since u and v lie in [x, x + h], we have u → x
Le
and v → x. Since f is continuous at x,we have
w.
∴ lim f (u) = lim f (u) = f (x)
h→0 u→x
and lim f (v) = lim f (v) = f (x).
h→0 v→x
ww
By (2) we have
Zx+h
1
lim f (u) ≤ lim f (t)dt ≤ lim f (v)
h→0 h→0 h h→0
x
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Integral Calculus 155
g(x + h) − g(x)
f (x) ≤ lim ≤ f (x) [by (1)]
h→0 h
i.e., f (x) ≤ g′ (x) ≤ f (x).
By Squeeze Theorem we get
g′ (x) = f (x). (3)
.in
Since every differentiable function is continuous,
we obtain g is also continuous on (a, b).
ng
If x = a or x = b, from (3) we get the one sided limits at a and b.
This shows that g is continuous on [a, b].
Rx √
eri
Example 3.2. Find the derivative of the function g(x) = 1 + t2 dt.
√ 0
Solution. Since f (t) = 1 + t2 is continuous on [0, x], by part 1 of the Fundamental
theorem of calculus we get g′ (x) = 1 + x2
e√
gin
4
d Rx
Example 3.3. Find sec tdt.
dx 1
Solution. Let u = x 4
En
x4 u
Z Z
d d
∴ sec tdt = sec tdt
dx dx
arn
1 1
u
Z
d du
= sec tdt · [By Chain rule]
du dx
1
Le
= sec u · 4x3 [by FTC 1]
= sec x4 · 4x3 .
w.
Second Fundamental theorem of calculus
Rb
Statement.If f is continuous on [a, b], then f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a) where F is any
ww
a
antiderivative of f . [i.e, a function such that F ′ = f ].
Rx
Proof. Let g(x) = f (t)dt.
a
By the First Fundamental theorem of calculus we have g′ (x) = f (x). i.e,
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156 Engineering Mathematics - I
g is an antiderivative of f .
If F is any other antiderivative of f on [a, b], we know that F and g differ
by a constant.
∴ F(x) = g(x) + c for a < x < b.
Since both F and g are continuous on [a, b] the above relation holds when x = a and
.in
x = b.
i.e lim F(x) = F(a) & lim F(x) = F(b).
x→a+ x→b−
Also lim g(x) = g(a) & lim g(x) = g(b).
ng
x→a+ x→b−
Hence we obtain F(x) = g(x) + c for all x in [a, b] (1)
Ra
When x = a, we have g(a) = f (t)dt = 0.
eri
a
Using (1) for x = b and x = a we get
F(b) − F(a) = [g(b) + c] − [g(a) + c]
e
gin
= g(b) − g(a)
Zb
= g(b) = f (t)dt.
a
En
Result. The First and Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus are combined
together is called the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
arn
Statement of Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
Suppose f is continuous on [a, b]
Rx
(i) If g(x) = f (t)dt, then g′ (x) = f (x).
Le
a
Rb
(ii) f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a), where F is any antiderivative of f . (i.e., F ′ = f .)
a
w.
Note (1). The Fundamental theorem of calculus says that differentiation and
integration are inverse processors.
Note (2). By part(ii) of the Fundamental theorem of calculus we have
ww
Rb
f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a) where F ′ = f .
a
Rb
i.e F ′ (x)dx = F(b) − F(a).
a
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Integral Calculus 157
The above result is sometimes called as the Net Change Theorem.
Net Change Theorem
Statement. The integral of a rate of change is the net change.
Rb
i.e F ′ (x)dx = F(b) − F(a).
✎
a ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
.in
R3
Example 3.4. Evaluate (x2 − 2x)dx by using Reimann sum by taking right end
0
points as the sample points. Hence verify it by using fundamental theorem of
ng
calculus.
Solution. Let f (x) = x2 − 2x.
eri
Divide the interval [0, 3] into n sub intevals with equal width
3−0 3
∆x = = .
n n "
3
# "
3 6
# "
The intervals are 0, , , , , , · · ·
6 9
# "
e3n − 3 3n
,
#
.
gin
n n n n n n n
The sample points xi∗ are the right end points of the sub intervals.
3 6 9 3n
∴ xi∗ = , , , · · · .
n n n n
En
The corresponding f (xi∗ ) = xi∗ 2 − 2xi∗ are calculated and tabulated as
follows.
arn
3 6 9 3n
xi∗ n n n ··· n
9 6 36 12 81 18 9n2 6n
f (xi∗ ) n2
− n n2
− n n2
− n ··· n2
− n
Le
By Reimann’s sum we have,
Z3 n
X
(x2 − 2x)dx = lim f (xi∗ )∆x
w.
n=∞
0 i=1
9n2 6n 3
" ! ! ! ! #
9 6 3 36 12 3 81 18 3
= lim − + − + − + · · · + −
n=∞ n2 n n n2 n n n2 n n n2 n n
ww
" 3 2
! 3 2
! 3 2
!
3 3 3 3 3 3
= lim 3
· 1 − 2 · 2 + 3 · 22 − 2 · 4 + 3 · 32 − 2 · 6
n=∞ n n n n n n
3 32
!#
3 2
+ · · · + 3 · n − 2 · 2n
n n
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158 Engineering Mathematics - I
33 2 2 2 2
32
= lim 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n − lim (2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 2n)
n=∞ n3 n=∞ n2
27 h n(n + 1)(2n + 1) i 9 h n(n + 1) i
= lim 3 − lim 2 · 2
n=∞ n 6 n=∞ n 2
3 1 1
h n (1 + n )(2 + n ) i h n (1 + 1n ) i 27
2
27
= lim − 9 lim = × 2 − 9 = 0.
6 n=∞ n3 n=∞ n2 6
.in
By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus we have
Z3 !3
2 x3 x2 27
(x − 2x)dx = −2· = − 9 = 9 − 9 = 0.
ng
3 2 0 3
0
eri
R1 √
Example 3.5. Evaluate the integral 1 − x2 dx interms of areas.
0
R1 √ √
Solution.
0
e
1 − x2 dx represents the area under the curve y = 1 − x2 between
gin
the x−axis and the lines x = 0 and x = 1.
y
p
Now, y = 1 − x2
En
y2 = 1 − x2
0 1x
2 2
x + y = 1.
arn
This is a circle with centre at the origin and radius = 1 unit. Since we
need the area between x = 0 and x = 1, the required area is the area of the portion
1 π
Le
of the circle that lies in the first quadrant = · π × 12 = .
4 4
R1 √ π
∴ 1 − x2 dx = .
4
w.
R3
ww
Example 3.6. Evaluate the integral (x − 1)dx interms of areas.
0
R3
Solution. (x − 1)dx represents the area under the curve y = (x − 1) between the
0
x−axis and the lines x = 0 and x = 3.
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3 Integral Calculus
.in
ng
3.1 The definite integral
Integration as the limit of a sum
y = f (x)
e eri
gin
n rectangles
f (xk )
·········
En
∆x
x1 = a x2 x3 xn+1 = b
arn
Consider the graph of the positive function y = f (x). Let us find the area
under the curve y = f (x),between the x−axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b.
Le
b−a
Divide this area into n rectangles of equal width ∆x = . Let the x− co ordinates
n
at the left hand side of the rectangles be x1 = a, x2 , x3 , . . . xn+1 = b. Consider a typical
w.
rectangle, the kth one with height f (xk ). The area of this rectangle is f (xk )∆x. The
sum of all the areas of the n rectangles is
ww
f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + · · · + f (xn )∆x.
n
P
In summation convention form, this can be written as f (xk )∆x. This
k=1
gives an estimate of the area under the curve but it is not exact. To improve the
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150 Engineering Mathematics - I
estimate we must take a large number of very thin rectangles. This can be
achieved by allowing n → ∞ and making ∆x → 0.
n
P
∴ Area under the curve = lim f (xk )∆x.
n=∞ k=1
The lower and upper limits on the sum correspond to the first and the
last rectangle where x = a and x = b respectively. Hence the above limit can be
b
.in
P
written as lim f (x)∆x. Since the number of rectangles increase without bound,
∆x→0 x=a
we drop the subsript k from xk and write f (x) which is the value of f at a typical
value of x. If this can actually be found, it is called the definite integral of f (x)
ng
Rb
from x = a and x = b and it is written as f (x)dx.
a
Rb
eri
n
P b
P
∴ f (x)dx = lim f (xk )∆x = lim f (x)∆x.
n=∞ k=1 ∆x→0 x=a
a
Note. If we approximate each strip by a rectangle that has the same base as the
e
strip and whose height is the same as the right edge of the strip; (i.e., xk is taken
gin
at the right end points of the kth rectangle and f (xk ) as the height ) then also the
above result will be achieved.
Definition of a definite integral. If f is a function defined for a ≤ x ≤ b, we
En
b−a
divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal width ∆x = . We let
n
x0 (= a), x1 , x2 , · · · xn (= b) be the end points of these subintervals and if we choose
arn
x1∗ , x2∗ , · · · xn∗ as any sample ponits in these subintervals, so that xi∗ lies in the ith
subinterval [xi−1 , xi ]. Then the definite integral of f from a to b is defined as
Rb n
f (xi∗ )∆x, provided that the limit exists and gives the same value
P
f (x)dx = lim
Le
n=∞ i=1
a
for all possible choices of sample points. If it does exist, we say that f is
integrable on [a, b].
w.
Rb n
ww
f (xi∗ )∆x can also be written as, for ∈> 0, there is an
P
Result (1). f (x)dx = lim
n=∞ i=1
a
Rb n
f (xi∗ )∆x <∈ for every integer n > N and for
P
integer N such that f (x)dx −
a i=1
every choice of xi∗ in [xi−1 , xi ].
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Integral Calculus 151
n
f (xi∗ )∆x is called the Reimann sum.
P
Result (2). The sum
i=1
Theorem 1. If f is continuos on [a, b], (or) if f has only a finite number of jump
Rb
discontinuities, then f is integrable on [a, b].[i.e., f (x)dx exists].
a
Rb n
P
Theorem 2.If f is integrable on [, b], then f (x)dx = lim f (xi )∆x where ∆x =
.in
n=∞ i=1
a
b−a
and xi = a + i∆x.
n ✎ ☞
ng
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
R1
eri
Example 3.1. Using the area property evaluate x2 dx. Show that the sum of the
0
1
areas of the upper approximating rectangles approaches .
3
e
Solution. Consider the function y = f (x) = x2 . Divide the area under the curve
1−0 1
gin
y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 1 into 4 rectangles of equal width ∆x = = .
4 4
1
The width of each rectangle is .
" # " 4# " # " #
1 1 1 1 3 3
En
The subintervals are 0, , , , , and , 1 .
4 4 2 2 4 4
The height of the rectangles is approximated to the value of the
1 1 3
ordinates at x = 0, , & .
arn
4 2 4
! ! !
1 1 3
∴ Area of the required portion = f (0)∆x + f ∆x + f ∆x + f ∆x.
4 2 4
Le
!2 !2 !2
2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
=0 . + . + . + .
4 4 4 2 4 4 4
" #
1 1 1 9
w.
= 0+ + +
4 16 4 16
" #
1 1+4+9
=
ww
4 16
1 14 7
= × = .
4 16 32
If the height of the rectangles is approximated to the value of the
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152 Engineering Mathematics - I
ordinates at the right edge of each rectangle then,
! ! !
1 1 3
Area = f ∆x + f ∆x + f ∆x + f (1)∆x.
4 2 4
!2 !2 !2
1 1 1 1 3 1 1
= . + . + . + 12 ·
4 4 2 4 4 4 4
" # " #
1 1 1 9 1 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 1 30 15
= + + +1 = = × = .
.in
4 16 4 16 4 16 4 16 32
Now, let us divide the area " into # "n rectangles
# " each of their
# with width
1−0 1 1 1 2 n−1 n
ng
∆x = = . The subintervals are 0, , , , · · · , , =1 .
n n n n n n n
The heights of the rectangle are the values of the function f (x) = x2 at
1 2 3 n
eri
the points , , · · · .
n n n n
!2 !2 !2 n 2 1
1 1 2 1 3 1
∴ Area = . + . + . + ··· + .
n n n n
e n n n n
gin
1 12 22 32 n2
" #
= + + + · · · +
n n2 n2 n2 n2
1 h i
= 3 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2
n "
En
#
1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) (n + 1)(2n + 1)
= 3 =
n 6 6n2
(n + 1)(2n + 1)
lim (Area) = lim
arn
n=∞ n=∞ 6n2
n (1 + 1n )(2 + 1n ) 2 1
2
= lim = = .
n=∞ 6n2 6 3
Le
Properties of definite integrals.
The following properties can be easily proved using Riemann sums.
w.
Ra Rb
(i) f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
b a
ww
Ra
(ii) f (x)dx = 0.
a
Rb
(iii) cdx = c(b − a),where c is any constant.
a
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Integral Calculus 153
Rb Rb Rb
(iv) [ f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx.
a a a
Rb Rb
(v) c f (x)dx = c f (x)dx,where c is any constant.
a a
Rb Rb Rb
(vi) [ f (x) − g(x)]dx = f (x)dx − g(x)dx.
.in
a a a
Rb Rc Rb
(vii) If a < c < b then f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
ng
a a c
Comparison properties of the integral.
eri
Rb
(i) If f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b, then f (x)dx ≥ 0.
a
(ii) If f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b, then
Rb
e
f (x)dx ≥
Rb
g(x)dx.
gin
a a
Rb
(iii) If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for a ≤ x ≤ b, then m(b − a) ≤ f (x)dx ≤ M(b − a).
a
En
Proof. Given m ≤ f (x) ≤ M
Integrating between a and b we get
Rb Rb Rb
arn
mdx ≤ f (x)dx ≤ Mdx
a a a
Rb Rb Rb
m dx ≤ f (x)dx ≤ M dx
a a a
Le
Rb
m(b − a) ≤ f (x)dx ≤ M(b − a).
a
The first fundamental theorem of calculus
w.
Statement. If f is continuous on [a, b], then the function g defined by
Rx
ww
g(x) = f (t)dt, a ≤ x ≤ b
a
is continuous on [a, b] and is differentiable on (a, b) and g′ (x) = f (x).
Proof.Choose x and x + b ∈ (a, b).
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154 Engineering Mathematics - I
y
Zx+h Zx
Now, g(x + h) − g(x) = f (t)dt − f (t)dt
a a
Zx Zx+h Zx
= f (t)dt + f (t)dt − f (t)dt m M
a x a
Zx+h
.in
= f (t)dt. 0 x u v x+h x
x
ng
g(x + h) − g(x) 1 x+h
R
Hence, for h , 0, we have = f (t)dt. (1)
h h x
Let us assume that h > 0. Since f is continuous on [x, x + h], by the
eri
extreme value theorem, there exists numbers u and v in [x, x + h] such that
f (u) = m and f (v) = M, where m and M are the absolute minimum and maximum
e
values of f on [x, x + h]. By the comparison property of the definite integral we
gin
have
x+h
R
mh ≤ f (t)dt ≤ Mh.
x
x+h
En
R
f (u)h ≤ f (t)dt ≤ f (v)h.
x
Since h > 0, dividing throughout by h we get
x+h
arn
R
f (u) ≤ h1 f (t)dt ≤ f (v). (2)
x
(2) can be proved in a similar way for h < 0.
Now, allowing h → 0 and since u and v lie in [x, x + h], we have u → x
Le
and v → x. Since f is continuous at x,we have
w.
∴ lim f (u) = lim f (u) = f (x)
h→0 u→x
and lim f (v) = lim f (v) = f (x).
h→0 v→x
ww
By (2) we have
Zx+h
1
lim f (u) ≤ lim f (t)dt ≤ lim f (v)
h→0 h→0 h h→0
x
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Integral Calculus 155
g(x + h) − g(x)
f (x) ≤ lim ≤ f (x) [by (1)]
h→0 h
i.e., f (x) ≤ g′ (x) ≤ f (x).
By Squeeze Theorem we get
g′ (x) = f (x). (3)
.in
Since every differentiable function is continuous,
we obtain g is also continuous on (a, b).
ng
If x = a or x = b, from (3) we get the one sided limits at a and b.
This shows that g is continuous on [a, b].
Rx √
eri
Example 3.2. Find the derivative of the function g(x) = 1 + t2 dt.
√ 0
Solution. Since f (t) = 1 + t2 is continuous on [0, x], by part 1 of the Fundamental
theorem of calculus we get g′ (x) = 1 + x2
e√
gin
4
d Rx
Example 3.3. Find sec tdt.
dx 1
Solution. Let u = x 4
En
x4 u
Z Z
d d
∴ sec tdt = sec tdt
dx dx
arn
1 1
u
Z
d du
= sec tdt · [By Chain rule]
du dx
1
Le
= sec u · 4x3 [by FTC 1]
= sec x4 · 4x3 .
w.
Second Fundamental theorem of calculus
Rb
Statement.If f is continuous on [a, b], then f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a) where F is any
ww
a
antiderivative of f . [i.e, a function such that F ′ = f ].
Rx
Proof. Let g(x) = f (t)dt.
a
By the First Fundamental theorem of calculus we have g′ (x) = f (x). i.e,
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156 Engineering Mathematics - I
g is an antiderivative of f .
If F is any other antiderivative of f on [a, b], we know that F and g differ
by a constant.
∴ F(x) = g(x) + c for a < x < b.
Since both F and g are continuous on [a, b] the above relation holds when x = a and
.in
x = b.
i.e lim F(x) = F(a) & lim F(x) = F(b).
x→a+ x→b−
Also lim g(x) = g(a) & lim g(x) = g(b).
ng
x→a+ x→b−
Hence we obtain F(x) = g(x) + c for all x in [a, b] (1)
Ra
When x = a, we have g(a) = f (t)dt = 0.
eri
a
Using (1) for x = b and x = a we get
F(b) − F(a) = [g(b) + c] − [g(a) + c]
e
gin
= g(b) − g(a)
Zb
= g(b) = f (t)dt.
a
En
Result. The First and Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus are combined
together is called the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
arn
Statement of Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
Suppose f is continuous on [a, b]
Rx
(i) If g(x) = f (t)dt, then g′ (x) = f (x).
Le
a
Rb
(ii) f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a), where F is any antiderivative of f . (i.e., F ′ = f .)
a
w.
Note (1). The Fundamental theorem of calculus says that differentiation and
integration are inverse processors.
Note (2). By part(ii) of the Fundamental theorem of calculus we have
ww
Rb
f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a) where F ′ = f .
a
Rb
i.e F ′ (x)dx = F(b) − F(a).
a
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Integral Calculus 157
The above result is sometimes called as the Net Change Theorem.
Net Change Theorem
Statement. The integral of a rate of change is the net change.
Rb
i.e F ′ (x)dx = F(b) − F(a).
✎
a ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
.in
R3
Example 3.4. Evaluate (x2 − 2x)dx by using Reimann sum by taking right end
0
points as the sample points. Hence verify it by using fundamental theorem of
ng
calculus.
Solution. Let f (x) = x2 − 2x.
eri
Divide the interval [0, 3] into n sub intevals with equal width
3−0 3
∆x = = .
n n "
3
# "
3 6
# "
The intervals are 0, , , , , , · · ·
6 9
# "
e3n − 3 3n
,
#
.
gin
n n n n n n n
The sample points xi∗ are the right end points of the sub intervals.
3 6 9 3n
∴ xi∗ = , , , · · · .
n n n n
En
The corresponding f (xi∗ ) = xi∗ 2 − 2xi∗ are calculated and tabulated as
follows.
arn
3 6 9 3n
xi∗ n n n ··· n
9 6 36 12 81 18 9n2 6n
f (xi∗ ) n2
− n n2
− n n2
− n ··· n2
− n
Le
By Reimann’s sum we have,
Z3 n
X
(x2 − 2x)dx = lim f (xi∗ )∆x
w.
n=∞
0 i=1
9n2 6n 3
" ! ! ! ! #
9 6 3 36 12 3 81 18 3
= lim − + − + − + · · · + −
n=∞ n2 n n n2 n n n2 n n n2 n n
ww
" 3 2
! 3 2
! 3 2
!
3 3 3 3 3 3
= lim 3
· 1 − 2 · 2 + 3 · 22 − 2 · 4 + 3 · 32 − 2 · 6
n=∞ n n n n n n
3 32
!#
3 2
+ · · · + 3 · n − 2 · 2n
n n
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158 Engineering Mathematics - I
33 2 2 2 2
32
= lim 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n − lim (2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 2n)
n=∞ n3 n=∞ n2
27 h n(n + 1)(2n + 1) i 9 h n(n + 1) i
= lim 3 − lim 2 · 2
n=∞ n 6 n=∞ n 2
3 1 1
h n (1 + n )(2 + n ) i h n (1 + 1n ) i 27
2
27
= lim − 9 lim = × 2 − 9 = 0.
6 n=∞ n3 n=∞ n2 6
.in
By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus we have
Z3 !3
2 x3 x2 27
(x − 2x)dx = −2· = − 9 = 9 − 9 = 0.
ng
3 2 0 3
0
eri
R1 √
Example 3.5. Evaluate the integral 1 − x2 dx interms of areas.
0
R1 √ √
Solution.
0
e
1 − x2 dx represents the area under the curve y = 1 − x2 between
gin
the x−axis and the lines x = 0 and x = 1.
y
p
Now, y = 1 − x2
En
y2 = 1 − x2
0 1x
2 2
x + y = 1.
arn
This is a circle with centre at the origin and radius = 1 unit. Since we
need the area between x = 0 and x = 1, the required area is the area of the portion
1 π
Le
of the circle that lies in the first quadrant = · π × 12 = .
4 4
R1 √ π
∴ 1 − x2 dx = .
4
w.
R3
ww
Example 3.6. Evaluate the integral (x − 1)dx interms of areas.
0
R3
Solution. (x − 1)dx represents the area under the curve y = (x − 1) between the
0
x−axis and the lines x = 0 and x = 3.
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Integral Calculus 159
y
The required area = A1 − A2 .
A1 is a triangle with base = 2units A1
x=3
and height = 2units. A2
x
x=0
Put x = 3 in y = x − 1.
.in
1
∴ Area of A1 = × 2 × 2 = 2.
2
ng
A2 is a triangle with base = 1 unit and height = 1unit.
1 1
∴ Area of A2 = × 1 × 1 = .
2 2
R3
eri
1 3
(x − 1)dx = 2 − = .
0 2 2
Example 3.7. Prove that
Rb
xdx =
b2 − a2
eby interpretting interms of areas.
gin
a 2
[A.U Nov 2016]
Rb
Solution. xdx represents the area under the curve y = x between the x−axis
a
En
and the lines x = a and x = b.
Required area = Area of ∆OCD− Area of ∆OAB
1 1
= × OD × CD − × OB × AB
arn
2 2 y
1 1 C
= b·b− a·a A b
2 2
b2 a2 b2 − a2 a
= − =
Le
2 2 2 b−a
Zb 0 a B Db x
b2 − a2
∴ xdx = .
2
w.
a
n
(xi3 + xi sin xi )∆x as an integral on the interval [0, π].
P
Example 3.8. Express lim
n→∞ i=1
ww
Solution. According to Riemann sum,the limit
n Rπ
lim (xi3 + xi sin xi )∆x = (x3 + x sin x)dx.
P
n→∞ i=1
0
Example 3.9. Evaluate the Riemann sum for f (x) = x3 − 6x, taking the sample
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160 Engineering Mathematics - I
R3
points to be the right end points and a = 0, b = 3, n = 6. Also Evaluate (x3 − 6x)dx.
0
3−0 1
Solution. Divide the interval [0, 3] into 6 subintervals with equal width = .
h i h i h i h i h i h i 6 2
Hence, the intervals are 0, 21 , 21 , 1 , 1, 23 , 23 , 2 , 2, 52 , 25 , 3
1 3 5
The right end points are , 1, , 2, , 3.
2 2 2
.in
The value of f (x) at these points are as follows.
x(k) x3 −6x f (xk ) f (xk )∆x
1 1
- 23 - 23
ng
2 8 -3 8 16
1 1 −6 −5 - 52
3 27
−9 - 45 - 45
eri
2 8 8 16
2 8 -12 -4 -2
5 125 5 5
−15
2
3
8
27 −18 e 8
9
16
9
gin
2
n
X
Reimann Sum = f (xk )∆xk
k=1
En
23 5 45 5 9
=− − − −2+ +
16 2 16 16 2
−23 − 40 − 45 − 32 + 5 + 72
=
arn
16
−140 + 77 −63
= = .
16 16
R3
Le
Let us evaluate (x3 − 6x)dx.
0
Divide the interval [0, 3] into n subintervals with equal width
3−0 3
w.
∆x = = .
n n h i h i h i h i
Hence the intervals are 0, 3n , n3 , n6 , 6n , n9 , · · · 3n−3 3n
n , n
The sample points xi∗ are the right end points of the sub intervals
ww
∴ xi∗ = n3 , 6n , n9 , · · · 3n
n.
The corresponding f (xi∗ ) = xi3 − 6xi are calculated and tabulated as
follows.
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Integral Calculus 161
3 6 9 3n
xi∗ n n n ··· n
33 3 63 6 93 9 33 n3 3n
f (xi∗ ) n3
−6· n n3
−6· n n3
−6· n ··· n3
−6· n
By Reimann sum
Z3 n
X
(x3 − 6x)dx = lim f (xi∗ )∆x
n=∞
0 i=1
.in
33 63 33 n3
" ! ! ! #
3 3 6 3 3n 3
= lim −6· + 3 −6· + ··· + −6·
n=∞ n3 n n n n n n3 n n
" 4 2
#
3 3
ng
3 3 3 3
= lim 4 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n − 6 · 2 (1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n)
n=∞ n n
34 n(n + 1) 2
!
2
!
3 n(n + 1)
= lim 4 −6· 2
eri
n=∞ n 2 n 2
" 4 2
3 n (n + 1)2 32 n(n + 1)
#
= lim 4 −6· 2
n=∞ n 4 n 2
e 1
!2 !
1
gin
4 2
4 n 1 + n 1 +
3 n 32 n
= lim 4 · −6· 2
n=∞ n
4 n 2
En
!2 !
81 1 1
= lim · 1 + − 27 · 1 +
n=∞ 4 n n
81 81 − 108 27
= − 27 = =− .
arn
4 4 4
Indefinite Integrals.
The Fundamental theorem of
calculus gives the relation between
Le
R
antiderivatives and integrals. The notation f (x)dx is traditionally used for an
Rb
antiderivative of f and is called an indefinite integral. Thus f (x)dx = F(x)
w.
a
means F ′ (x) = f (x).
d R
[F(x)] = f (x) then f (x)dx = F(x)
dx
ww
Z
d
In other words if [F(x)] = f (x), then f (x)dx = F(x).
dx
d
Also we have [F(x) + c] = f (x) then
R dx
f (x)dx = F(x) + c,where c is called the constant of integration.
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162 Engineering Mathematics - I
With this notation, we can derive the basic results in integration, using the
basic results in differentiation.
Basic results.
d n
1. We have (x ) = nxn−1 .
dx
d xn+1
!
(or) = xn .
.in
dx n + 1
R xn+1
∴ xn dx = + c.
n+1
ng
d 1 R 1
2. (log x) = ⇒ dx = log x + c.
dx x x
eri
d x R
3. (e ) = e x ⇒ e x dx = e x + c.
dx
R bx
b x dx =
4.
log b
+ c.
e
gin
R
5. sin xdx = − cos x + c.
R
6. cos xdx = sin x + c.
En
R
7. sec2 xdx = tan x + c.
arn
R
8. cosec2 xdx = − cot x + c.
R
9. sec x tan xdx = sec x + c.
Le
R
10. cosecx cot xdx = −cosecx + c.
R 1
11. √ dx = sin−1 x + c.
w.
1 − x2
R 1
12. dx = tan−1 x + c.
1 + x2
ww
R 1
13. √ dx = sec−1 x + c.
x x2 −1
R
14. sinh xdx = cos hx + c.
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Integral Calculus 163
R
15. cosh xdx = sin hx + c.
R 1 √
16. √ dx = cos h−1 x + c or log(x + x2 − 1) + c.
x2 − 1
R 1 √
17. √ dx = sin h−1 x + c or log(x + x2 + 1) + c.
+1 x2
Basic properties of indefinite integrals.
.in
If f (x) and g(x) are functions of x and k is a constant, then the following
properties are true.
ng
R R R
(i) [ f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx + c.
R R R
(ii) [ f (x) − g(x)]dx = f (x)dx − g(x)dx + c.
eri
R R
(iii) k f (x)dx = k f (x)dx + c.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍
e ✌
gin
Z
Example 3.10. Evaluate (10x4 − 2 sec2 x)dx.
Z Z Z
Solution. (10x − 2 sec x)dx = 10 x dx − 2 sec2 xdx + c
4 2 4
En
Z2 x5
= 10√· −12!tan x + c = 2x5 − 2 tan x + c.
Example 3.11. Evaluate 2 5
x − 3 x + 2 dx.
x
1
arn
Z2 ! Z2 Z2 Z2
2 √1 2 1
Solution. x − 3 x + 2 dx = x dx − 3 x 2 dx + x−2 dx
x
1 1 1 1
Le
3 2
3 2
!2
x−1
!
x x 2
= − 3 3 +
3 1 2
−1 1
1
!2
w.
1 3 3 2h 3 i 1
= [2 − 1 ] − 3 × 2 − 1 −
2
3 3 x 1
1 √ 1
= [8 − 1] − 2[2 2 − 1] − [ − 1]
ww
3 2
7 √ 1
= −4 2+2+
3 2
21 + 12 + 3 √ 36 √ √
= −4 2= − 4 2 = 6 − 4 2.
6 6
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164 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z3
Example 3.12. Evaluate (x3 − 6x)dx.
0
Z3 Z3 Z3 !3 !3
3 3 x4 x2
Solution. (x − 6x)dx = x dx − 6 xdx = −6
4 0 2 0
0 0 0
1
= [34 − 0] − 3[32 − 0]
.in
4
1 81 81 − 108 27
= × 81 − 27 = − 27 = =− .
4 4 4 4
ng
Z2 !
3 3
Example 3.13. Evaluate 2x − 6x + 2 dx.
x +1
eri
0
Z2 ! Z2 Z2 Z2
3 3 3 1
Solution. 2x − 6x + 2 dx = 2 x dx − 6 xdx + 3 2
dx
x +1 x +1
0
e0
!2
0
!2
0
gin
x4 x2 2
=2· −6 + 3 tan−1 x
4 0 2 0
0
1
= [24 − 0] − 3[22 − 0] + 3 tan−1 2 − tan−1 0
2
En
= 8 − 12 + 3 tan−1 2 = 3 tan−1 2 − 4.
Zπ/6
arn
2 x
Example 3.14. Evaluate cos dx.
2
0
Le
Zπ/6 Zπ/6
2 x 1
Solution. cos dx = (1 + cos x)dx
2 2
0 0
w.
π/6
Zπ/6
Z
1
= dx + cos xdx
2
ww
0 0
1 π/6
π/6
= x dx + sin x
2 0 0
1 π π 1 "π 1# π 1
= − 0 + sin − sin 0 = + = + .
2 6 6 2 6 2 12 4
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Integral Calculus 165
Z9 √
2x2 + x2 x − 1
Example 3.15. Evaluate dx.
x2
1
Z9 √ Z9 √
2x2 x2 x 2x2 x2 x
!
+ −1 1
Solution. dx = + − 2 dx
x2 x2 x2 x
1 1
Z9
.in
1
= 2 + x 2 − x−2 dx
1
Z9 Z9 Z9
ng
1
=2 dx + x dx −
2 x−2 dx
1 1 1
9 x 23 9 !9
eri
x−1
= 2 x + 3 −
1
2 1
−1 1
!
2 3 1
3
e
= 2[9 − 1] + 9 2 − 1 +
9
−1
gin
2 8
= 16 + × 26 −
3 9
52 8 144 + 156 − 8 292
= 16 + − = = .
3 9 9 9
En
Z
1
Example 3.16. Evaluate 2
dx
sin 2x
Z x cos2
sin x + cos2 x
Z
1
arn
Solution. dx = dx
sin2 x cos2 x sin2 x cos2 x
sin2 x cos2 x
Z Z
= 2
dx + dx
Z sin x cos Z
2x sin2 x cos2 x
Le
= sec2 xdx + cosec2 xdx
= tan x − cot x + c.
w.
3.2 The Substitution Rule
ww
R
Integrals of functions of the form f (ax + b)dx.
This type of integrals can be evaluated by making a substitution ax + b = t.
R
For example consider (2x + 3)2 dx.
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166 Engineering Mathematics - I
Let t = 2x + 3
dt = 2dx
dt
∴ dx =
2Z
1 t3
Z Z
2 2 dt 1 1
Now, (2x + 3) dx = t · = t2 dt = · + c = · (2x + 3)3 + c.
2 2 2 3 6
Standard results.
.in
Z
1. Evaluate (ax + b)n dx.
ng
Solution. Let ax + b = t.
dt
adx = dt ⇒ dx = .
eri
a
dt 1 tn+1 (ax + b)n+1
Z Z
(ax + b)n dx = tn = · +c= + c.
a a n+1 a(n + 1)
e
In a similar way, the following results can be easily derived.
gin
Z
1 log(ax + b)
2. dx = + c.
ax + b a
eax+b
Z
eax+b dx =
En
3. + c.
a
Z
cos(ax + b)
4. sin(ax + b)dx = − + c.
a
arn
Z
sin(ax + b)
5. cos(ax + b)dx = + c.
a
Z
tan(ax + b)
Le
6. sec2 (ax + b)dx = + c.
a
Z
cosec(ax + b)
7. cosec2 (ax + b)dx = − + c.
w.
a
Z
sec(ax + b)
8. sec(ax + b) tan(ax + b)dx = + c.
ww
a
Z
cos(ax + b)
9. cosec(ax + b) cot(ax + b)dx = − + c.
a
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
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Integral Calculus 167
Z
Example 3.17. Evaluate sin2 3xdx.
Z Z
2 1
Solution. sin 3xdx = (1 − cos 6x)dx
2
"Z Z #
1
= dx − cos 6xdx
2
" #
1 sin 6x
= x− +c
.in
2 6
x sin 6x
= − + c.
2 12
ng
Z
Example 3.18. Evaluate cos mx cos nxdx.
eri
Solution. case(i) when m , n.
Z Z
1
cos mx cos nxdx = (cos(m + n)x + cos(m − n)x) dx
2
e !
gin
Z Z
1
= cos(m + n)xdx + cos(m − n)x dx
2
!
1 sin(m + n)x sin(m − n)x
= + + c.
2 m+n m−n
En
case(ii) If m = n
Z Z
cos mx cos nxdx = cos mx cos mxdx
arn
Z
= cos2 mxdx
Z
1
= (cos 2mx + 1)dx
Le
2
"Z Z #
1
= cos 2mxdx + dx
2
w.
" #
1 sin 2mx
= +x +c
2 2m
sin 2mx x
ww
= + + c.
4m 2
Z
Example 3.19. Evaluate cos3 2xdx.
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168 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z Z !
3 1 3
Solution. cos 2xdx = cos 6x + cos 2x dx
4 4
Z Z cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ
1 3
= cos 6xdx + cos 2xdx 1 3
4 4 cos3 θ = cos 3θ + cos θ
1 sin 6x 3 sin 2x 4 4
= · + · +c 3 1 3
4 6 4 2 cos 2x = cos 6x + cos 2x.
sin 6x sin 2x 4 4
= +3 + c.
.in
24 8
Z
Example 3.20. Evaluate sin4 xdx.
ng
Z Z 2
Solution. sin4 xdx = sin2 x dx
Z !2
1 − cos 2x
eri
= dx.
2 1 + cos 2θ
Z cos2 θ =
1 2 2
= (1 + cos 2x − 2 cos 2x)dx 1 + cos 4x
4 cos2 2x = .
=
1
Z
1+ e
1 + cos 4x
!
− 2 cos 2x dx
2
gin
4 2
Z
1 1 1
= (1 + + cos 4x − 2 cos 2x)dx
4 2 2
En
Z !
1 3 1
= + cos 4x − 2 cos 2x dx
4 2 2
" Z Z Z #
1 3 1
= dx + cos 4xdx − 2 cos 2xdx
arn
4 2 2
" #
1 3 1 sin 4x sin 2x 3 sin 4x sin 2x
= + −2 +c= x+ − + c.
4 2 2 4 2 8 32 4
Le
Z
Example 3.21. Evaluate sin2 4xdx.
Z Z !
2 1 − cos 8x
Solution. sin 4xdx = dx.
w.
2
2 sin2 x = 1 − cos 2x
Z !
1 1
= − cos 8x dx
2 2
ww
"Z Z # 2 sin2 4x = 1 − cos 8x
1
= dx − cos 8xdx 1 − cos 8x
2 sin2 4x =
" # 2
1 sin 8x x sin 8x
= x− +c= − + c.
2 8 2 16
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Integral Calculus 169
x2
Z
Example 3.22. Evaluate dx.
(ax + b)3
t−b
Solution. Let ax + b = t ⇒ ax = t − b ⇒ x =
a
dt
adx = dt ⇒ dx = .
a
Z t − b 2
x2
Z
a dt
.in
dx =
(ax + b)3 t 3 a
2
Z t2 + b − 2b t
ng
1 a2 a dt
=
a t3
1 b2 1 2b 1
Z !
1
= + · − dt
eri
a t a2 t3 a t2
b2
"Z Z Z #
1 1 2b
= dt + 2 t−3 dt − t−2 dt
a t a a
=
1
"
b
log t + 2 ·
2
e
t −2
−
2b
×
t−1
#
+c
gin
a a (−2) a (−1)
b2 1 2b 1
" #
1
= log t − 2 · 2 + +c
a 2a t a t
b2
" #
En
1 1 2b 1
= log(ax + b) − 2 · + +c
a a (ax + b)2 a (ax + b)
1 b2 1 2b 1
= log(ax + b) − 3 · + +c
arn
a 2a (ax + b)2 a2 (ax + b)
R
3.3 Evaluation of integrals of the form f (g(x))g′ (x)dx.
Le
= g(x) du = g′ (x)dx.
Method. Let u Z Z
Now, f (g(x))g′ (x)dx = f (u)du.
w.
This can be evaluated by earlier methods.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
ww
Z p
Example 3.23. Evaluate 2x 1 + x2 dx.
Solution. Let 1 + x2 = u.
2xdx = du.
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170 Engineering Mathematics - I
3
√
Z Z Z
p 1 u2 2 3
∴ 2
2x 1 + x dx = udu = u 2 du = 3 + c = (1 + x2 ) 2 + c.
2
3
Z p
Example 3.24. Evaluate x2 1 − 4x3 dx.
Solution. Let u = 1 − 4x3 .
.in
du = −4 × 3x2 dx.
du
x2 dx = −
ng
12 !
√ −du
Z p Z
2 3
∴ x 1 − 4x dx = u
12
eri
Z
1 1
=− u 2 du
12
3
1 u2
=− +c
12 32
e
gin
1 2 3 1 3
=− (1 − 4x3 ) 2 + c = − (1 − 4x2 ) 2 + c.
12 3 18
En
Z
1
Example 3.25. Evaluate x )(1 + e−x )
dx.
Z (1 + e Z
1 1
arn
Solution. x −x
dx = dx
(1 + e ) (1 + e ) 1
(1 + e x )(1 + x )
e
ex
Z
= dx
(1 + e x )(1 + e x )
Le
ex
Z
= x )2
dx 1 + ex = t
Z (1 + e
dt
e x dx = dt
w.
= 2
t
t−1
Z
1 1
= t−2 dt = +c=− +c=− + c.
−1 t 1 + ex
ww
Z
Example 3.26. Evaluate x3 cos(x4 + 2)dx.
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Integral Calculus 171
Solution. Let x4 + 2 = t.
4x3 dx = dt
dt
x3 dx =
Z Z4
dt
∴ x3 cos(x4 + 2)dx = cos t
4
.in
sin(x4 + 2)
Z
1 1
= cos tdt = sin t + c = + c.
4 4 4
ng
eri
Z
x
Example 3.27. Evaluate √ dx.
1 − 4x2
e
gin
Solution. Let 1 − 4x2 = t.
En
−8xdx = dt
dt
xdx = −
arn
Z Z8 !
x 1 dt
∴ √ dx = √ −
1 − 4x2 t 8
Z
1 1
t− 2 dt
Le
=−
8
1
1 t2 1 √ 1p
=− 1 +c=− ×2 t+c=− 1 − 4x2 + c.
8 2 8 4
w.
ww
x3
Z
Example 3.28. Evaluate √ dx. [A.U. Dec. 2015]
4 + x2
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172 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution. Let 4 + x2 = t.
2xdx = dt
dt
xdx =
2
x3 x2
Z Z
∴ √ dx = √ xdx
4 + x2 4 + x2
.in
Z
t − 4 dt
= √
t 2
Z
1 1 1
t 2 − 4t− 2 dt
ng
=
2
3 1
1 t 2 t 2
= 3 − 4 1 + c
2 2
eri
2
" 3 #
1 2 p
= 4 + x2 2 − 8 4 + x2 + c.
2 3
Z p
e
1 + x2 x5 dx.
gin
Example 3.29. Evaluate
Solution. Let 1 + x2 = t.
2xdx = dt
En
dt
xdx =
2
arn
Z p Z p
5
∴ 2
1 + x x dx = 1 + x2 x4 · xdx
Z p
= 1 + x2 (x2 )2 · xdx
Le
√
Z
dt
= t(t − 1)2 ·
2
√ 2
Z
1
w.
= t(t + 1 − 2t)dt
2
Z
1 5 1 3
= t 2 + t 2 − 2t 2 dt
2
ww
Z Z Z !
1 5 1 3
= t 2 dt + t 2 dt − 2 t 2 dt
2
7 3 5
1 t 2 t 2 t 2
= 7 + 3 − 2 5 + c.
2 2 2 2
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Integral Calculus 173
" #
1 2 2 27 2 2 23 4 2 25
= (1 + x ) + (1 + x ) − (1 + x ) + c
2 7 3 5
1 7 1 3 2 5
= (1 + x2 ) 2 + (1 + x2 ) 2 − (1 + x2 ) 2 + c.
7 3 5
ex
Z
.in
Example 3.30. Evaluate x dx.
e −1
2
x
Solution. Let e 2 = t.
ng
xdx
e2 · = dt
2
x x
ex
Z Z
e2 e2
∴ dx = dx
eri
x x
e2 − 1 e2 − 1
Z x
e2 x
= x · e 2 dx
Z e2 − 1
=
1+t
2dt
e
gin
t
Z !
1
=2 + 1 dt
t
"Z Z #
1
En
=2 dt + dt + c
t
= 2[log t + t] + c
arn
x x
= 2[log e 2 − 1) + e 2 − 1 ] + c.
Le
Z
1
Example 3.31. Evaluate dx.
Z Z 1 + tan x
1 1
Solution. dx = dx
w.
1 + tan x sin x
1+
Z cos x Z
cos x 1 2 cos x
= dx = dx
ww
sin x + cos x 2 sin x + cos x
Z
1 sin x + cos x + cos x − sin x
= dx
2 sin x + cos x
Z !
1 cos x − sin x
= 1+ dx
2 sin x + cos x
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174 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z Z
1 1 cos x − sin x
= dx + dx
2 Z 2 sin x + cos x
1 1 dt
= x+ t = sin x + cos x
2 2 t
1 1 dt = (cos x − sin x)dx
= x + log(t) + c
2 2
x 1
= + log(sin x + cos x)) + c.
2 2
.in
Z
tan x
Example 3.32. Evaluate dx.
sec x + cos x
sin x
ng
Z Z
tan x cos x
Solution. dx = dx
sec x + cos x 1
+ cos x
Z cos x
eri
sin x
= 2
dx
Z 1 + cos x
−dt
= t = cos x
1 + t2
e
gin
= − tan−1 (t) + c dt = − sin xdx
= − tan−1 (cos x) + c −dt = sin xdx
Z4 √
En
Example 3.33. Evaluate 2x + 1dx.
0
Solution. Let 2x + 1 = t.
arn
dt
2dx = dt ⇒ dx = .
2
When x = 0, t = 1.
Le
When x = 4, t = 9.
Z4 √ Z9
√ dt
∴ 2x + 1dx = t
w.
2
0 1
Z9
1 1
ww
= t 2 dt
2
1
3 9
1 t 2 1 2 3 1 1 26
= 3 = × [9 2 − 1] = [27 − 1] = × 26 = .
2 2 2 3 3 3 3
1
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Integral Calculus 175
Z2
1
Example 3.34. Evaluate dx.
(3 − 5x)2
1
Solution. Let 3 − 5x = t.
dt
−5dx = dt ⇒ dx = − .
5
When x = 0, t = −2.
.in
When x = 2, t = −7.
Z2 Z−7 !
1 1 dt
∴ = −
ng
(3 − 5x)2 t2 5
1 −2
Z−7
1
=− t−2 dt
eri
5
−2
!−7
1 t−1
=−
5 −1 −2
e
gin
!−7 ! " #
1 1 1 −1 1 1 −2 + 7 1 5 1
= = + = = · = .
5 t −2 5 7 2 5 14 5 14 14
Ze
log x
En
Example 3.35. Evaluate dx.
x
1
Solution. Let t = log x.
arn
1
dt = dx.
x
When x = 1, t = log 1 = 0.
When x = e, t = log e = 1.
Le
Ze Z1 !1
log x t2 1 1
∴ dx = tdt = = −0= .
x 2 0 2 2
w.
1 0
Integrals of symmetric functions
ww
Theorem. Suppose f is continuous on [−a, a]
Ra Ra
(i) If f is even, then f (x)dx = 2 f (x)dx.
−a 0
Ra
(ii) If f is odd, then f (x)dx = 0.
−a
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176 Engineering Mathematics - I
Za Z0 Za
Proof. We have f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx
−a −a 0
Z−a Za
=− f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
0 0
In the first integral let us make the substitution
.in
t = −x.
dt = −dx.
ng
When x = 0, t = 0.
When x = −a, t = a.
eri
Za Za Za
∴ f (x)dx = − f (−t)(−dt) + f (x)dx.
−a 0 0
=
Za
f (−t)dt +
Za
ef (x)dx.
gin
0 0
Za Za
= f (−x)dx + f (x)dx.
En
0 0
(i) If f is even, then f (−x) = f (x).
Za Za Za Za
∴ f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx. = 2 f (x)dx.
arn
−a 0 0 0
(ii) If f is odd then f (−x) = − f (x)
Za Za Za
∴ f (x)dx = − f (x)dx + f (x)dx = 0.
Le
−a 0 0
Z2
w.
Example 3.36. Evaluate (x6 + 1)dx.
−2
ww
Solution. Let f (x) = x6 + 1.
f (−x) = (−x)6 + 1 = x6 + 1.
∴ f(x) is even.
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Integral Calculus 177
By the properties of definite integrals
Z2 Z2
∴ f (x)dx = 2 f (x)dx
−2 0
Z2
=2 (x6 + 1)dx
.in
0
2
Z2
Z
= 2 x6 dx + dx
ng
0 0
x7 2
! " 7 #
2 2
= 2 + (x)0 = 2 −0+2−0
7 0 7
eri
" # " #
128 128 + 14 2 × 142 284
=2 +2 =2 = = .
7 7 7 7
Example 3.37. Evaluate
Z1
tan x
dx.e
gin
1 + x2 + x4
−1
tan x
Solution. Let f (x) = .
1 + x2 + x4
tan(−x)
En
f (−x) =
1 + (−x)2 + (−x)4
− tan x
= = − f (x).
1 + x2 + x4
arn
∴ f (x) is odd.
By the properties of definite integrals
Z1
f (x)dx = 0
Le
−1
Z1
tan x
i.e, dx = 0.
w.
1 + x2 + x4
−1
ww
3.4 Integration of rational functions by Partial Fractions.
Techniques of resolving a given fraction into partial fractions.
p(x)
A rational function is generally of the form where p(x) and q(x) are
q(x)
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178 Engineering Mathematics - I
algebraic expressions.
If the degree of p(x) is less than the degree of q(x) then the fraction
p(x)
is called a proper fraction.
q(x)
p(x)
If the degree of p(x) ≥ degree of q(x), then the given fraction is
q(x)
improper.
.in
p(x)
While resolving a fraction into partial fractions, the following
q(x)
technique can be adopted.
ng
p(x)
Case (i) Let be proper and if q(x) is expressed as linear factors.
q(x)
1+x
For example, if the given fraction is , then we can express
eri
(x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)
the fraction in the following way
1+x A B C
= + + .
e
(x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3) x − 1 x + 2 x − 3
gin
p(x)
Case (ii) Let be proper and q(x) contains repeated linear factors.
q(x)
x2 + 2x − 3
Consider the following example .This must be written as
(x − 1)3 (2x + 3)
En
x2 + 2x − 3 A B C D
3
= + 2
+ 3
+ .
(x − 1) (2x + 3) x − 1 (x − 1) (x − 1) 2x +3
p(x)
arn
Case (iii) Let be proper and q(x) contains nonfactorisable second degree
q(x)
factors.
x2 + 3x + 2
Consider the following example . This can be resolved
(x − 1)2 (x2 + 4)(x2 + 9)
Le
into partial fractions as follows.
x2 + 3x + 2 A B Cx + D Ex + F
2 2 2
= + 2
+ 2 + 2 .
(x − 1) (x + 4)(x + 9) x − 1 (x − 1) x +4 x +9
w.
Methodology for improper fractions.
Case (i) If degree of p(x) = degree of q(x).
ww
x2 + x + 1
Example 1. Consider .
(x − 1)(x − 2)
This must be resolved as
x2 + x + 1 B C
= A+ + .
(x − 1)(x − 2) x−1 x−2
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Integral Calculus 179
"
p(x)
= A constant + the usual methods adopted for proper fractions. ]
q(x)
x3 + 2x + 4 B Cx + D
Example 2. 2
= A+ + 2 .
(x − 1)(x + 4) x − 1 x +9
Case (ii) If the degree of p(x) is one more than that of q(x), then
p(x)
= A First degree expression + usual method adopted in proper functions.
q(x)
x4 + x + 4 C Dx + E
.in
Example 1. 2
= Ax + B + + 2 .
(x − 1)(x + 2) x−1 x +2
x3 + 2x + 3 C D
Example 2. 2
= Ax + B + + .
(x + 2) x + 2 (x + 2)2
ng
Case (iii) If the degree of p(x) is 2 more than that of q(x), then
p(x)
= A second degree expression + usual method adopted in proper functions.
q(x)
eri
x7 + 2x + 4 D E F Gx + H
Example 1. 2 2
= Ax2 + Bx + C + + + 2
+ 2 .
(x + 2)(x − 1) (x + 1) x + 2 x − 1 (x − 1) x +1
This procedure can be extended for any improper fraction depending on the nature
of the fraction
p(x)
q(x)
.
e
gin
Standard results.
R 1
1. Evaluate dx.
x2
+ a2
En
Solution. Let x = a tan θ.
dx = a sec2 θdθ.
arn
Z Z
1 1
∴ dx = · a sec2 θdθ
x2 + a2 Z a2 tan2 θ + a2
1
= · a sec2 θdθ
a2 (tan2 θ + 1)
Le
Z
1 1
= 2
· sec2 dθ
a
Z sec θ
1
= dθ
w.
a
1 1 −1 x
= θ + c = tan + c.
a a a
ww
R 1
2. Evaluate dx.
x − a2
2
1 1 A B
Solution. Let = = +
x2 −a2 (x − a)(x + a) x − a x + a
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180 Engineering Mathematics - I
A(x + a) + B(x − a)
=
(x − a)(x + a)
∴ 1 = A(x + a) + B(x − a).
Put x = a.
1
1 = A · 2a ⇒ A = .
2a
.in
Put x = −a.
1
1 = B · (−2a) ⇒ B = − .
2a "
1 −1
ng
#
1 2a 2a 1 1 1
∴ 2 = + = −
x − a2 x − a x + a 2a x − a x + a
Z Z !
1 1 1 1
eri
∴ dx = − dx
x2 − a2 2a x − a x + a
Z Z !
1 1 1
= dx − dx
2a x−a x+a
=
1
e
log(x − a) − log(x + a) + c =
1
log
x − a
+ c.
gin
2a 2a x+a
R 1
3. Evaluate dx.
a2
− x2
1 1 A B A(a + x) + B(a − x)
En
Solution. Let 2 2
= = + =
a −x (a − x)(a + x) a − x a + x (a − x)(a + x)
∴ 1 = A(a + x) + B(a − x).
Put x = a.
arn
1
1 = A · 2a ⇒ A = .
2a
Put x = −a.
1
Le
1 = B · (2a) ⇒ B = .
2a
1 1 " #
1 2a 2a 1 1 1
w.
∴ 2 = + = +
a − x2 a − x a + x 2a a − x a + x
Z Z !
1 1 1 1
∴ dx = + dx
a2 − x2 2a a − x a + x
ww
Z Z !
1 1 1
= dx + dx
2a a−x a+x
" #
1 log(a − x)
= + log(a + x) + c
2a −1
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Integral Calculus 181
1
log(a + x) − log(a − x) + c
=
2a
1 a + x
= log + c.
2a a−x
Z
1
Type 1. Evaluation of integrals of the form 2
dx
ax + bx + c
Method. Express the denominator to any one of the forms x2 − a2 , x2 + a2 or a2 − x2
.in
and then apply the correct formula.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
ng
Z
1
Example 3.38. Evaluate 2
dx.
Z xZ + 8x − 7
1 1
Solution. dx = dx
eri
2
x + 8x − 7 2
(x + 4) − 7 − 16
Z
1
= dx
(x + 4)2 − 23
=
Z
e
1
√ dx
gin
(x + 4) − ( 23)2
2
√
1 x + 4 − 23
= √ log √ + c.
2 23 x + 4 + 23
Z
1
En
Example 3.39. Evaluate 2
dx.
Z Z1 + x − x
1 1
Solution. 2
dx = dx
1+x−x 1 − (x2 − x)
arn
Z
1
= dx
1 − (x − 21 )2 − 41
Z
1
= dx
Le
1 − (x − 21 )2 + 14
Z
1
= 5 1 2
dx
4 − (x − 2 )
w.
Z
1
= √ dx
5 2
( 2 ) − (x − 21 )2
√5
ww
1
1
2 + x − 2
= √ log √ + c
2 25 2
5
− x + 1
2
√
1 5 + 2x − 1
= √ log √ + c.
5 5 − 2x + 1
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182 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z
1
Example 3.40. Evaluate 2
dx.
Z 2x
Z −x+5
1 1
Solution. dx = ! dx
2x2 − x + 5 x 5
2 x2 − +
2 2
Z
1 1
= 2
dx
2 1
!
5 1
x− + −
.in
4 2 16
Z
1 1
= !2 dx
2 1 40 − 1
ng
x− +
4 16
Z
1 1
= !2 dx
2
eri
1 39
x− +
4 16
Z
1 1
= √ 2 dx
2
x−
1
!
e2
39
+
gin
4 4
1 1 x − 1 2 4x − 1
!
−1 4 −1
= √ tan √ + c = √ tan √ +c
2 39 39 39 39
4 4
En
Type 2. Evaluation of integrals using partial fractions.
arn
Z
x+5
Example 3.41. Evaluate dx.
x2 + x − 2
Le
x+5 x+5 A B
Solution. Let 2 = = + .
x +x−2 (x + 2)(x − 1) x + 2 x − 1
A(x − 1) + B(x + 2)
=
w.
(x + 2)(x − 1)
∴ x + 5 = A(x − 1) + B(x + 2).
ww
Put x = 1.
6 = 3B ⇒ B = 2.
Put x = −2.
3 = −3A ⇒ A = −1.
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Integral Calculus 183
x+5 1 2
∴ =− +
Z x2
+ x − 2 Zx + 2 x − 1 !
x+5 1 2
∴ dx = − + dx
x2 + x − 2 x+2 x−1
Z Z
1 1
=− dx + 2 dx = − log(x + 2) + 2 log(x − 1) + c.
x+2 x−1
.in
x2 + 2x − 1
Z
Example 3.42. Evaluate dx.
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x
x2 + 2x − 1 x2 + 2x − 1 x2 + 2x − 1
ng
Solution. = = .
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x x(2x2 + 3x − 2) x(x + 2)(2x − 1)
x2 + 2x − 1 A B C
Let = + +
x(x + 2)(2x − 1) x x + 2 2x − 1
eri
A(x + 2)(2x − 1) + Bx(2x − 1) + Cx(x + 2)
=
x(x + 2)(2x − 1)
e
∴ x2 + 2x − 1 = A(x + 2)(2x − 1) + Bx(2x − 1) + Cx(x + 2).
Put x = 0.
gin
1
−2A = −1 ⇒ A = .
2
Put x = −2.
−1
En
B(−2)(−5) = 4 − 4 − 1 ⇒ 10B = −1 ⇒ B = .
10
1
Put x = .
2
1 5 1 5C 1 1
arn
C· · = +1−1⇒ = ⇒C= .
2 2 4 4 4 5
1 1 1
x2 + 2x − 1
∴ 3 = 2 − 10 + 5 .
2x + 3x2 − 2x x x + 2 2x − 1
Le
Z 2
x + 2x − 1 1
Z
1 1
Z
1 1
Z
1
∴ dx = dx − dx + dx
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x 2 x 10 x+2 5 2x − 1
1 1 1 log(2x − 1)
w.
= log x − log(x + 2) + · +c
2 10 5 2
1 1 1
= log x − log(x + 2) + · log(2x − 1) + c.
2 10 10
ww
sec2 x
Z
Example 3.43. Evalutate dx. [A.U. Dec. 2015]
tan2 x + 3 tan x + 2
Solution. Let tan x = t.
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184 Engineering Mathematics - I
sec2 xdx = dt.
sec2 x
Z Z
1
∴ 2
dx = 2
dt
tan x + 3 tan x + 2 Z t + 3t + 2
1
= dt
.in
(t + 1)(t + 2)
Z
(t + 2) − (t + 1)
= dt
(t + 1)(t + 2)
ng
Z !
1 1
= − dt
(t + 1) t + 2
Z Z
1 1
= dt − dt + c
eri
(t + 1) t+2
= log(t + 1) − log(t + 2) + c
!
= log
e t+1
t+2
+c
gin
!
tan x + 1
= log + c.
tan x + 2
En
Z
3x + 1
Example 3.44. Evaluate dx.
arn
(x − 1)2 (x + 3)
3x + 1 A B C
Solution. Let 2
= + 2
+
(x − 1) (x + 3) x − 1 (x − 1) x+3
A(x − 1)(x + 3) + B(x + 3) + C(x − 1)2
Le
=
(x − 1)2 (x + 3)
∴ 3x + 1 = A(x − 1)(x + 3) + B(x + 3) + C(x − 1)2 .
w.
Put x = 1.
4B = 4 ⇒ B = 1.
Put x = −3.
ww
−1
16C = −8 ⇒ C = .
2
Equating the coefficients of x2 on both sides we get,
1
A + C = 0 ⇒ A = −C = .
2
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Integral Calculus 185
1 1
3x + 1 1
∴ = 2 + − 2
(x − 1)2 (x + 3) x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 3
Z Z Z Z
3x + 1 1 1 1 1 1
∴ dx = dx + dx − dx
(x − 1)2 (x + 3) 2 x−1 (x − 1)2 2 x+3
Z
1 1
= log(x − 1) + (x − 1)−2 dx − · log(x + 3) + c
2 2
.in
1 (x − 1)−1
= log(x − 1) − log(x + 3) + +c
2 ! −1
1 x−1 1
= log − + c.
ng
2 x+3 x−1
2x2 − x + 4
eri
Z
Example 3.45. Evaluate dx.
x3 + 4x
2
2x − x + 4 2x − x + 4 A Bx + C A(x2 + 4) + (Bx + C)x
2
Solution. Let 3 = = + 2 = .
x(x2 + 4) x(x2 + 4)
x + 4x x x +4
e
∴ 2x2 − x + 4 = A(x2 + 4) + (Bx + C)x.
gin
Put x = 0.
4A = 4 ⇒ A = 1.
En
Equating the coefficients of x2 on both sides we get,
A + B = 2 ⇒ 1 + B = 2 ⇒ B = 1.
Equating the coefficients of x on both sides we get,
arn
C = −1.
2x2 − x + 4 1 x−1 1 x 1
∴ 3
= + 2 = + 2 − 2 .
x + 4x x x + 4Z x x + 4 Z x + 4
2x2 − x + 4 In the second integral
Z Z
1 x 1
Le
∴ 3
= dx + 2
dx − 2
dx
x + 4x x Z x +Z4 x +4 let x2 + 4 = t
1 dt 1
= log x + − dx
t 2 x + 22
2 2xdx = dt
w.
1 1 x
dt
= log x + log t − tan−1 +c xdx = .
2 2 2 2
1 1 −1 x
ww
2
= log x + log(x + 4) − tan + c.
2 2 2
Z
2
Example 3.46. Evaluate dx.
(1 − x)(1 + x2 )
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186 Engineering Mathematics - I
2 A Bx + C
Solution. Let 2
= +
(1 − x)(1 + x ) 1 − x 1 + x2
A(1 + x2 ) + (Bx + C)(1 − x)
= .
(1 − x)(1 + x2 )
∴ 2 = A(1 + x2 ) + (Bx + C)(1 − x).
Put x = 1.
.in
2A = 2 ⇒ A = 1.
Equating the coefficients of x2 on both sides we get,
A − B = 0 ⇒ A = B = 1.
ng
Equating the coefficients of x on both sides we get,
B−C = 0
eri
B = C ⇒ C = 1.
2 1 x+1 1 x 1
∴ = + = + +
(1Z− x)(1 + x2 ) 1 − x Z1 + x2 1 −Zx 1 + x2 Z 1 + x2
∴
2
dx =
1
dx + e x
dx +
1
dx
gin
2
(1 − x)(1 + x ) 1−x 2 2 In the second integral
Z x +1 x +1
log(1 − x) 1 dt
= + + tan−1 x + c let 1 + x2 = t
−1 t 2
1 2xdx = dt
= − log(1 − x) + log t + tan−1 x + c
En
2 dt
1 xdx = .
= − log(1 − x) + log(1 + x2 ) + tan−1 x + c. 2
2
arn
Z
10
Example 3.47. Evaluate using partial fractions dx.
(x − 1)(x2 + 9)
Le
[A.U. Dec. 2015]
10 A Bx + C A(x2 + 9) + (Bx + C)(x − 1)
Solution. Let = + 2 = .
(x − 1)(x2 + 9) x − 1 x +9 (x − 1)(x2 + 9)
w.
∴ 10 = A(x2 + 9) + (Bx + C)(x − 1).
Put x = 1.
ww
10A = 10 ⇒ A = 1.
Equating the coefficients of x2 on both sides we get,
A + B = 0 ⇒ B = −A = −1.
Equating the constants on both sides we get,
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Integral Calculus 187
9A − C = 10 ⇒ C = 9A − 10 = 9 − 10 = −1.
10 1 −x − 1
∴ 2
= + 2
(x − 1)(x + 9) x − 1 x + 9
1 x 1
= − 2 − 2 .
Zx − 1 x + 9Z x + 9
.in
Z Z
10 1 x 1
∴ 2
dx = dx − 2
dx − 2
dx
(x − 1)(x + 9) x−1 x +9 x +9
Z
1 2x 1 −1 x
= log(x − 1) − dx − tan +c
ng
2 x2 + 9 3 3
1 1 x
= log(x − 1) − log(x2 + 9) − tan−1 +c
2 3 3
eri
p 1 x
= log(x − 1) − log( x2 + 9) − tan−1 +c
! 3 3
(x − 1) 1 x
= log √ − tan−1 + c.
e
x2 + 9 3 3
gin
4x2 − 3x + 2
Z
Example 3.48. Evaluate dx.
En
4x2 − 4x + 3
4x2 − 3x + 2
Solution. The integrand 2 is an improper fraction with the degrees
4x − 4x + 3
of the Nr and Dr same.
arn
∴By the method of partial fractions we have
4x2 − 3x + 2 Bx + C
2
= A+ 2 [∵4x3 − 4x + 3 is a nonfactorizable
4x − 4x + 3 4x − 4x + 3
A(4x2 − 4x + 3) + Bx + C
Le
= second degree factor]
4x2 − 4x + 3
∴ 4x2 − 3x + 2 = A(4x2 − 4x + 3) + Bx + C.
w.
Equating the coefficients of x2 .
4A = 4 ⇒ A = 1.
ww
Equating the coefficients of x
−4A + B = −3 ⇒ −4 + B = −3 ⇒ B = 4 − 3 = 1.
Equating the constants
3A + C = 2 ⇒ 3 + C = 2 ⇒ C = 2 − 3 = −1.
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188 Engineering Mathematics - I
4x2 − 3x + 2 x−1
∴ 2
=1+ 2
4x − 4x + 3 4x − 4x + 3
x−1
=1+
4(x2 − x + 3/4)
x−1 x−1
=1+ =1+
1 2 3 1
4 (x − 2 ) + 4 − 4 4 (x − 21 )2 + 21
.in
Z
4x2 − 3x + 2
Z
x−1
∴ dx = 1 + dx
4x2 − 4x + 3 4 (x − 21 )2 + 21
Z Z
1 x−1
ng
= dx + dx
4 (x − 12 )2 + 21
x − 12 − 21
Z
1
eri
= x+ dx
4 (x − 12 )2 + 21
x − 12
Z Z
1 1 1
= x+ 1 1
dx − dx.
1
(x − 2 )2 + 12
e4
1
Z
(x − 2 )2 + 2
1 dt 1
Z
8
1
gin
= x+ 1
− dx
4 t+ 2 2 8 (x − 2 )2 + ( √1 )2
1
2
In the second integral
En
!2
1
Put x − =t
2
arn
!
1
2 x − dx = dt
2
!
1 dt
x − dx = .
2 2
Le
1 1 1 1 x − 1
2
= x+ log(t + ) − 1 tan−1 1 + c
8 2 8 √ √
w.
2 2
! √
2 −1 2x − 1 √
!
1 1 2 1
= x+ log (x − ) + − tan × 2 +c
8 2 2 8 2
ww
! !
1 2 1 1 1 −1 2x − 1
= x+ log x + − x + − √ tan √ +c
8 4 2 4 2 2
4x2 − 4x + 3
! !
1 1 2x − 1
= x+ log − √ tan−1 √ + c.
8 4 4 2 2
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Integral Calculus 189
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1
Z
Example 3.49. Evaluate dx. [A.U Nov 2016].
x3 − x2 − x + 1
Solution. The integrand is an improper fraction in which the degree of the Nr is
1 more than that of the Dr. Hence, by the method of partial fractions we have
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1
= =
x3 − x2 − x + 1 x2 (x − 1) − (x − 1) (x − 1)(x2 − 1)
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1
.in
= = .
(x − 1)(x − 1)(x + 1) (x − 1)2 (x + 1)
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 C D E
Let 2
= Ax + B + + 2
+
(x − 1) (x + 1) x − 1 (x − 1) x+1
ng
(Ax + B)(x − 1)2 (x + 1) + C(x − 1)(x + 1) + D(x + 1) + E(x − 1)2
=
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)
eri
∴ x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 = (Ax + B)(x − 1)2 (x + 1) + C(x − 1)(x + 1) + D(x + 1) + E(x − 1)2 .
Put x = 1 : 2D = 1 − 2 + 4 + 1 = 4 ⇒ D = 2.
Put x = −1 : 4E = 1 − 2 + 4 + 1 = 4 ⇒ 4E = −4 ⇒ E = −1.
e
Equating the coefficients of x4 on both sides we get,
gin
A = 1.
Put x = 0 : B − C + D + E = 1
B − C + 2 − 1 = 1.
En
B − C = 0. (1)
Put x = 2 : (2A + B) · 3 + 3C + 3D + E = 16 − 8 + 8 + 1
arn
6A + 3B + 3C + 3D + E = 17.
6 + 3B + 3C + 6 − 1 = 17
3B + 3C = 17 − 11 = 6
Le
B + C = 2. (2)
(1) + (2) ⇒ 2B = 2 ⇒ B = 1.
w.
(1) ⇒ B = C = 1.
ww
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190 Engineering Mathematics - I
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 1 2 1
∴ 3 2
= x+1+ + 2
−
x −x −x+1 x − 1 (x − 1) x+1
Z 4
x − 2x2 + 4x + 1
Z Z Z Z Z
1 1 1
∴ 3 2
dx = xdx + dx + dx + 2 2
dx − dx
x −x −x+1 x−1 (x − 1) x+1
x2
Z
= + x + log(x − 1) + 2 (x − 1)−2 dx − log(x + 1) + c
2
x2 (x − 1)−1
.in
= + x + log(x − 1) + 2 − log(x + 1) + c
2 −1
x2
!
x−1 2
= + x + log − + c.
2 x+1 x+1
ng
x3
Z
Example 3.50. Evaluate dx.
(x − 1)(x − 2)
eri
Solution. The integrand is an improper fraction in which the degree of the Nr is
1 more than that of the Dr.
x3 C e
∴ By the method of partial fractions we have
D
gin
= Ax + B + +
(x − 1)(x − 2) x−1 x−2
(Ax + B)(x − 1)(x − 2) + C(x − 2) + D(x − 1)
=
(x − 1)(x − 2)
En
∴ x3 = (Ax + B)(x − 1)(x − 2) + C(x − 2) + D(x − 1).
Put x = 1 : −C = 1 ⇒ C = −1.
Put x = 2 : D = 8.
arn
Equating the coefficients of x3 on both sides we get,
A = 1.
Put x = 0 : 2B − 2C − D = 0
Le
2B + 2 − 8 = 0.
2B − 6 = 0
w.
2B = 6 ⇒ B = 3.
x3 1 8
∴ = x+3− +
(x − 1)(x − 2) x−1 x−2
ww
Z
x 3 Z Z Z
1
Z
1
∴ dx = xdx + 3 dx − dx + 8 dx
(x − 1)(x − 2) x−1 x−2
x2
= + 3x − log(x − 1) + 8 log(x − 2) + c.
2
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Integral Calculus 191
x3 + x
Z
Example 3.51. Evaluate dx.
x−1
Solution. The integrand is an improper fraction in which the degree of the Nr is
2 more than that of the Dr.
∴ By the method of partial fractions we have
x3 + x D (Ax2 + Bx + C)(x − 1) + D
= Ax2 + Bx + C + = .
x−1 x−1 x−1
.in
∴ x3 + x = (Ax2 + Bx + C)(x − 1) + D.
Put x = 1 : D = 2.
ng
Equating the coefficients of x3 on both sides we get,
A = 1.
eri
Equating the coefficients of x2 on both sides we get,
−A + B = 0.
B = A = 1.
Put x = 0 : −C + D = 0 e
gin
C = D = 2.
x3 + x 2
En
∴ = x2 + x + 2 + .
x−1 x−1
Z 3 Z Z Z Z
x +x 1
∴ dx = x2 dx + xdx + 2 dx + 2 dx
x−1 x−1
arn
x3 x2
= + + 2x + 2 log(x − 1) + c.
3 2
Le
3.5 Integration of irrational functions
w.
Standard Results
ww
Z
1
1. Evaluate √ dx.
a2 − x2
Solution. Let x = a sin θ ⇒ dx = a cos θdθ.
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192 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z Z
1 1
∴ √ dx = p · a cos θdθ
a2 − x2 a 2 − a2 sin2 θ
Z
1
= q · a cos θdθ
2 2
a (1 − sin θ)
Z
1
= √ · a cos θdθ
a 2 cos2 θ
.in
Z Z
1
= · a cos θdθ = dθ + c = θ + c
a cos θ
Z
1 x
√ dx = sin−1 + c.
ng
a2 − x2 a
eri
Z
1
2. Evaluate √dx.
+ x2 a2
Solution. Let x = a sin hθ
e
gin
dx = a cos hθdθ.
En
Z Z
1 1
∴ √ dx = √ · a cos hθ dθ
2
a +x 2 a + a2 sin h2 θ
2
arn
Z
1
= p · a cos hθ dθ
a2 (1 + sin h2 θ)
Z
1
= √ · a cos hθ dθ
a 2 cos h2 θ
Le
Z Z
1
= · a cos hθ dθ = dθ + c = θ + c
a cos hθ
Z
1 −1 x
p
w.
√ dx = sin h + c = log(x + x2 + a2 ) + c.
a2 − x2 a
ww
Z
1
3. Evaluate √ dx.
x2 − a2
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Integral Calculus 193
Solution. Let x = a cos hθ
dx = a sin hθdθ.
Z Z
1 1
∴ √ dx = √ · a sin hθ dθ
2
x −a 2 a 2 cos h 2 θ − a2
Z
1
= p · a sin hθ dθ
a2 (cos h2 θ − 1)
.in
Z
1
= √ · a sin hθ dθ
Z a2 sin h2 θ
1
ng
= · a sin hθ dθ
a sin hθ
Z
= dθ + c = θ + c
eri
Z
1 −1 x
p
√ dx = cos h + c = log(x + x2 − a2 ) + c.
a2 − x2 a
4. Evaluate
Z p
a2 − x2 dx. e
gin
Solution. Let x = a sin θ
dx = a cos θdθ.
En
Z p Z p
∴ 2 2
a − x dx = a2 − a2 sin2 θ · a cos θ dθ
arn
Z q
= a2 (1 − sin2 θ) · a cos θ dθ
Z p
= a2 cos2 θ · a cos θ dθ
Le
Z
= a2 cos2 θ dθ
Z
1 + cos 2θ
= a2
w.
dθ
2
a2
Z
= (1 + cos θ)dθ
2
ww
a2
" Z Z #
= dθ + cos 2θdθ
2
a2
" #
sin 2θ
= θ+ +c
2 2
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194 Engineering Mathematics - I
a2
" x #
−1 1
= sin + · 2 sin θ cos θ + c
2 a 2
a2 x a2 x p
= sin−1 + · · cos2 θ + c
2 a 2 a
a2 −1 x
ax p
= sin + 1 − sin2 θ + c
2 a 2
a2 ax r x2
−1 x
.in
= sin + 1− 2 +c
2 a 2 a
a2 x ax √a2 − x2
= sin−1 + +c
2 a 2 a
ng
a2
Z p x x p
a2 − x2 dx = sin−1 + a2 − x2 + c.
2 a 2
eri
Z p
5. Evaluate a2 + x2 dx.
Solution. Let x = a sin hθ
dx = a cos hθdθ.
e
gin
Z p Z p
∴ a2 + x2 dx = a2 + a2 sin h2 θ · a cos hθ dθ
Z p
= a2 (1 + sin h2 θ) · a cos hθ dθ
En
Z p
= a2 cos h2 θ · a cos hθ dθ
arn
Z
= a2 cos h2 θ dθ
Z
1 + cos h2θ
= a2 dθ
2
Le
a2
Z
= (1 + cos h2θ)dθ
2
a2
" Z Z #
w.
= dθ + cos h2θdθ
2
a2
" #
sin h2θ
= θ+ +c
ww
2 2
a2
" #
−1 x
1
= sin h + · 2 sin hθ cos hθ + c
2 a 2
a 2 x a2 x p
= sin h−1 + · · cos h2 θ + c
2 a 2 a
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Integral Calculus 195
a2 x ax p
= sin h−1 + 1 + sin h2 θ + c
2 a 2
a2 ax r x2
−1 x
= sin h + 1+ 2 +c
2 a 2 a
a2 x ax √a2 + x2
= sin h−1 + +c
2 a 2 a
a2 x x p
sin h−1
.in
= + a2 + x2 + c.
2 a 2
a2
Z p p xp 2
a2 + x2 dx = log(x + x2 + a2 ) + a + x2 + c.
2 2
ng
Z p
6. Evaluate x2 − a2 dx.
eri
Solution. Let x = a cos hθ
dx = a sin hθdθ.
∴
Z p
2 2
x − a dx =
Z p
e
a2 cos h2 θ − a2 · a sin hθ dθ
gin
Z p
= a2 (sin h2 θ − 1) · a sin hθ dθ
Z p
a2 sin h2 θ · a sin hθ dθ
En
=
Z
2
=a sin h2 θ dθ
arn
Z
2 cos h2θ − 1
=a dθ
2
a2
Z
= (cos h2θ − 1)dθ
2
Le
a2
"Z Z #
= cos h2θdθ − dθ
2
a2 sin h2θ
" #
w.
= −θ +c
2 2
a2 x
= sin hθ cos hθ − cos h−1 +c
ww
2 a
a2 p 2
x −1 x
= sin h θ · − cos h +c
2 a a
ax p 2 a2 −1 x
= cosh θ − 1 − cosh c
2 2 a
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196 Engineering Mathematics - I
r
ax x2 a2 −1 x
= 2
− 1 − cosh c
2 a 2 a
√
ax x2 − a2 a2 x
= − cosh−1 c
2 a 2 a
xp 2 a2 x
= x − a2 − cosh−1 c.
2 2 a
a2
Z p
xp 2 p
.in
x2 − a2 dx = x − a2 − log(x + x2 − a2 ) + c.
2 2
Z
1
ng
3.5.1 Type I. Evaluation of integrals of the form √ dx
ax2 + bx + c
Evaluation procedure. By the method of completing the square technique,
eri
√ √ √ √
express ax2 + bx + c in any one of the forms a2 − x2 , x2 − a2 or a2 + x2 and
apply the correct formula.
✎ ☞
✍ e
Worked Examples
✌
gin
Z
1
Example 3.52. Evaluate √ dx.
x2 + 16x + 100
En
Z Z
1 1
Solution. √ dx = p dx
2
x + 16x + 100 2
(x + 8) + 100 − 64
Z
1
= dx
arn
p
(x + 8)2 + 36
Z
1
= p dx
(x + 8)2 + 62
Le
p
= log (x + 8) + (x + 8)2 + 62 + c
p
= log (x + 8) + x2 + 16x + 100 + c.
w.
Z
1
Example 3.53. Evaluate √ dx.
9 + 8x − x2
ww
Z Z
1 1
Solution. √ dx = p dx
9 + 8x − x 2 9 − (x2 − 8x)
Z
1
= p dx
9 − (x − 4)2 − 16
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Integral Calculus 197
Z
1
= p dx
9 − (x − 4)2 + 16
Z
1
= p dx
25 − (x − 4)2
Z
1
= p dx
52 − (x − 4)2
!
−1 x − 4
.in
= sin + c.
5
Z
1
ng
Example 3.54. Evaluate √ dx.
2
9x + 24x
Z Z
1 1
eri
Solution. √ dx = q dx
9x2 + 24x 9 x2 + 24x 9
Z
1 1
=
3
q
2
x + 3 e
8x
dx
gin
Z
1 1
= q dx
3 4 2
16
x+ 3 − 9
En
Z
1 1
=
3
q 2 2 dx
x + 43 − 34
s
!2
arn
!
1 4 4 16
= log x + + x+ − + c
3 3 3 9
! r
1 3x + 4 8
= log + x2 + x + c.
Le
3 3 3
Z
ℓx + m
w.
3.5.2 Type II. Evaluation of integrals of the form √ dx
ax2 + bx + c
d 2
ww
Evaluation procedure. Assume express ℓx + m = A · ax + bx + c + B. Find
dx
the values of A and B and then substitute for ℓx + m in the integral which will be
evaluated easily.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
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198 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z
3x + 1
Example 3.55. Evaluate √ dx.
2x2 + x + 3
d
Solution. Let 3x + 1 = A (2x2 + x + 3) + B
dx
= A(4x + 1) + B.
Equating the coefficients of x on both sides we get,
3
4A = 3 ⇒ A = .
.in
4
Equating the constants
3
A+B=1⇒ +B=1
4
ng
3 1
B=1− = .
4 4
eri
3 1
∴ 3x + 1 = (4x + 1) + .
4 4
Z
3x + 1
3
Z (4x + 1) + 1
4 4 dx. e
gin
∴ 2
dx = √
2x + x + 3 2
Z 2x + x + 3 Z
3 4x + 1 1 1
= √ dx + √ dx.
4 2x 2+x+3 4 2x 2+x+3
En
Z Z
3 −1 1 1
= (2x2 + x + 3) 2 d(2x2 + x + 3) + s ! dx
4 4 x 3
2 x2 + +
2 2
arn
1
3 (2x2 + x + 3) 2
Z
1 1
= 1
+ √ s dx
4 4 2 !2
2 1 3 1
x+ + −
4 2 16
Le
Z
3 p
2
1 1
= × 2 2x + x + 3 + √ s dx
4 4 2 !2
1 24 − 1
x+ +
w.
4 16
Z
3 p 1 1
= 2x2 + x + 3 + √ dx
!2 √ 2
s
2 4 2
ww
1 23
x+ +
4 4
s
!2
3p 2 1 1 1 23
= 2x + x + 3 + √ log x + + x+ + + c
2 4 2 4 4 16
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Integral Calculus 199
r
3p 2 1 4x + 1 2
x 3
= 2x + x + 3 + √ log + x + + + c.
2 4 2 4 2 2
Z
1
Example 3.56. Evaluate √ dx by using trignometric substitution. Hence
a2 − x2
6x + 5
use it in evaluating dx. [A.U Nov 2016]
6 + x − 2x2
Solution. For the first part, refer Result(1). Let us evaluate the second part.
.in
d
Let 6x + 5 = A (6 + x − 2x2 ) + B
dx
ng
= A(1 − 4x) + B.
Equating the coefficients of x on both sides we get
6 3
−4A = 6 ⇒ A = − = − .
eri
4 2
Equating the constants,we get
3
A+B=5⇒− +B=1
2
B=5+ = .
3 13
e
gin
2 2
3 13
∴ 6x + 5 = − (1 − 4x) + .
2 2
Z −3 13
(1 − 4x) +
Z
6x + 5
En
2 2
∴ √ dx = √ dx.
6 + x − 2x 2 6 + x − 2x 2
Z Z
3 1 − 4x 13 1
=− √ dx + √ dx.
2 2
arn
6 + x − 2x 2 6 + x −Z2x2
Z
3 −1 13 1
=− (6 + x − 2x2 ) 2 d(6 + x − 2x2 ) + q dx
2 2 2(3 + 2x − x2 )
1
Le
3 (6 + x − 2x2 ) 2
Z
13 1
=− 1
+ √ q dx
2 2 2 2 3 − (x2 − 2x )
Z
13 1
w.
p
= −3 6 + x − 2x2 + √ q o dx
2 2
n
1 2 1
3 − (x − 4 ) − 16
Z
13 1
ww
p
= −3 6 + x − 2x2 + √ q dx
2 2 3 − (x − 14 )2 + 16 1
Z
p
2
13 1
= −3 6 + x − 2x + √ q dx
2 2 ( 74 )2 − (x − 14 )2
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200 Engineering Mathematics - I
x − 14
p
2
13 −1
= −3 6 + x − 2x + √ sin 7 + c
2 2 4
!
p 13 −1 4x − 1
= −3 6 + x − 2x2 + √ sin + c.
2 2 7
Z
4x − 3
Example 3.57. Evaluate √ dx.
x2 + 2x − 1
.in
d
Solution. Let 4x − 3 = A (x2 + 2x − 1) + B
dx
= A(2x + 2) + B.
ng
Equating the coefficients of x on both sides we get,
2A = 4 ⇒ A = 2.
eri
Equating the constants
2A + B = −3 ⇒ 4 + B = −3 ⇒ B = −3 − 4 = −7.
∴ 4x − 3 = 2(2x + 2) − 7.
Z Z
e
gin
4x − 3 2(2x + 2) − 7
∴ √ dx = √ dx.
2
x + 2x − 1 2
Z x + 2x − 1 Z
2x + 2 1
=2 √ dx − 7 √ dx.
x 2 + 2x − 1 x 2 + 2x − 1
En
Z Z
−1 1
= 2 (x2 + 2x − 1) 2 d(x2 + 2x − 1) − 7 p dx
(x + 1)2 − 1 − 1
1
(x2 + 2x − 1) 2
Z
1
arn
=2 1
−7 p dx
2 (x + 1)2 − 2
Z
p
2
1
= 4 x + 2x − 1 − 7 q √ 2 dx
2
(x + 1) − 2
Le
r
p √ 2
2 2
= 4 x + 2x − 1 − 7 log x + 1 + (x + 1) − 2 + c
w.
p p
= 4 x2 + 2x − 1 − 7 log x + 1 + x2 + 2x − 1 + c.
Z
x
ww
Example 3.58. Evaluate √ dx.
3 − 2x − x2
d
Solution. Let x = A (3 − 2x − x2 ) + B
dx
= A(−2 − 2x) + B.
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Integral Calculus 201
Equating the coefficients of x on both sides we get,
1
−2A = 1 ⇒ A = − .
2
Equating the constants
−2A + B = 0 ⇒ 1 + B = 0 ⇒ B = −1.
.in
∴ x = − (−2 − 2x) − 1.
2
Z Z − 1 (−2 − 2x) − 1
x 2
∴ √ dx = √ dx.
ng
3 − 2x − x 2 2
Z 3 − 2x − x Z
1 −2 − 2x 1
=− √ dx − √ dx.
2 3 − 2x − x 2 3 − 2x − x 2
eri
Z Z
1 −1 1
=− (3 − 2x − x2 ) 2 d(3 − 2x − x2 ) − p dx
2 3 − (x2 + 2x)
1 Z
=−
1 3 − 2x − x
2 2
− e 1
dx
gin
1
p
2 2 3 − (x + 1)2 − 1
Z
p
2
1
= − 3 − 2x − x − dx
3 − (x + 1)2 + 1
Z
1
En
p
= − 3 − 2x − x2 − p dx
4 − (x + 1)2
Z
p
2
1
= − 3 − 2x − x − p dx
arn
22 − (x + 1)2
!
−1 x + 1
p
2
= − 3 − 2x − x − sin + c.
2
Le
Z √
3.5.3 Type III. Evaluation of integrals of the form ax2 + bx + c dx
w.
Evaluation procedure. By completing the square form, express ax2 + bx + c as
any of x2 − a2 , a2 + x2 , a2 − x2 and apply the appropriate formula.
ww
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
R √
Example 3.59. Evaluate x2 − 4x + 6 dx.
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202 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z p Z p
Solution. x2 − 4x + 6 dx = (x − 2)2 + 6 − 4 dx
Z p
= (x − 2)2 + 2 dx
Z q √
= (x − 2)2 + ( 2)2 dx
√
!q
x−2
= (x − 2)2 + ( 2)2
.in
2
√
( 2)2 √
q !
+ 2 2
log (x − 2) + (x − 2) + ( 2) + c
2
ng
!
x−2 p 2 p
2
= x − 4x + 6 + log (x − 2) + x − 4x + 6 + c.
2
eri
3.5.4 Type IV.Integration by trigonometric substitution.
e
Certain integrals can be easily evaluated by trigonometric substitution.
gin
There are three cases.
√
(i) Any integral involving quantities of the form a2 − x2 can be evaluated by
En
the substitution x = a sin θ.
√
arn
(ii) Integrals involving functions of the form a2 + x2 can be evaluated by the
substitution x = a tan θ or x = a sin hθ.
√
Le
(iii) Integrals involving functions of the form x2 − a2 can be evaluated by the
substitution x = a sec θ or x = a cos hθ.
w.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
ww
Z √
9 − x2
Example 3.60. Evaluate dx.
√ x2 √
Solution. Since 9 − x2 is of the form a2 − x2 , we can evaluate this integral by
the substitution.
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Integral Calculus 203
x = 3 sin θ. ⇒ dx = 3 cos θdθ.
Z √ Z p
9 − x2 9 − 9 sin2 θ
∴ dx = 3 cos θdθ
x2 9 sin2
θ
q
Z 9(1 − sin2 θ)
= 3 cos θdθ
√ 9 sin2 θ
cos2 θ
.in
Z
= 2
cos θdθ
Z sin θ
cos θ
= cos θdθ
ng
sin2 θ
cos2 θ
Z
= 2
dθ
Z sin θ
eri
= cot2 θdθ
Z
= (cosec2 θ − 1)dθ
Z
e Z
gin
= cosec2 θdθ − dθ
cos θ
= − cot θ − θ + c = − −θ+c
√ sin θ
En
cos2 θ −1 x
=− − sin +c
sin θ 3
p
1 − sin2 θ −1 x
=− − sin +c
arn
sin θ 3
r
x2
1−
−1 x
9
=− x − sin +c
3
Le
s3
3 9 − x2 x
=− − sin−1 +c
w.
x 9 3
1p x
=− 9 − x2 − sin−1 + c.
x 3
ww
R 1
Example 3.61. Evaluate √ dx.
x2 x2 + 4 √
Solution. Since the integral involves one factor of the form x2 + 4,we can
evaluate this integral by the substitution
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204 Engineering Mathematics - I
x = 2 tan θ ⇒ dx = 2 sec2 θdθ.
Z Z
1 1
∴ √ dx = √ · 2 sec2 θdθ
x2 x2 +4 4 tan2 θ 2
4 tan θ + 4
sec2 θ
Z
1
=
2
p dθ
tan2 θ 4 tan2 θ + 1
sec2 θ
Z
1
.in
= √ dθ
4 tan2 θ sec2 θ
sec2 θ
Z
1
= dθ
ng
4
Z tan2 θ sec θ
1 sec θ
= dθ
4 tan2 θ
eri
cos2 θ
Z
1 1
= · dθ
4 cos θ sin2 θ
Z
1 cos θ 1
= · dθ
4
1
Z
e
sin θ sin θ
gin
= cosecθ · cot θ dθ
4
1
= − cosecθ + c
4
En
1p
=− cosec2 θ + c
4
1p
=− 1 + cot2 θ + c
4r
arn
1 4 x
=− 1+ 2 +c tan θ = , cot θ = 2/x
4 x 2
s √
1 x2 + 4 x2 + 4
Le
=− + c = − + c.
4 x2 4x
R x
Example 3.62. Evaluate dx. √
w.
+4 x2 √
Solution. Since the integrand involves one factor of the form x2 + 4, we can
evaluate this integral by the substitution
ww
x = 2 tan θ ⇒ dx = 2 sec2 θdθ.
Z Z
x 2 tan θ
∴ √ dx = √ · 2 sec2 θdθ
x2 + 4 4 tan2 θ + 4
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Integral Calculus 205
tan θ sec2 θ
Z
=4 p dθ
4(tan2 θ + 1)
tan θ sec2 θ
Z
=4 √ dθ
2 sec2 θ
tan θ sec2 θ
Z
=2 dθ
sec θ
Z
.in
= 2 tan θ · sec θ dθ
= 2 sec θ + c
ng
p
= 2 sec2 θ + c
p
= 2 1 + tan2 θ + c
eri
r
x2
=2 1+ +c
4
√
=2
e
4 + x2
2
p
+ c = 4 + x2 + c.
gin
Note. This, integral can be evaluated easily by the substitution 4 + x2 = t.
x3 + 1
Z
En
Example 3.63. Evaluate √ dx.
1 − x2 √
Solution. Since the integrand contains one factor of the form a2 − x2 , let us
make the substitution
arn
x = sin θ [a = 1]
dx = cos θdθ
Le
x3 + 1 sin3 θ + 1
Z Z
√ dx = p cos θdθ
1 − x2 1 − sin2 θ
sin3 θ + 1
Z
w.
= √ · cos θdθ
cos2 θ
sin3 θ + 1
Z
= · cos θdθ
ww
cos θ
Z
= (sin3 θ + 1) dθ
Z Z
= sin3 θ dθ + dθ
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206 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z !
3 1
= sin θ − sin 3θ dθ + θ
4 4
Z Z
3 1
= sin θdθ − sin 3θdθ + θ
4 4
!
3 1 − cos 3θ
= (− cos θ) − +θ+c
4 4 3
3p 2 1
=− cos θ + (4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ) + sin−1 x + c
.in
4 12
3p 1 3 1p 2
=− 1 − sin2 θ + (cos2 θ) 2 − cos θ + sin−1 x + c
4 3 4
ng
3p 1 3 1p
=− 1 − x2 + (1 − sin2 θ) 2 − 1 − sin2 θ + sin−1 x + c
4 3 4
3p 1 3 1p
=− 1 − x2 + (1 − x2 ) 2 − 1 − x2 + sin x +c
eri
4 3 4
1 3
p
= (1 − x2 ) 2 − 1 − x2 + sin−1 x + c.
3
Example 3.64. Evaluate
Z
√
1
dx. e
gin
x3 x2 − 9 √
Solution. Since the integrand contains one factor of the form a2 − x2 , we can
make the substitution
En
x = 3 sec θ [∴ a = 3]
dx = 3 sec θ · tan θdθ
arn
Z Z
1 1
√ dx = √ · 3 sec θ tan θdθ
x3 x2 −9 Z33 sec3 θ · 9 sec2θ−9
1 1
= p sec θ tan θdθ
9
Le
sec3 θ · 9(sec2 θ − 1)
Z
1 1
= √ sec θ tan θdθ
9 3 2
Z sec θ × 3 tan θ
w.
1 1
= 3
sec θ tan θdθ
27 sec θ tan θ
Z
1 1
= dθ
ww
27 sec 2θ
Z
1
= cos2 θdθ
27
Z
1 1 + cos 2θ
= dθ
27 2
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Integral Calculus 207
"Z Z #
1
= dθ + cos 2θdθ
54
" #
1 sin 2θ
= θ+ +c
54 2
1 1
= θ+ sin θ cos θ + c
54 54
1 x 1 p 1
= sec−1 + sin2 θ · +c
.in
54 3 54 sec θ
1 x 1 p 3
= sec−1 + 1 − cos2 θ · + c
54 3 54 x
ng
r
1 x 1 9 3
= sec−1 + 1− 2 · +c
54 3 54 x x
√
1 x 1 x −9 2
sec−1
eri
= + + c.
54 3 18 x2
Z
1
Example 3.65. Evaluate 3
(a2 + x2 ) 2
dx.
√ e
gin
Solution. Since the integrand contains a factor of the form a2 + x2 , we can make
the substitution
x = a tan θ ⇒ dx = a sec2 θdθ.
En
Z Z
1 1
∴ 3
dx = 3
· a sec2 θdθ
(a2 + x2 ) 2 (a2 + a2 tan2 θ) 2
arn
Z
1
= 3
· a sec2 θdθ
(a2 (1 + tan2 θ)) 2
Z
1
= · a sec2 θdθ
Le
3
(a2 sec2 θ) 2
Z
1
= · a sec2 θdθ
a3 sec3 θ
w.
Z
1 1
= 2
dθ
a Z sec θ
1
ww
= cos θ dθ
a2
1
= sin θ + c
a2
1 tan θ
= +c
a2 sec θ
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208 Engineering Mathematics - I
1 x 1
= 2
· √ +c
a a sec2 θ
x 1
= 3 √ +c
a 1 + tan2 θ
x 1 x a x
= 3 q +c= 3 √ +c= √ + c.
a 2 a a2 + x2 a2 a2 + x2
1 + ax2
.in
3.6 Integration by parts
ng
Every differentiation rule has a corresponding integration rule. The rule
that correspond to the product for differentiation is called the integration by parts.
eri
From differential calculus we have
d dv du
(uv) = u + v
dx dx dx
Integrating both sides with respect to x
e
gin
Z Z Z
d dv du
(uv)dx = u dx + v dx
dx dx dx
Z Z
uv = udv + vdu
En
Z Z
udv = uv − vdu.
Priority rules for choosing u.
arn
1. Inverse functions.
Le
2. logarithmic functions.
3. Polynomials in x.
w.
4. Any other function other than the above three.
ww
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Integral Calculus 209
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Z R1
Example 3.66. Evaluate tan−1 xdx and hence deduce the value of tan−1 xdx
0
[A.U.Nov 2016]
Solution. Let u = tan−1 x Z dv = Z
dx
1
.in
du = dx dv = dx ⇒ v = x.
1 + x2
Applying
Z integration
Z by parts
tan−1 dx = udv
ng
Z
= uv − vdu
eri
Z
−1 1
= (tan x) · x − x· dx In the second integral
Z 1 + x2
1 dt
= x · tan−1 x − put 1 + x2 = t
1
t 2
e 2xdx = dt
gin
= x · tan−1 x − log t + c
2 dt
−1 1 2 xdx = .
= x · tan x − log(1 + x ) + c. 2
2
En
Z1 1 1 h i1
Now, tan−1 x dx = x tan−1 x − log(1 + x2 )
0 2 0
0
arn
1
= tan−1 1 − 0 − (log 2 − log 1)
2
π 1
= − log 2.
4 2
Le
Z
Example 3.67. Evaluate sin−1 xdx.
w.
Solution. Let u = sin−1 x dv = dx
Z Z
1
du = √ dx dv = dx ⇒ v = x.
1 − x2
ww
Applying
Z integration
Z by parts
−1
sin x dx = u dv
Z
= uv − v du
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210 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z
1
= (x sin−1 x) − x· √ dx
Z 1 −!x2 In the second integral
1 −dt
= x · sin−1 x − √ put 1 − x2 = t
2
Z t
1 1
= x · sin−1 x + (t)− 2 + c − 2xdx = dt
2
1 dt
−1 1 t 2 xdx = − .
= x · sin x + 1 + c 2
.in
2 2
Z p
∴ sin−1 x dx = (x sin−1 x) + 1 − x2 + c.
ng
Z
Example 3.68. Evaluate x sin xdx.
eri
Solution. Let u = x dv = sin xdx
Z Z
du = dx dv = sin xdx ⇒ v = − cos x.
Applying
Z integration
Z by parts
Z
e
gin
x sin xdx = udv = uv − vdu
Z
= −x · cos x − − cos xdx = −x cos x + sin x + c.
En
Z
Example 3.69. Evaluate xe x dx.
Solution. Let u = x dv = e x dx
arn
Z Z
du = dx dv = e x dx ⇒ v = e x .
Applying
Z integration
Z byZparts
x
Le
xe dx = udv = uv − vdu
Z
= x · e − e x dx
x
w.
= xe x − e x + c = e x (x − 1) + c.
Z
ww
Example 3.70. Evaluate log xdx.
Solution. Let u = log x dv = dx
Z Z
1
du = dx dv = dx ⇒ v = x.
x
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Integral Calculus 211
Applying
Z integration
Z by parts
Z
log xdx = udv = uv − vdu
Z
1
= x · log x − x · dx
x
Z
= x log x − dx + c = x log x − x + c = x(log x − 1) + c.
.in
Z
log x 2 dx.
Example 3.71. Evaluate [A.U. Dec. 2015]
Solution. Let u = log x 2
dv = dx
ng
Z Z
1
du = 2(log x) dx dv = dx ⇒ v = x.
x
Applying integration by parts
eri
Z Z Z
2
log x dx = udv = uv − vdu
Z
2 1
= log x · x −
e
x · 2 log x dx
x
gin
Z
2
= x log x − log xdx
= x log x 2 − 2x(log x − 1) + c. [From the provious problem]
En
Z
Example 3.72. Evaluate xn log xdx.
Solution. Let u = log x dv = xn dx
arn
xn+1
Z Z
1
du = dx dv = xn dx ⇒ v = .
x n+1
Applying integration by parts
Le
Z Z Z
n
x log xdx = udv = uv − vdu
xn+1
Z n+1
x 1
= · log x − · dx
w.
n+1 n+1 x
xn+1
Z
1
= log x − xn dx + c
n+1 n+1
ww
xn+1 1 xn+1
= log x − · +c
n+1 n + 1 !n + 1
xn+1 1
= log x − + c.
n+1 n+1
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212 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z
Example 3.73. Evaluate x2 e x dx.
Solution. Let u = x2 dv = e x dx
Z Z
du = 2xdx dv = e x dx ⇒ v = e x .
Applying
Z integration
Z by Zparts
2 x
x e dx = udv = uv − vdu
.in
Z
= x2 · e x − e x · 2x dx
ng
Z
= x2 e x − 2 xe x dx
= x2 e x − 2 xe x − e x + c
[Refer Example 3.79]
eri
= x2 e x − 2xe x + 2e x + c = e x (x2 − 2x + 2) + c
Z
Example 3.74. Evaluate x2 tan−1 xdx.
e
gin
Solution. Let u = tan−1 x dv = x2 dx
x3
Z Z
1 2
du = dx dv = x dx ⇒ v = .
1 + x2 3
En
Z Applying
Z integration
Z by parts
x2 tan−1 xdx = udv = uv − vdu
x3
Z 3
x 1
arn
−1
= tan x − · dx
3 3 1 + x2
x3 x3
Z
1
= tan−1 x − dx Let 1 + x2 = t
3 3 1 + x2
x3 x2
Z
1
Le
= tan−1 x − · xdx 2xdx = dt
3 3 1 + x2
dt
x3
Z
−1 1 t − 1 dt xdx = .
= tan x − · 2
w.
3 3 t 2
x3
Z !
−1 1 1
= tan x − 1 − dt
3 6 t
ww
x 3 1
Z
1
Z
1
−1
= tan x − dt + dt
3 6 6 t
x3 1 1 x3 1 + x2 1
= tan−1 x − · t + · log t + c = tan−1 x − + log(1 + x2 ) + c.
3 6 6 3 6 6
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Integral Calculus 213
+ x + x2
Z
−1 x1
Example 3.75. Evaluate etan dx. [A.U. Dec. 2015]
1 + x2
Solution. Let u = tan−1 x or x = tan udx
1
du = dx dx = sec2 u du.
1 + x2
Applying integration by parts
.in
+ x + x2 1 + x2
Z Z !
tan−1 x 1 tan−1 x x
e dx = e + dx
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
Z
−1
x
= etan x 1 + dx
ng
Z 1Z+ x2
−1 −1
x
= etan x dx + etan x 2
dx
1 + x
eri
Z Z
= eu sec2 u du + eu tan u du
Z Z
eu sec2 u du + tan u d eu
=
Z
e Z
gin
= eu sec2 u du + eu tan u − eu sec2 u du
−1
= eu tan u + c = xetan x
+ c.
En
3.7 Trigonometric Integrals
arn
Theorem 1.Prove the reduction formula
R 1 n−1R
sinn xdx = − cos x sinn−1 x + sinn−2 xdx and deduce that
π
n π
n π
Le
R2 n n − 1 R2 n−2 R2 n
sin dx = sin xdx. Find also the general value of sin xdx. Hence
0 n 0 0
π π
R2 R2
w.
evaluate sin xdx and sin8 xdx.
7
[A.U.Dec 2016]
0 Z 0 Z
n
Proof. Write sin xdx = sinn−1 x sin xdx.
ww
Choose u = sinn−1 x dv = sin xdx
Z Z
du = (n − 1) sinn−2 x · cos xdx dv = sin xdx ⇒ v = − cos x.
Applying integration by parts
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214 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z Z Z
sinn xdx = udv = uv − vdu
Z
= − sinn−1 x · cos x − − cos x · (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos xdx
Z
= − sinn−1 x · cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos2 xdx
Z
= − sinn−1 x · cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x(1 − sin2 x)dx
.in
Z Z
= − sinn−1 x · cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 xdx − (n − 1) sinn xdx
ng
Z Z Z
sinn xdx + (n − 1) sinn xdx = − sinn−1 x cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 xdx
Z Z
sinn xdx = − sinn−1 x cos x + (n − 1)
sinn−2 xdx
eri
n
Z Z
−1 n−1 (n − 1)
sinn xdx = sin x cos x + sinn−2 xdx
n n
π
Taking limits from 0 to everywhere we get e
gin
2
π π
Z2 ! π2 Z2
−1 n−1 n−1
sinn xdx = sin x cos x + sinn−2 xdx.
n 0 n
En
0 0
π π
Z 2 Z2
n−1 n−1
=0+ sinn−2 xdx = sinn−2 xdx.
n n
arn
0 0
Applying the same procedure again for the integral on the RHS we get
π π
Z2 Z2
n−3
Le
sinn−2 xdx = sinn−4 xdx
n−2
0 0
π π
2 Z2
w.
Z
n−1 n−3
∴ sinn xdx = · sinn−4 xdx
n n−2
0 0
ww
Repeating this process n times we get
π
Z 2
n−1 n−3 n−5
sinn xdx = · · · · · · · · (ultimate integral).
n n−2 n−4
0
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Integral Calculus 215
π π
R2 R2 π
If n is even, the ultimate integral is sinn−n xdx = dx = [x]02 = π2 .
0 0
π
2
R π
If n is odd, the ultimate integral is sin xdx = − cos x 2 = −[cos π2 − cos 0]
0
0
= −[0 − 1] = 1.
π
R2
∴ The general value of sinn xdx is
.in
π 0 n − 1 n − 3 n − 5 2
Z2
· · , · · · · 1, if n is odd
sinn xdx = n n−2 n−4 3
n−1 n−3 n−5 1 π
ng
· · ,··· · , if n is even.
0 n n−2 n−4 2 2
π
Z2
eri
7−1 7−3 7−5 6 4 2 16
Now, sin7 xdx = · · ·1= · · ·1= .
7 7−2 7−4 7 5 3 35
0
π
Also,
Z2
sin8 xdx =
7 5 3 1 π 35π
· · · · = . e
gin
8 6 4 2 2 256
0
Theorem 2.Prove the reduction formula π
En
R 1 n−1R R2
n n−1
cos xdx = cos x sin x + n−2
cos xdx. Hence reduce the value of cosn dx.
n n 0
Z Z
n n−1
Proof. Write cos xdx = cos x cos xdx.
arn
Choose u = cosn−1 x dv = cos xdx
Z Z
du = (n − 1) cosn−2 x · (− sin x)dx dv = cos xdx ⇒ v = sin x.
Le
Applying
Z integration
Z by parts
Z
n
cos xdx = udv = uv − vdu
w.
Z
= cos x · sin x − sin x · (n − 1) cosn−2 x(− sin x)dx
n−1
Z
= cosn−1 x · sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 x sin2 xdx
ww
Z
= cosn−1 x · sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 x(1 − cos2 x)dx
Z Z
= cosn−1 x · sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 xdx − (n − 1) cosn xdx
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216 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z Z Z
cosn xdx + (n − 1) cosn xdx = cosn−1 x sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 xdx
Z Z
n cosn xdx = cosn−1 x sin x + (n − 1)
cosn−2 xdx
Z Z
1 (n − 1)
cosn xdx = cosn−1 x sin x + cosn−2 xdx.
R n R n
If n is odd, the ultimate integral is cosn−(n−1) xdx = cos xdx = sin x.
.in
R R
If n is even, the ultimate integral is cosn−n xdx = dx = x.
π
Now,applying limit from 0 to we obtain
π
2 π π
ng
Z2 ! π2 Z2 Z2
1 n − 1 n − 1
cosn xdx = · cosn−1 x sin x + cosn−2 xdx = cosn−2 xdx.
n 0 n n
0 0 0
eri
By repeatedly applying this process we obtain
π
R2 n−1 n−3 n−5
cosn xdx = · · · · · · · · (ultimate integral)
0 n n−2 n−4
π π
If n is even, the ultimate integral is x 2 = − 0 = .
e2
π
2
gin
0
π
R2 π
If n is odd, the ultimate integral is cos xdx = sin x 2 = 1.
0
π n − 1 0n − 3 n − 5 2
Z2
· · , · · · · 1, if n is odd
En
cosn xdx = n n−2 n−4 3
∴ n−1 n−3 n−5 1 π
· · , · · · · , if n is even.
0 n n−2 n−4 2 2
Result. By looking at the above two theorems, we obtain the following result
arn
If n is odd (say n = 2k + 1),then
π π
R2 2k+1 R2 2.4.6....2k
sin xdx = cos2k+1 xdx = .
0 0 3.5.7...(2k + 1)
Le
If n is even (say n = 2k),then
π π
R2 2k R2 1.3.5....(2k − 1) π
sin xdx = cos2k xdx = · .
0 0 2.4.6.....(2k) 2
w.
For example.
π π π
R2 7 R2 R2
sin xdx = cos dx = cos2.3+1 xdx
7 [n = 3]
ww
0 0 0
2.4.6 16
= .
=
π π
3.5.7
π
35
R2 8 R2 R2
sin xdx = cos8 dx = cos2.4 xdx [n = 4]
0 0 0
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Integral Calculus 217
1.3.5.7 π 35π
= × = .
2.4.6.8 Z 2 256
Evaluation of integrals of the form sinm x · cosn xdx
Evaluation procedure
(i) If the power of cosine is odd (say n = 2k + 1)then write
Z Z
.in
m n
sin x cos xdx = sinm x · cos2k+1 xdx
Z
= sinm x · cos2k x cos xdx
ng
Z
= sinm x · (cos2 x)k cos xdx
Z
eri
= sinm x · (1 − sin2 x)k cos xdx
Now make the substitution t = sin x, and hence the integral is evaluated
easily.
e
gin
(ii) If
Z the power of sineZis odd (say n = 2k + 1)then write
sinm x cosn xdx = sin2k+1 x · cosn x cos xdx
En
Z
= sin2k x · sin x cosn xdx
Z
= (1 − cos2 x)k · cosn x sin xdx.
arn
Now make the substitution t = cos x, and hence the integral is evaluated
easily.
Le
(iii) If the powers of both sine and cosine are even, then use the relations
(1 − cos 2x)
sin2 x =
2
w.
(1 + cos 2x)
cos2 x =
2
so that the resulting integrals can be evaluated easily.
ww
(iv) If the powers of both sine and cosine are odd, then apply either case(i) or
case(ii).
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
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218 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z
Example 3.76. Evaluate sin5 x cos2 xdx.
Solution. Here the power of sine is odd.
R R
∴ We write sin5 x cos2 xdx = sin4 x · sin x cos2 xdx
R
= Z (sin2 x)2 · cos2 x sin xdx
= (1 − cos2 x)2 · cos2 x sin xdx
put cos x = t
.in
Z
= (1 − t2 )2 · t2 (−dt) − sin xdx = dt
Z
= − (1 + t4 − 2t2 )t2 dt sin xdx = −dt.
ng
Z
= − (t2 + t6 − 2t4 )dt
eri
" 3
t7 t5 cos3 x cos7 x 2
#
t
=− + −2· +c=− − + cos5 x + c.
3 7 5 3 7 5
Z
e
gin
Example 3.77. Evaluate sin6 x cos3 xdx.
Solution. Here the power of cosine is odd.
R R
∴ we write sin6 x cos3 xdx = sin6 x · cos2 x · cos xdx
En
R
= Z sin6 x(1 − sin2 x) · cos xdx
= t6 (1 − t2 )dt put sin x = t
arn
Z
= (t6 − t8 )dt cos xdx = −dt.
t7 t9 sin7 x sin9 x
= − +c= − + c.
7 9 7 9
Le
Z
Example 3.78. Evaluate sin9 x cos5 xdx.
w.
Solution. Here, the powers of both sine and cosine are odd.
R R
∴ we write sin9 x cos5 xdx = sin9 x · cos4 x · cos xdx
ww
R
= Z sin9 x(1 − sin2 x)2 · cos xdx
= t9 (1 − t2 )2 dt put sin x = t
Z
= t9 (1 + t4 − 2t2 )dt cos xdx = dt.
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Integral Calculus 219
Z
= (t9 + t13 − 2t11 )dt
t10 t14 t12 sin10 x sin14 x sin12 x
= + −2 +c= + − + c.
10 14 12 10 14 6
Z
Evaluation of integrals of the form tanm x · secn xdx
Evaluation procedure.
.in
(i) If
Z the power of secant
Z is even (say n = 2k) then write the given integral as
ng
m n
tan x sec xdx = tanm x · sec2k xdx
Z
= tanm x · sec2k−2 x sec2 xdx
eri
Z
= tanm x · sec2(k−1) x sec2 xdx
Z
=
e
tanm x · (sec2 x)k−1 sec2 xdx put tan x = t
gin
Z
= tanm x · (1 + tan2 x)k−1 sec2 xdx sec2 xdx = dt.
Z
= tm (1 + t2 )k−1 dt, which can be evaluated easily.
En
(ii) If
Z the power of tangent
Z is odd (say m = 2k + 1)then write the given integral as
tanm x secn xdx = tan2k+1 x · secn xdx
arn
Z
= tan2k x · tan x secn−1 x sec xdx
Z
= (tan2 x)k · secn−1 x sec x tan xdx put sec x = t
Le
Z
= (sec2 x − 1)k secn−1 x sec x tan xdx sec x tan xdx = dt.
Z
w.
= (t2 − 1)k · tn−1 dt, which can be evaluated easily.
✎ ☞
ww
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Z
Example 3.79. Evaluate tan6 x sec4 xdx.
Solution. Here, the power of secant is even. Hence we write the given integral as
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220 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z Z
tan6 x sec4 xdx = tan6 x sec2 x sec2 xdx
Z put tan x = t
= tan6 x(1 + tan2 x) sec2 xdx
Z sec2 xdx = dt.
= t6 (1 + t2 )dt
t7 t9
+ +c =
7 9
.in
7
tan x tan9 x
= + + c.
7 9
ng
Z
Example 3.80. Evaluate tan5 x sec7 xdx.
Solution. Here, the power of tangent is odd. Hence we write the given integral
eri
as Z Z
5 7
tan x sec xdx = tan4 x sec6 x sec x tan xdx
Z put sec x = t
=
e
(sec2 x − 1)2 sec6 x sec x tan xdx
gin
Z sec x tan xdx = dt.
2 2 6
= (t − 1) t dt
Z
= (t4 + 1 − 2t2 )t6 dt
En
Z
= (t10 + t6 − 2t8 )dt
t11 t7 t9 sec11 x sec7 x 2
− sec9 x + c.
arn
= + −2 +c= +
11 7 9 11 7 9
Some standard results.
R
Le
1. Find tan xdxZ Z
sin x
Solution. tan xdx = dx cos x = t
Z cos x
1
w.
= (−dt) − sin xdx = dt
t
= − log t + c sin xdx = −dt.
ww
= − log(cos x) + c (or)
!
−1 1
= log(cos x) + c = log + c = log(sec x) + c.
cos x
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Integral Calculus 221
R
2. Find sec xdxZ Z
sec x + tan x
Solution. sec xdx = sec x · dx
sec x + tan x
Z
1 sec x + tan x = t
= (dt)
t (sec x tan x + sec2 x)dx = dt
= log t + c
sec x(sec x + tan x)dx = dt.
.in
= log(sec x + tan x) + c.
R
3. Find cosecxdx
Z Z
cosecx + cot x
ng
Solution. cosecxdx = cosecx · dx
cosecx + cot x
Z
1 cosecx + cot x = t
= (−dt)
t (−cosecx cot x − cosec2 x)dx = dt
eri
= − log t + c
−cosecx(cosecx + cot x)dx = dt.
= − log(cosecx + cot x) + c
e
gin
Z
4. Find cot x dx.
Z Z Z
cos x d(sin x)
Solution. cot x dx = dx = = log(sin x) + c.
sin x sin x
En
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Z
tan3 xdx.
arn
Example 3.81. Evaluate
Z Z
3
Solution. tan xdx = tan2 x tan xdx
Z
(sec2 x − 1) tan xdx
Le
=
Z Z
2
= sec x tan xdx − tan xdx
w.
Z
= tan xd(tan x) − log sec x
tan2 x
ww
− log(sec x) + c.
=
2
Z
Example 3.82. Evaluate sec3 xdx.
R R
Solution. sec3 xdx = sec x · sec2 xdx
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222 Engineering Mathematics - I
Let us apply integration by parts
Choose, u = sec x dv = sec2 xdx
Z Z
du = sec x tan xdx dv = sec2 xdx ⇒ v = tan x
Z Z Z
3
sec xdx = udv = uv − vdu
Z
.in
= sec x · tan x − tan x · sec x · tan xdx
Z
= sec x tan x − sec x tan2 xdx
ng
Z
= sec x tan x − sec x(sec2 x − 1)dx
Z Z Z
3 3
eri
sec xdx = sec x tan x − sec xdx + sec xdx
Z Z
sec3 xdx + sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + log(sec x + tan x) + c
Z
e
2 sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + log(sec x + tan x) + c
gin
Z
1
sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + log(sec x + tan x) + c.
2
En
3.8 Improper integrals
Definition of an improper integral Type-I
arn
Rt
(i) If f (x)dx exists for every number t ≥ a, then
a
R∞ Rt
Le
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx
t→∞
a a
provided this limit exists (as a finite number).
w.
Rb
(ii) If f (x)dx exists for every number t ≤ b, then
t
Rb Rb
ww
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx
t→−∞
−∞ t
provided this limit exists (as a finite number).
R∞ Rb
The improper integrals f (x)dx and f (x)dx are called convergent if the
a −∞
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Integral Calculus 223
corresponding limit exists and divergent if the limit does not exist.
R∞ Ra
(iii) If both f (x)dx and f (x)dx are convergent then we define
a −∞
R∞ Ra R∞
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
−∞ −∞ a
Here a is any real number.
.in
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
ng
R∞
Example 3.83. Discuss the convergence of e−x dx.
0
eri
Z∞ Zt
−x
Solution. e dx = lim e−x dx
t→∞
0 0
= lim
e−x
!t
e
= − lim e − e
−t 0
1
!
= − lim t − 1 = −(−1) = 1
gin
t→∞ −1 t→∞ t→∞ e
0
Z∞
∴ e−x dx is convergent.
En
R∞ 1
Example 3.84. Determine whether the integral 2
dx is convergent or divergent.
1 x
arn
Z∞ Zt
1 1
Solution. dx = lim dx
x2 t→∞ x2
1 1
Zt
Le
= lim x−2 dx
t→∞
1
!t !t
x−1
!
1 1
w.
= lim = − lim = − lim − 1 = −(−1) = 1.
t→∞ −1 t→∞ x t→∞ t
1 1
Z∞
1
ww
∴ dx is convergent.
x2
1
R∞ 1
Example 3.85. Determine the convergence of dx.
1 x
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224 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z∞ Zt
1 1
Solution. dx = lim dx
x t→∞ x
1 1
= lim (log x)t1 = lim (log t − log 1) = lim log t = ∞
t→∞ t→∞ t→∞
i.e the limit does not exist, as a finite number.
R∞ 1
∴ dx is divergent.
1 x
.in
R∞
ng
1
Example 3.86. Discuss the convergence of dx.
0 a2 + x2
Z∞ Zt
1 1
eri
Solution. dx = lim dx
a2 + x2 t→∞ a2 + x2
0 0
1 −1 x t
= lim tan
t→∞ a
1 −1 t
a 0
e
gin
= lim tan − tan−1 0
t→∞ a a
1 −1
= (tan ∞ − 0)
a
1 π π
En
= −0 = which is a finite number.
a 2 2a
R∞ 1
∴ 2 2
dx is convergent.
0 a +x
arn
R∞ dx
Example 3.87. Determine whether the integral √ convergent or divergent
x
Le
1
Z∞ Zt 1 t
dx − 21
x 2 √
Solution. √ = lim x dx = lim 1 = 2 lim ( t − 1) = 2 · ∞ = ∞.
x t→∞ t→∞
2 0
t→∞
w.
1 1
Here the limit does not exist as a finite number.
R∞ 1
∴ √ dx is divergent.
x
ww
R∞
Example 3.88. Discuss the convergence of the integral log xdx.
1
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Integral Calculus 225
Z∞ Zt
Solution. log x dx = lim log xdx
t→∞
1 1
Zt
1
= lim log x · x t0 −
x · dx [using integration by parts]
t→∞ x
1
h i
= 2 lim t log t − (x)t1 = 2 lim t log t − t + 1 = ∞
.in
t→∞ t→∞
R∞
∴ log xdx is divergent.
1
ng
Z∞
log x
Example 3.89. Determine whether the integral dx is convergent or
x
eri
1
divergent. Evaluate if the integral is convergent. [A.U. Dec. 2015]
Z∞ Zt Zt
log x log x
Solution.
x
dx = lim
t→∞ x
e
dx = lim
t→∞
log xd(log x)
gin
1 1 1
!t
(log x)2
= lim
t→∞ 2 1
1
= lim (log t)2 − (log 1)2
En
2 t→∞
1
= lim (log t)2 = ∞, [which is not a finite number.]
2 t→∞
Z∞
arn
log x
∴ dx is divergent.
x
1
R∞ 1
Le
Example 3.90. For what values of p is the integral p
dx convergent?
1 x
Z∞ Zt
1
Solution. dx = lim x−p dx
w.
xp t→∞
1 1
!t
x−p+1
= lim
ww
t→∞ −p + 1
1
!
1 1−p 1 1
= lim (t − 1) = · −1 .
1 − p t→∞ 1 − p t p−1
1
If p > 1, then p − 1 > 0 and hence t p−1 → ∞ as t → ∞ and hence → 0.
t p−1
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226 Engineering Mathematics - I
R∞ 1 1 1
∴ p
dx = (0 − 1) = , which is a finite number.
1 x 1− p p−1
R∞ 1
∴ p
dx is convergent if p > 1.
1 x
If p < 1, then p − 1 < 0 or 1 − p > 0.
1
Hence p−1 = t1−p → ∞ as t → ∞.
t
R∞ 1
.in
1
∴ p
dx = (∞ − 1) = ∞.
1 x 1 − p
R∞ 1
∴ dx diverges, if p < 1.
ng
p
1 x
R∞ 1
Also, when p = 1, dx = ∞ [Example 3.96]
1 x
eri
R∞ 1
∴ p
dx is divergent if p = 1.
1 x
R∞ 1
Hence,
1 x
p
e
dx is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p ≤ 1.
gin
Z0
Example 3.91. Discuss the convergence of e x dx
En
−∞
R0 R0
Solution. e x dx = lim e x dx
t→−∞
−∞ t
arn
= lim [e x ]0t = lim [e0 − et ] = 1 − 0 = 1, which is a finite number
t→−∞ t→−∞
∴ The given integral is convergent.
Le
R0 1
Example 3.92. Evaluate dx.
−∞ (1 − 3x)2
Z0 Z0
1
w.
Solution. 2
dx = lim (1 − 3x)−2 dx
(1 − 3x) t→−∞
−∞ t
#0 #0
(1 − 3x)−1
" "
1 1 1 1
ww
= lim = lim = lim [1 − 0] = .
t→−∞ (−1)(−3) t
t→−∞ 3 1 − 3x
t 3 t→−∞ 3
R0
Example 3.93. Evaluate xe x dx.
−∞
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Integral Calculus 227
Z0 Z0
x
Solution. xe dx = lim xd(e x )
t→−∞
−∞ t
Z0
x 0 x
= lim x · e t − e dx
t→−∞
t
h i
= lim 0 − et − (e x )0t
.in
t→−∞
h i h i
= lim −et − (1 − et ) = lim −et − 1 + et = lim (−1) = −1.
t→−∞ t→−∞ t→−∞
ng
Z∞
1
Example 3.94. Evaluate dx.
eri
4 + x2
−∞
Z∞ Z0 Z∞
1 1 1
Solution. dx = dx + dx
4 + x2 4 + x2 4 + x2
−∞ −∞
e
0
gin
Z0 Zt
1 1
= lim 2
dx + lim dx
t→−∞ 4+x t→−∞ 4 + x2
t 0
!0 !t
1 −1 x 1 −1 x
En
= lim tan + lim tan
t→−∞ 2 2 t t→∞ 2 2 0
1 t 0 1
t t
= lim tan−1 (0) − tan−1 + lim tan−1 − tan−1 (0)
2 t→−∞ 2 t 2 t→∞ 2 0
arn
1 −1 1
= tan 0 − tan−1 (−∞) + tan−1 (∞) − tan−1 0
2 2
1 π 1 π 1 π π π
= 0− − + −0 = + = .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Le
Z∞
Example 3.95. If a > 0, discuss the convergency or divergency of
w.
sin xdx.
a
Z∞ Zt h it
ww
Solution. sin xdx = lim sin xdx = lim − cos x = − lim [cos t − cos a].
t→∞ t→∞ a t→∞
a a
We know that cost is bounded and it lies between −1 and 1.
R∞
Hence the integral sin xdx oscillates finitely[It neither converges nor diverges].
a
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228 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z0
Example 3.96. Discuss the convergence of x sin xdx.
−∞
Z0 Z0
Solution. x sin xdx = lim xd(− cos x)
t→−∞
−∞ t
Z0
.in
0
= lim [−x cos x]t − − cos xdx
t→−∞
t
= lim [0 − t cos t + (sin x)0t ]
ng
t→−∞
= lim (−t cos t + 0 − sin t)
t→−∞
R0
eri
Since cos x and sin x oscillates between −1 and 1, x sin xdx oscillates finitely.
−∞
Definition of an improper integral type II
e
gin
(i) If f is continuous on [a, b) and is discontinuous at b, then
Zb Zt
f (x)dx = lim− f (x)dx
En
t→b
a a
b−∈
Z
= lim f (x)dx
arn
∈→0
a
if the limit exists (as a finite number).
Le
(ii) If f is continuous on (a, b] and is discontinuous at a, then
Zb Zb
f (x)dx = lim+ f (x)dx
t→a
w.
a t
Zb
= lim f (x)dx
∈→0
ww
a+∈
if the limit exists (as a finite number).
Rb
The improper integral f (x)dx is called convergent if the corresponding limit
a
exists and divergent if the limit does not exist.
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Integral Calculus 229
Rc Rb
(iii) If f hss a discontinuity at c where a < c < b, and both f (x)dx and f (x)dx
a c
are convergent, then we define
Rb Rc Rb
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
a a c
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
.in
Z1
1
Example 3.97. Evaluate √ dx if possible.
x
ng
0
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at the lower limit 0.
Z1 Z1 1 1
1 − 12 x 2 √
√ dx = lim x dx = lim 1 = 2 lim (1 − ∈) = 2.
eri
∴
x ∈→0 ∈→0
2 ∈
∈→0
0 0+∈
Z3
dx
Example 3.98. Determine whether the integral
e √ is convergent or
x
gin
0
divergent. Evaluate if it is convergent. [A.U. Dec. 2015]
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at the lower limit 0.
Z3 Z3 1 3
√ √
√
En
1 1 x 2
∴ √ dx = lim x− 2 dx = lim 1 = 2 lim ( 3 − ∈) = 2 3,
x ∈→0 ∈→0
2 ∈
∈→0
0 0+∈
[which is a finite number.]
arn
√
Hence, the given integral is convergent and its values is 2 3.
Z5
1
Example 3.99. Find the value of the improper integral √ dx if possible.
Le
x−2
2
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at the lower limit 2.
w.
Z5 Z5 5
(x − 2) 21
√ √
1 − 21
√
∴ √ dx = lim (x − 2) dx = lim 1
= 2 lim ( 3 − ∈) = 2 3.
x−2 ∈→0 ∈→0 ∈→0
2 2+∈ 2 2+∈
ww
Z1
1
Example 3.100. Evaluate √ dx if possible.
1 − x2
0
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at the upper limit 1.
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230 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z1 Z1−∈
1 1
∴ √ dx = lim √ dx
1− x2 ∈→0 1 − x2
0 0
= lim (sin−1 x)1−∈
0
∈→0
π
= lim sin−1 (1− ∈) − sin−1 0 = sin−1 1 − 0 = .
∈→0 2
.in
π
Z2
Example 3.101. Discuss the convergence of sec xdx if possible.
0
ng
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at the upper limit π2 .
π π
Z2 Z2 −∈
∴ sec xdx = lim sec xdx
eri
∈→0
0 0
π
−∈
= lim (log(sec x + tan x))02
∈→0
π π
e
= lim log(sec( − ∈) + tan( − ∈)) − log(sec 0 + tan 0)
gin
∈→0 2 2
π π
= log(sec( ) + tan( )) − log 1 = log ∞ = ∞.
π
2 2
R2
∴ sec xdx diverges.
En
0
Z3
1
Example 3.102. Evaluate the improper integral √ dx if possible.
arn
3−x
2
[A.U.Nov 2016]
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at the upper limit 3.
Le
Z3 Z3−∈ 3−∈
(3 − x) 21
1 − 21
∴ √ dx = lim (3 − x) dx = lim
3−x ∈→0 ∈→0 − 12 2
2 2
√
w.
p
= lim (−2) 3 − (3− ∈) − 3 − 2
∈→0
√
= −2 lim 3 − 3+ ∈ − 1 = −2(0 − 1) = 2.
ww
∈→0
Z1
1
Example 3.103. Evaluate 2
dx if possible.
x3
−1
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at x = 0,which lies between
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Integral Calculus 231
−1 and 1.
Z1 Z0 Z1
1 1 1
∴ 2
dx = 2
dx + 2
dx
x 3 x 3 x3
−1 −1 0
Z0−∈ Z1
2 2
= lim x− 3 dx + lim x− 3 dx
∈→0 ∈→0
−1 0+∈
.in
1 −∈ 1 1
x 3 x 3
= lim 1 + lim 1
∈→0 ∈→0
3 −1 1 3 ∈
ng
1
= 3 lim (− ∈) 3 + 1 + 3 lim 1 − (∈) 3 = 3 × 1 + 3 × 1 = 6.
∈→0 ∈→0
Z3
eri
1
Example 3.104. Evaluate the improper integral dx if possible.
x−1
0
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at x = 1 which lies between
0 and 3.
e
gin
Z3 Z1 Z3
1 1 1
∴ dx = dx + dx
x−1 x−1 x−1
0 0 1
En
Z1−∈ Z3
1 1
= lim dx + lim dx
∈→0 x−1 ∈→0 x−1
0 1+∈
arn
1−∈
+ lim log |x − 1| 31+∈
= lim log |x − 1| 0
∈→0 ∈→0
= lim log | ∈ | − log | − 1| + log 2 − log | ∈ |
∈→0
Le
= log 0 + log 2 − log 0
= −∞ + log 2 + ∞ which is an indeterminate
w.
R3 1
∴ dx diverges.
0 x−1
ww
Z1
1
Example 3.105. Evaluate dx if possible.
x
−1
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at x = 0 which lies between
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232 Engineering Mathematics - I
−1 and 1.
Z1 Z0 Z1
1 1 1
∴ dx = dx + dx
x x x
−1 −1 0
Z0−∈ Z1
1 1
= lim dx + lim dx
∈→0 x ∈→0 x
−1 0+∈
.in
h i−∈ h i1
= lim log |x| + lim log |x|
∈→0 −1 ∈→0 −∈
= lim log |− ∈ | − log | − 1| + lim log 1 − log | ∈ |
ng
∈→0 ∈→0
= lim log | ∈ | − log(∈)
∈→0
!
eri
|∈|
= lim log = lim log 1 = 0, which is a finite number
∈→0 |∈| ∈→0
R1 1
∴ dx converges.
−1 x
e
gin
A comparison test for improper integrals.
Comparison theorem. Suppose that f and g are continuous functions with
f (x) ≥ g(x) ≥ 0 for x ≥ a.
En
R∞ R∞
(i) If f (x)dx is convergent, then g(x)dx is convergent.
a a
arn
R∞ R∞
(ii) If g(x)dx is divergent, then f (x)dx is divergent.
a a
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
Le
✍ ✌
Z∞
2
Example 3.106. Show that e−x dx is convergent.
w.
0
R∞ R1 R∞
Solution. e−x2 dx = e −x2 dx +
2
e−x dx
ww
0 0 1
R1
e −x2 dx =a definite value and hence it is convergent.
0
R∞ 2
Let us consider the integral e−x dx.
1
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Integral Calculus 233
For all x ≥ 1,we have x2 ≥ x.
⇒ −x2 ≤ −x
2 2
⇒ e−x ≤ e−x ⇒ e−x ≥ e−x .
Z∞ Zt
−x t
Now e dx = lim e−x dx = lim −e−x 1
t→∞ t→∞
1 1
!
1 1
.in
−t −1
= − lim e − e =− 0− = , which is finite.
t→∞ e e
R∞
∴ e−x dx converges.
ng
1
R∞ 2
By comparison theorem e−x dx converges.
0
eri
R∞
⇒ e−x2 dx is convergent.
0
Z∞
Example 3.107. Prove that the integral
e 1 + e−x
dx is divergent.
gin
x
1
1 + e−x 1 e−x 1
Solution. We have for all x ≥ 1, = + >
x x x x
R∞ 1
We know from Example 3.101, dx diverges [∴ p = 1]
En
1 x
R∞ 1 + e−x
∴ By comparison theorem, dx is divergent.
1 x
arn
Example 3.108. Determine the convergency or divergency of the integral
Z∞
1
3
dx, using comparison test.
x +1
Le
1
1 1 1 1
Solution. For all x ≥ 1, we have, < 3 ⇒ 3 > 3 .
+1 x x3x x +1
∞
R 1
w.
We have from Example 3.101, 3
dx converges [p > 1].
1 x
R∞ 1
∴ By comparison theorem 3
dx is convergent.
1 x +1
ww
Example 3.109. Determine the convergency or divergency of the integral
Z∞
cos2 x
dx.
x2
2
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234 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution. We know that for all x ≥ 2 cos2 x ≤ 1.
cos2 x 1
⇒ 2
≤ 2. [∴ x2 > 0]
x x
1 cos2 x
or 2 ≥ .
x x2
R∞ 1
By Example 3.101, 2
dx converges [p > 1].
2 x
R∞ cos2 x
.in
∴ By comparison theorem dx also converges.
2 x2
Z∞
ng
1
Example 3.110. Discuss the convergency or divergency of the integral dx.
x + ex
2
1 1
= e−x .
eri
Solution. For all x > 2, we have <
x + ex ex
1
⇒ e−x > .
x + ex
Z∞ Zt
−x
Now e dx = lim
t
e−x dx = lim −e−x 2
e
gin
t→∞ t→∞
2 2
!
−t −2
1 1
= − lim e − e =− 0− 2 = 2 which is finite.
t→∞ e e
R∞
En
∴ e−x dx is convergent.
2
R∞ 1
∴ By comparison theorem, dx is convergent.
x + ex
arn
2
Le
w.
ww
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4 Multiple Integrals
.in
ng
4.1 Evaluation of double integrals
Definition. Let f (x, y) be a single
eri
valued and bounded function of two
Y
independent variables x and y which R
is defined in a closed region R of
e
gin
the xy plane. Divide the region
R into rectangles by drawing lines
parallel to the coordinate axes. Let
En
Ai be the ith rectangle. Let (xi , yi )
X
be any point inside the ith rectangle O
arn
and ∆Ai be its area. Let there be
n rectangles A1 , A2 , . . . , An which lie
completely inside R.
Le
Let us consider the sum
w.
n
X
f (x1 , y1 )∆A1 + f (x2 , y2 )∆A2 + · · · + f (xn , yn )∆An = f (xi , yi )∆Ai . (1)
i=1
ww
As n → ∞, the number of rectangles increase indefinitely such that the largest
linear dimension of the rectangle which is the diagonal of ∆Ai tends to zero. The
limit of the sum (1) if exists is defined to be the double integral of f (x, y) over the
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236 Engineering Mathematics - I
"
region R and it is denoted by f (x, y)dA.
R
n
X "
i.e., lim f (xi , yi )∆Ai = f (x, y)dA.
n→∞
∆Ai →0 i=1 R
.in
If A is a typical rectangle whose dimensions parallel to the coordinate axes are dx
and dy then dA = dxdy. Then the above double integral can be written as
ng
" " "
f (x, y)dA = f (x, y)dxdy = f (x, y)dydx.
R R R
eri
In cartesian coordinates the following cases are to be taken into account while
evaluating the double integrals.
Case (i) Consider the case where e Y R
gin
the limits are constants. Let the
region R be a rectangle given by
En
R = {(x, y) : a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d}, where
a, b, c, d are constants, then, the double X
O
integral is given by
arn
Zb Zd Zd
b
Z Z Z
f (x, y)dxdy = f (x, y)dy dx or =
f (x, y)dx dy.
R
a c c a
Le
i.e., if the limits are constants, the order of integration, is immaterial, provided
proper limits are taken.
w.
Case (ii) Consider the case when Y
the limits of x are constants and
ww
the limits of y are functions of x. h(x)
In this case the region R is given
by R = {(x, y) : a ≤ x ≤ b, g(x) ≤ y ≤ h(x)}, g(x)
where a, b are constants. Now the X
x=a x=b
double integral becomes
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Multiple Integrals 237
" Zb Zh(x)
f (x, y)dxdy = f (x, y)dy dx.
R a g(x)
i.e., if the limits of the innermost integral are functions of x, then the order of
evaluation of the integral is, first with respect to y and finally with respect to x.
.in
Case (iii) Consider the case when
ng
Y
the limits of y are constants and
y=d
the limits of x are functions of
eri
y. Now the region R is given
g(y) h(y)
by R = {(x, y) : g(y) ≤ x ≤ h(y), c ≤ y ≤ d},
where c, d are constants. The double
e y=c
gin
integral now takes the form X
" Zd Zh(y)
f (x, y)dxdy = f (x, y)dx dy.
En
R c g(y)
i.e., if the limits of the innermost integral are functions of y, the order of
integration is first with respect to x and finally with respect to y.
arn
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
"
Le
Example 4.1. Evaluate dxdy over the region R bounded by x = 0, x = 2, y = 0,
R
y = 2. [Jan 1996]
w.
" Z2 Z2
Solution. dxdy = dxdy.
ww
R 0 0
Since the limits are constants, the order of integration is immaterial.
" Z2 Z2 Z2
∴ dxdy = (x)20 dy = 2dy = 2 dy = 2[y]20 = 4.
R 0 0 0
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238 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z1 Z2
Example 4.2. Evaluate x(x + y)dydx. [Jun 1996]
0 1
Z1 Z2 Z1 Z2
Solution. x(x + y)dydx = x(x + y)dy dx
0 1 0 1
.in
Z1 !2 Z1
y2
!!
2 2 2 1
= x (y)1 + x dx = x +x 2− dx
2 1 2
0 0
ng
Z1 3 1
!1
3 x2
! !
2 3x x 1 3 13
= x + dx = + = + = .
2 3 0 2 2 0 3 4 12
eri
0
Note. In some cases, the integrand can be expressed as the product of two
e
quantities which are independent. In that case the evaluation of the double
gin
integral is equivalent to the product of the integrals involving the independent
integrands as the following examples suggest.
En
Za Zb
dxdy
Example 4.3. Evaluate .
xy
1 1
arn
Za Zb Za Zb
dx dy dx dy
Solution. = = (log x)a1 (log y)b1 = log a log b.
x y x y
1 1 1 1
Le
Z1 Z1
dxdy
Example 4.4. Evaluate √ .
w.
p
1 − x2 1 − y2
0 0
Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1
ww
dxdy dx dy
Solution. √ p = √ p
1 − x2 1 − y2 1 − x2 1 − y2
0 0 0 0
π π π2
= (sin−1 x)10 (sin−1 y)10 = = .
22 4
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Multiple Integrals 239
Z2 Z4 Z4 Z2
y
Example 4.5. Prove that (xy + e )dydx = (xy + ey )dxdy
1 3 3 1
Z2 Z4 Z2 !y=4
y y2
Solution. (xy + e )dydx = x + ey dx
2 y=3
1 3 1
Z2
.in
x
= (16 − 9) + (e4 − e3 ) dx
2
1
ng
Z2 Z2
7
= xdx + (e4 − e3 )dx
2
1 1
eri
!2
7 x2
+ (e4 − e3 )(x)21
=
2 2 1
7 21
= (4 − 1) + (e4 − e3 )(2 − 1) =
4
e4
+ e4 − e3 . (1)
gin
Z4 Z2 Z4 ! x=2
y x2 y
(xy + e )dxdy = y +e x dy
2 x=1
3 1 3
Z4
En
!
3 y
= y + e dy
2
3
!4
3 y2
arn
y
= +e
22 3
3 21
= (16 − 9) + e4 − e3 = + e4 − e3 . (2)
4 4
Le
From (1) and (2) we have the required result.
√
Z1 Z1+x2
dxdy
w.
Example 4.6. Evaluate .
1 + x2 + y2
0 0
Solution. Since the limits of the innermost integral are functions of x, the order
ww
of evaluation must be, first w.r.t. y and finally w.r.t. x.
√ √
Z1 Z1+x2 Z1 Z1+x2
dxdy dy
2 2
= 2 2 dx
1+x +y 1 + x + y
0 0 0 0
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240 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z1 " # √1+x2
1 y
= √ tan−1 √ dx
1+x 2 1 + x2 0
0
Z1 Z1
1 π 1
= √ (tan−1 1)dx = √ dx
1+x 2 4 1 + x2
0 0
π p
1 π √
= log(x + 1 + x2 )0 = (log(1 + 2)).
.in
4 4
√2 2
Za Za −y q
ng
Example 4.7. Evaluate a2 − x2 − y2 dxdy.
0 0
Solution. Since the limits of the innermost integral are functions of x, the order
eri
of evaluation must be first w.r.t. x and finally w.r.t. y.
√ √
2 2 2 2
Za Za −y q Za Za −y q
a2 − x2 − y2 dxdy =
e (a2 − y2 ) − x2 dxdy
gin
0 0 0 0
Za q x= √a2 −y2
x a2 − y2 x
= a2 − y2 − x2 + sin−1 p dy
2 2 a2 − y2 x=0
En
0
Za
a2 − y2 −1
= sin (1)dy
2
arn
0
Za
π
= (a2 − y2 )dy
4
0
Le
!a
π 2 y3
= a y−
4 3 0
π 3 a3 π 2a3 πa3
!
w.
= a − = = .
4 3 4 3 6
√
Za Za2 +x2
ww
dxdy
Example 4.8. Evaluate .
x2 + y2 + a2
0 0
Solution. Since the limits of the innermost integral are functions of x, the order
of integration must be first w.r.t. y and finally w.r.t. x.
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Multiple Integrals 241
√ √
Za Za2 +x2 Za Za2 +x2
dxdy dy
∴ = dx.
x2 + y2 + a2 x2 + y2 + a2
0 0 x=0y=0
√
Za Za2 +x2
dy
.in
= √ 2 dx.
x=0 y=0 x2 + a2 + y2
Za ! √a2 +x2
1 y
ng
= √ tan−1 √ dx.
x2 + a2 x2 + a2 0
x=0
Za
1
eri
= √ (tan−1 1 − tan−1 0)dx
x2 + a2
x=0
Za Za
π π 1 1
= √
2
x +a 2 4
dx = ·
4
√
x + a2
2
dx
e
gin
x=0 x=0
π p a
= log x + x2 + a2
4 0
π p
= log a + 2a2 − log a
En
4
πh √ i
= log a + 2a − log a
4 √
a 1+ 2 √
arn
π π
= log = log 1 + 2 .
4 a 4
"
Example 4.9. Evaluate xydxdy over the positive quadrant of the circle
Le
R
x2 + y2 = a2 . [Jan 2014, Jun 1996]
Solution. The region of integration is bounded by the coordinate axes y = 0, x = 0
w.
and the circle x2 + y2 = a2 . Y
Since the innermost integration is w.r.t.
B(0, a)
x, divide the region into strips parallel
ww
P Q
to the x-axis. Along a typical strip, the
q is constant but x varies
y−coordinate x=0
from 0 to a2 − y2 . Finally y varies from X
(0, 0) y=0 (a, 0)
0 to a.
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242 Engineering Mathematics - I
√2 2 √
" Za Za −y Za " 2 # a2 −y2
x
∴ xydxdy = xydxdy = y dy
2 0
R y=0 x=0 y=0
Za #a
1 2 y2 y4 1 a4 a4 a4 a4
" " # " #
1 1
.in
2 2
= y(a − y )dy = a − = − = 1− = .
2 2 2 4 0 2 2 4 4 2 8
y=0
ng
Example 4.10. Evaluate xydxdy over the region in the positive quadrant
x y
bounded by + = 1.
a b
eri
Solution. The region of integration is bounded by the coordinate axes y = 0, x = 0
x y
and the line + = 1.
a b
Y
Since the innermost integration (0, b)
e B
gin
is w.r.t. x, divide the region into strips x y
x=0 a + b =1
parallel to the x-axis. Along a typical P Q
strip PQ, x varies from 0 to a 1 − by . y
En
(0, 0) y=0
X
A
varies from 0 to b. a(1− y ) (a, 0)
" Zb Z b
∴ xydxdy = xydxdy
arn
R y=0 x=0
Zb !a(1− by )
x2
= y· dy
2
Le
0
y=0
Zb " #
1 y 2
= y a2 1 − − 0 dy
2 b
w.
y=0
Zb
a2 y2 2y
!
= y 1+ 2 − dy
ww
2 b b
y=0
Zb
a2 y3 2y2
!
= y+ 2 − dy
2 b b
y=0
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Multiple Integrals 243
#b
a2 y2 y4 2y3
"
= + −
2 2 4b2 3b 0
2
" 2 4 2b3
#
a b b
= + 2−
2 2 4b 3b
2
" 2 2 2b2
#
a b b
= + −
2 2 4 3
.in
2
a 6b + 3b − 8b2
" 2 2
#
=
2 12
2 2 a b2
2
ng
a b
= =
2 12 24
"
Example 4.11. Evaluate xydxdy where R is the region bounded by the
eri
R
parabola y2 = x, the x−axis and the line x + y = 2 lying on the first quadrant.
Solution. Solving y2 = x and x + y = 2 we get the points of intersection.
e
y2 + y − 2 = 0 ⇒ (y + 2)(y − 1) = 0 ⇒ y = 1, −2. When y = 1, x = 1.
gin
Y
Divide the region into strips parallel to
En
the x−axis . Along a typical strip, x (0, 2)
y2 = x
varies from y2 to 2−y and finally y varies (1, 1)
from 0 to 1.
arn
P Q
(2, 1)
X
x=2−y
" Z1 Z2−y Z1 !2−y
x2
Le
xydxdy = xydxdy = y dy
2 y2
R y=0 x=y2 y=0
Z1 Z1
w.
y 1
= (2 − y)2 − y4 dy = y 4 + y2 − 4y − y4 dy
2 2
y=0 y=0
ww
Z1 !1
1
3 2 5
1 y2 y4 y3 y6
= 4y + y − 4y − y dy = 4 + −4 −
2 2 2 4 3 6 0
0
! " #
1 4 1 4 1 1 24 + 3 − 16 − 2 1 9 3
= + − − = = × = .
2 2 4 3 6 2 12 2 12 8
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244 Engineering Mathematics - I
"
Example 4.12. Evaluate xydxdy where A is the region bounded by x = 2a and
A
the curve x2 = 4ay. [Jan 2006]
Solution.
.in
Let us evaluate this double integral first
w.r.t. y and then w.r.t. x. Divide the
region into strips parallel to the y−axis.
ng
PQ is one such strip. x2 = 4ay Q x = 2a
x2
Along this strip, y varies form 0 to
eri
4a
and finally x varies from 0 to 2a. X
P
" Z2a Z4a
x2
e
gin
xydxdy = xydydx
A x=0 y=0
x2
Z2a " 2 # 4a
En
y
= x dx
2 0
x=0
Z2a Z2a 5
x4
!
arn
x
= x 2
dx = dx
32a 32a2
x=0 x=0
#2a
x6 a4
"
1 1 6
= = (64a − 0) = .
Le
32a2 6 0 32a2 × 6 3
"
Example 4.13. Evaluate xy(x + y)dxdy over the area between y = x2 and y = x.
w.
R
Solution. Solving the two equations we get the points of intersection.
y = x2 , y = x.
ww
=⇒ x2 = x =⇒ x2 − x = 0 =⇒ x(x − 1) = 0 =⇒ x = 0 & x = 1.
When x = 0, y = 0, when x = 1, y = 1.
∴ The points of intersection are (0, 0) and (1, 1).
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Multiple Integrals 245
Y
Let us evaluate this double
integral, first w.r.t. y and then w.r.t. x.
y=x (1, 1)
Divide this region into strips parallel to
Q
y = x2
the y−axis. PQ is one such strip. Along
P
.in
this strip, y varies from x2 to x and x X
(0, 0)
varies from 0 to 1.
" Z1 Zx
ng
xy(x + y)dxdy = (x2 y + xy2 )dydx
R x=0 y=x2
Z1 !x !x !
eri
y3 2 y2
= x +x dx
3 x2 2 x2
x=0
Z1
=
x 3 6 x2 2
e4
!
(x − x ) + (x − x ) dx
gin
3 2
0
Z1
x4 x6 x4 x7
!
= − + − dx.
2 2 3 3
En
0
!1
x5 x7 x5 x8 1 1 1 1 3
= − + − = − + − = .
10 14 15 24 0 10 14 15 24 56
arn
"
Example 4.14. Evaluate ydxdy over the region R bounded by y = x and
R
y = 4x − x2 .
Le
Solution. The equation of the parabola is
y = −(x2 − 4x) = −((x − 2)2 − 4) = −(x − 2)2 + 4
w.
⇒ y − 4 = −(x − 2)2
vertex is (2, 4) and it is open downwards.
ww
Solving the two equations we get
x = 4x − x2 ⇒ x2 + x − 4x = 0 ⇒ x2 − 3x = 0 ⇒ x(x − 3) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = 3.
When x = 0, y = 0.
When x = 3, y = 12 − 9 = 3.
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246 Engineering Mathematics - I
The points of intersection are (0, 0), (3, 3).
Y
Let us evaluate the double integral first
(2, 4)
w.r.t. y and then w.r.t. x. Divide the Q
(3, 3)
region into strips parallel to the y−axis.
y = 4x − x2
.in
y=x
PQ is one such strip. Along this strip, y
P
varies from x to 4x − x2 . Finally x varies X
(0, 0)
from 0 to 3.
ng
" Z 2
Zx=3 4x−x Z3 2 !4x−x2
y
ydxdy = ydydx = dx
eri
2 x
R x=0 y=x x=0
Z3 Z3
1
2 2 1 2
16x2 + x4 − 8x3 − x2 dx
=
2
(4x − x ) − x dx =
2
e
gin
x=0 0
!3
x3 x5 x4
35
# "
1 1 3 4
= 15 + −8 = 5×3 + −2×3
2 3 5 4 0 2 5
! !
1 9 27 25 + 9 − 30 27 4 54
En
= 27 5 + − 6 = = = .
2 5 2 5 2 5 5
4.2 Change of order of integration
arn
Za2 y=g
Z 2 (x)
Consider the integral f (x, y)dydx.
Le
x=a1 y=g1 (x)
To evaluate this integral, since the innermost integral has functions of x as
w.
limits, first we integrate w.r.t. y and then we integrate w.r.t x. Sometimes, it is
very difficult to evaluate in this order. By changing the order of integration we
ww
can easily evaluate. In this example the original order of integration is first w.r.t.
y and then w.r.t. x. By the change of order of integration we need to integrate
first w.r.t. x and then w.r.t. y. For this, divide the region into strips parallel to the
x-axis. Consider one such strip. The limits for x will be functions of y which are the
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Multiple Integrals 247
values of x corresponding to the curves in which the ends of the strip lies. Finally
the values of y will be constants according to the movement of this strip along the
given region. If the first integration is with respect to y then divide the region into
strips parallel to the y−axis and then find the corresponding limits for y and x and
then evaluate.
.in
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
√
ng
2
Z1 Z x
Example 4.15. Change the order of integration in f (x, y)dydx. [Jan 2014]
0 0 √
eri
Solution. The region of integration is given by y = 0, y = 2 x, x = 0, x = 1.
i.e., y = 0, y2 = 4x, x = 0, x = 1.
e
gin
Y
By changing the order of
(1, 2)
integration, the first integration is w.r.t. 4 x
y =
2
x=0
x. Hence, divide the region into strips
En
P Q
x=1
parallel to the x−axis. PQ is one such
y2 y=0 X
strip. Along this strip, x varies from
4
arn
to 1. Finally y varies from 0 to 2.
√
2
Z1 Z x Z2 Z1
∴ f (x, y)dydx = f (x, y)dxdy.
Le
0 0 y=0 2
x= y4
Za Za
w.
x
Example 4.16. Change the order of integration in dxdy and hence
x2 + y2
0 y
ww
evaluate. [Jan 2014, Jun 2013, Jun 2011]
Solution. The region of integration is given by x = y, x = a, y = 0, y = a.
i.e., the region of integration is bounded by the lines x = 0, x = a, y = 0, y = x
By changing the order of integration, the first integration is w.r.t y. The double
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248 Engineering Mathematics - I
integral takes the form
Za Za "
x x
dxdy = dydx.
x + y2
2 x2 + y2
0 y R
Divide the shaded region into strips parallel to the y-axis. PQ is one such strip.
.in
Along this strip, y varies from 0 to x and finally x varies from 0 to a.
ng
Y
y=a
Za Za Za Zx (a, a)
x x
eri
∴ dxdy = dydx Q
x + y2
2 x + y2
2
0 y x=0 y=0
x=0 x=a
y
Za
=
!x
x
1 −1 y
= x
x
tan
x 0
dx
e X
gin
x=0 (0, 0) P (a, 0)
Za
π π πa
= dx = (x)a0 = .
4 4 4
x=0
En
Z∞ Z∞
e−y
Example 4.17. Evaluate dydx by changing the order of integration.
y
0 x
arn
[May 2011, Jan 1999]
Solution. The region of integration is y = x, y = ∞, x = 0, x = ∞.
Here, the first integration is w.r.t y and then we integrate w.r.t x.
Le
Y
By changing the order of integration,
w.
the innermost integration must be
w.r.t.x.
ww
x=0
So, we divide the region of integration
y=x
into strips parallel to the x−axis.
X
Along a typical strip, x varies from 0 to (0, 0) y=0
y and finally y varies from 0 to ∞.
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Multiple Integrals 249
Z∞ Zy −y
y
Z∞ Z∞ Z∞ −y
e−y e Z
e
dydx = dx dy = dx dy
∴
y y y
0 x y=0 x=0 y=0 0
Z∞ −y Z∞ !∞
e y e−y
= (x)0 dy = −y
e dy = = −[e−∞ − e0 ] = −[0 − 1] = 1
y −1 0
.in
x=0 0
√
Z3 Z4−y
Example 4.18. Evaluate (x + y)dxdy by changing the order of integration.
ng
0 1
[Jan 2003]
p
eri
Solution. The region of integration is bounded between x = 1, x = 4 − y and
y = 0, y = 3. i.e.,x = 1, x2 = 4 − y and y = 0, y = 3.
x = 1, x2 = −(y − 4) and y = 0, y = 3.
e
gin
The region is bounded between x = 1
Y
and the parabola x2 = −(y−4) with vertex
(0, 4)
En
(0, 4) and y = 0 and y = 3. By changing
the order of integration the innermost y=3 (1, 3)
integration is w.r.t.y. Hence, divide this
arn
x=1 x2 = 4−y
region into strips parallel to the y−axis.
X
Along a typical strip y varies from 0 to (0, 0) (1, 0) (2, 0)
y=0
4 − x2 and finally x varies from 1 to 2.
Le
√
Z3 Z4−y 4−x2
Z2 Z Z2 !4−x2
y2
(x + y)dxdy = (x + y)dydx = xy + dx
w.
2 0
0 1 x=1 y=0 x=1
Z2
(4 − x2 )2
!
2
ww
= x(4 − x ) + dx
2
x=1
Z2
16 + x4 − 8x2
!
3
= 4x − x + dx
2
1
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250 Engineering Mathematics - I
!2
x2 x4 1 x5 x3
= 4 − + 8x + −4
2 4 2 5 3 1
1 1 4
= 2(4 − 1) − (16 − 1) + 8(2 − 1) + (32 − 1) − (8 − 1)
4 10 3
15 31 28 840 − 225 + 186 − 560 241
=6− +8+ − = = .
.in
4 10 3 60 60
√
b a2 −x2
Za Za
Example 4.19. Change the order of integration in x2 dydx and hence
ng
0 0
evaluate it. [Jan 2012]
√
b a2 −x2
eri
Solution. The region of integration is given by y = 0, y = a , x = 0, x = a.
b2
i.e., y = 0, y2 = 2 (a2 − x2 )
a
y2 x2
b2
= 1 −
a2 e
gin
x2 y2
+ = 1.
a2 b2
After changing the order of integration,
Y
En
the first integration is w.r.t. x and finally
x=0
w.r.t. y. Divide the region into strips (0, b)
Q x=a
parallel to the x− axis. PQ is one such P
arn
y=0
X
strip.
q Along this strip x varies from 0 to
2
a 1 − by2 . Finally y varies from 0 to b.
r
Le
√ 2
b a2 −x2 a 1− y2
Za Za Zb Z b
∴ x2 dydx = x2 dxdy y = b sin θ
w.
0 0 y=0 x=0
r dy = b cos θdθ
2
Zb 3 a
! 1− y2
x b when y = 0, b sin θ = 0
= dy
ww
3 0
y=0 ⇒θ=0
Zb when y = b, b sin θ = b
1 a3 2
= (b − y2 )3/2 dy π
3 b3 ⇒ sin θ = 1 ∴ θ =
0 2
Zb
a3
= 3 (b2 − y2 )3/2 dy
3b
0
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Multiple Integrals 251
π
Z2
a3
= 3 (b2 − b2 sin2 θ)3/2 b cos θdθ
3b
0
π
Z2
a3
= 3 b3 (1 − sin2 θ)3/2 b cos θdθ
.in
3b
0
π
Z2
a3 b
ng
= (cos2 θ)3/2 cos θdθ
3
0
π
Z2
eri
a3 b
= cos3 θ · cos θdθ
3
0
π
=
a3 b
Z2
cos4 θdθ e
gin
3
0
a3 b 3 1 π πa3 b
= · · · = .
3 4 2 2 16
√
En
Za a+ Z a2 −y2
Example 4.20. Change the order of integration in xydxdy and then
0 a−
√
arn
a2 −y2
evaluate it. [Jan 2000]
Solution. The region
q of integration
q is between
x = a − a2 − y2 , x = a + a2 − y2 , y = 0, y = a.
Le
i.e.,(x − a)2 = a2 − y2 , (x − a)2 = a2 − y2 , y = 0, y = a.
(x − a)2 + y2 = a2 , (x − a)2 + y2 = a2 , y = 0, y = a.
w.
∴ The region of integration is the circle Y
y=a
ww
with (a, 0) as centre and radius a and
between y = 0 and y = a.
y=0 X
When we change the order of (a, 0)
integration, the inner most integration
must be w.r.t y.
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252 Engineering Mathematics - I
Hence, divide the region into strips parallel to y−axis. Along a typical strip, y
p
varies from 0 to a2 − (x − a)2 and finally x varies from 0 to 2a.
√2 2 √
2 2
Za a+ Z a −y Z2a aZ−(x−a)
xydxdy = xydydx
0
√ 2 2 x=0 y=0
a− a −y
√
.in
Z2a a2 −(x−a)2
y2
!
= x dx
2 0
x=0
ng
Z2a Z2a
1 2 1 2
= x(a − (x − a) )dx = (a2 x − x(x2 − 2ax + a2 ))dx
2 2
eri
0 0
Z2a !2a !2a
1 2 3 2 2 1 x3 x4
= (a x − x + 2ax − a x)dx = 2a −
2 2 3 0 4 0
0
1 2a 3 16a4
" #
a4 16
" #
e
1 4 2a4
gin
= 8a − = − 4 = a4 = .
2 3 4 2 3 2 3 3
Example 4.21. Change the order of integration and hence evaluate
En
Za Za
y2
p dydx.
√ y4 − a2 x2
0 ax
√
arn
Solution. The region of integration is given by y = ax, y = a, x = 0 and x = a.
i.e., y2 = ax, y = a, x = 0 and x = a. By changing the order of integration, the first
integration is w.r.t. x.
Le
Y
Hence, we divide the region into strips
y=a
w.
parallel to the x-axis. Along a typical
y2 x=0 y=0
strip x varies from 0 to and finally y y2 = ax
a
X
ww
varies from 0 to a.
y2
Za Za Za Za
y2 y2
p dydx = p dxdy
√ y4 − a2 x2 y4 − a2 x2
0 ax y=0 x=0
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Multiple Integrals 253
y2
Za Za
1 y2
= r dxdy
a y2 2
y=0 x=0
a − x2
Za ya2
1 2 −1 x
= y sin 2 dy
.in
a y
y=0 a x=0
Za
1
= y2 (sin−1 1)dy
ng
a
0
!a
π y3
=
eri
2a 3 0
π a3πa2
= = .
2a 3 6
e
Note. While changing the order of integration, we may come across situations
gin
where the region has to be divided into several parts and evaluation has to be
done accordingly. The following examples illustrate this aspect.
Z1 Z2−y
En
Example 4.22. Change the order of integration and hence evaluate xydxdy.
0 0
[Dec 2011]
arn
Solution. The region of integration is given by x = 0, x = 2 − y, y = 0, y = 1.
x+y=2
Le
Y
The region of integration is
OACE. After changing the order of B(0, 2)
w.
x+y=2
integration, the first integration is w.r.t.
y and final integration is w.r.t. x. E Q C(1, 1)
y=1
ww
Q′
Divide the region into two regions x=0 x=1
A(2, 0)
ODCE and DAC. X
O(0, 0) P D(1, 0) P′
Z1 Z2−y " " y=0
∴ xydxdy = xydydx+ xydydx.
0 0 ODCE DAC
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254 Engineering Mathematics - I
Consider the region ODCE
Divide the region into strips parallel to the y−axis. PQ is one such strip.
Along this strip, y varies from 0 to 1 and finally x varies from 0 to 1.
" Z1 Z1
∴ xydydx = xydydx.
ODCE x=0 y=0
.in
Z1 !1
y2
= x· dx
2 0
x=0
ng
Z1
1
= x(1 − 0)dx
2
0
eri
Z1
1
= xdx
2
1 x2
!1
0
e
gin
= ·
2 2 0
1
= (1 − 0)
4
En
1
= .
4
Consider the region DAC
Divide this region into strips parallel to y−axis. P′ Q′ is one such strip.
arn
Along this strip, y varies from 0 to 2 − x and finally x varies from 1 to 2.
" Z2 Z2−x
∴ xydydx = xydydx.
Le
DAC x=1 y=0
Z2 !2−x
y2
= x· dx.
w.
2 0
x=1
Z2
1
x(2 − x)2 dx.
ww
=
2
1
Z2
1
= x(4 + x2 − 4x)dx.
2
0
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Multiple Integrals 255
Z2
1
= (4x + x3 − 4x2 )dx.
2
0
!2 !2 !2
1 x2 x4 x3
= 4 · + −4·
2 2 1 4 1 3 1
!
1 1 4
.in
= 2[4 − 1] + [16 − 1] − (8 − 1)
2 4 3
!
1 15 28
= 6+ −
2 4 3
ng
!
1 72 + 45 − 112
=
2 12
eri
1 5
= (5) =
24 24
Z1 Z2−y
1 5 6 + 5 11
∴ xydxdy = +
4 24
=
24e = .
24
gin
0 0
Z1 Z2−y
Example 4.23. Change the order of integration in xydxdy and hence
En
0 y
evaluate. [Jan 2001]
Solution. The region of integration is x = y, x = 2 − y, y = 0, y = 1.
arn
i.e.,x = y, x + y = 2, y = 0, y = 1. Solving we get 2x = 2 ⇒ x = 1.
B is (1, 1), A is (2, 0).
Y
Le
The region of integration is OAB.
2
=
After the change of order of integration (0, 2)
y
x+
y
w.
the innermost integration is w.r.t.y and
x
B(1, 1)
the next integration is w.r.t.x. x=0
Q
Q′
ww
Divide this region into two regions OCB x=1
A(2, 0)
and CBA. X
O(0, 0) P C(1, 0) P′
Z1 Z2−y " " y=0
xydxdy = xydydx + xydydx.
0 y OCB CBA
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256 Engineering Mathematics - I
Consider the region OCB
Divide this region into strips parallel to the y−axis.
One such strip is PQ.
Along this strip y varies from 0 to x.
Finally x varies from 0 to 1.
.in
" Z1 Zx Z1 !x
y2
xydydx = xydydx = x dx
2 0
ng
OCB x=0 y=0 x=0
Z1 Z1
1 2 1
= x(x − 0)dx = x3 dx
2 2
eri
0 0
!1
1 x4
=
2 4 0
1
= . e
gin
8
Consider the region CBA
Divide this region into strips parallel to the y−axis.
En
One such strip is P′ Q′ . Along this strip y varies from 0 to 2 − x and finally x varies
from 1 to 2.
arn
" Z2 Z2−x Z2 !2−x
y2
xydydx = xydydx = x dx
2 0
CBA x=1 y=0 x=1
Le
Z2 Z2
1 1
= x(2 − x)2 dx = x(4 + x2 − 4x)dx
2 2
x=1 x=1
w.
Z2 !2 !2 !2
1 3 1 x2
2 x4 x3
= (4x + x − 4x )dx = 4 + −4
2 2 2 1 4 1 3 1
ww
x=1
" # " #
1 1 4 1 15 28
= 2(4 − 1) + (16 − 1) − (8 − 1) = 6+ −
2 4 3 2 4 3
! !
1 72 + 45 − 112 1 5 5
= = = .
2 12 2 12 24
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Multiple Integrals 257
Z1 Z2−y
1 5 3+5 8 1
∴ xydxdy = + = = = .
8 24 24 24 3
0 y
√a √
Z 2 Za2 −x2
Example 4.24. Evaluate y2 dydx by changing the order of integration.
.in
0 x
p a
Solution. The region of integration is bounded by y = x, y = a2 − x2 , x = 0, x = √ .
2
a
i.e.,y = x, x2 + y2 = a2 , x = 0, x = √ .
ng
2 Y
The required region is OAB. Draw AC B(0, a)
P′ Q′
eri
perpendicular to OB. C A √a , √a
2 2
Divide this region into two parts OAC P Q
X
and CAB. After changing the order of O x= √a
integration, the innermost integration e x=0
2
gin
must be w.r.t.x.
√a √
Z 2 Za2 −x2 " "
2 2
y2 dxdy.
En
∴ y dydx = y dxdy+
0 x OAC CAB
Consider the region OAC
arn
Divide this region into strips parallel to the x−axis.
Let PQ be one such strip.
a
Le
Along this strip x varies from 0 to y and finally y varies from 0 to √ .
√a √a 2
" Z 2 Zy Z2
y
y2 dxdy = y2 dxdy = y2 (x)0 dy
w.
OAC y=0 0 y=0
√a
2 ! √a
y4 1 a4 a4
Z
2
ww
3
= y dy = = = .
4 0 4 4 16
0
Consider the region CAB
Divide this region into strips parallel to the x−axis.
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258 Engineering Mathematics - I
p
One such strip is P′ Q′ . Along this strip x varies from 0 to a2 − y2 and finally y
varies from √a to a.
2
√
"
2 2
Za Za −y Za √2 2
a −y
y2 dxdy = 2
y dxdy = 2
y (x)0 dy
CAB y= √a x=0 y= √a
2 2
.in
Za q
= y2 a2 − y2 dy
√a
ng
2
" #
a 1 π
y = a sin θ, dy = a cos θdθ, when y = √ ⇒ sin θ = √ , θ =
2 2 4
eri
π
When y = a ⇒ a = a sin θ ⇒ sin θ = 1 ⇒ θ =
2
π π
Z2 Z2
= a2 sin2 θa cos θa cos θdθ =
e
a4 sin2 θ cos2 θdθ
gin
π π
4 4
π π
2 2
a4 a4
Z Z
2 2
= 4 sin θ cos θdθ = (2 sin θ cos θ)2 dθ
4 4
En
π π
4 4
π π
Z2 Z2
a4 a4 1 − cos 4θ
= (sin2 2θ)dθ = dθ
4 4 2
arn
π π
4 4
π π
4
Z2 Z2
a
= dθ − cos 4θdθ
8
Le
π π
4 4
!π
a4 π2 sin 4θ 2
= (θ) π −
8 4 4 π
w.
a4 π π 1
!
= − − (sin 2π − sin π)
8 2 4 4
ww
a4 π πa4
= = .
8 4 32
a4 πa4 a4
∴ Value of the integral= + = [π + 2].
16 32 32
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Multiple Integrals 259
√
Z1 Z2−x2
x
Example 4.25. Evaluate p dydx by changing the order of
x2 + y2
0 x
integration.
p
Solution. The region of integration is y = x, y = 2 − x2 , x = 0, x = 1.
i.e., y = x, x2 + y2 = 2, x = 0, x = 1. Y
.in x
After changing the order of √
y=
B(0, 2)
P′ Q′
integration the inner most integration C A(1, 1)
ng
is w.r.t.x and the next integration is P Q
y=0
X
w.r.t. y. The given region is OAB. Draw O x=1
x=0
eri
AC perpendicular to OB.
Divide this region into two parts OAC
and CAB.
√
Z1 Z2−x2 " e "
gin
x x x
∴ p dydx = p dxdy+ p dxdy
x2 + y2 x2 + y2 x2 + y2
0 x OAC CAB
En
Consider the region OAC
Divide this region into strips parallel to the x−axis.
Let PQ be one such strip. Along this strip x varies from 0 to y and finally y varies
arn
from 0 to 1.
" Z1 Zy Z1 Zy
x x 1 2x
dxdy = dxdy = dxdy
Le
p p p
x2 + y2 2
x +y2 2 x2 + y2
OAC y=0 x=0 y=0 x=0
Z1 Zy Z1 2 1 y
1 2 2 − 21 2 2 1 (x + y2 ) 2
= (x + y ) d(x + y )dy = dy
w.
1
2 2 2
y=0 0 y=0 0
Z1 Z1 √
ww
2 21
= (2y ) − y dy = ( 2y − y)dy
y=0 y=0
√
√ y2 1
!1
y2 2 1 1 √
!
= 2 − = − = ( 2 − 1).
2 0 2 0 2 2 2
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260 Engineering Mathematics - I
Consider the region CAB
Divide this region into strips parallel to the x−axis.
p
One such strip is P′ Q′ . Along this strip x varies from 0 to 2 − y2 and finally y
√
varies from 1 to 2.
√ √ √ √ 2
"
2
Z 2 Z2−y Z 2 2 2−y
.in
1
x x 1 2
(x + y )
2
p dxdy = p dxdy = 1
dy
x2 + y2 x2 + y2 2 2
CAB y=1 x=0 y=1 0
√
ng
√
Z2 √ 2
y2
!
1
= (2 − y)dy =
2 2y −
2 1
y=1
eri
√ √ 1 √ √ 1
2( 2 − 1) − (2 − 1) = 2( 2 − 1) −
=
√ 2 2
2−1 √ √ 1
Value of the integral =
√ 2
+ 2( 2 − 1) −
√ √ 2
e
gin
2 − 1 + 2 2( 2 − 1) − 1
=
√ 2 √ √
2−1+4−2 2−1 2− 2
= = .
2 2
En
Za 2a−x
Z
Example 4.26. Change the order of integration in the integral xydydx and
arn
0 x2
a
evaluate it. [Jan 2013]
x2
Solution. The region of integration is given by y = , y = 2a − x, x = 0, x = a.
a
x2 = ay, x + y = 2a, x = 0, x = a.
Le
Y
After changing the order of
w.
B(0, 2a) x2 = ay
integration, the first integration is w.r.t.
Q′
P′
y and the final integration is w.r.t. x.
ww
C A(a, a) 2a
y=
OAB is the required region. Divide this P Q x+
X
region into OAC and CAB. y=0 O x=a
x=0
Za 2a−x
Z " "
∴ xydydx = xydxdy+ xydxdy.
0 x2 OAC CAB
a
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Multiple Integrals 261
Consider the region OAC
Divide this region into strips parallel to the x−axis. PQ is one such strip.
√
Along this strip, x varies from 0 to ay and finally y varies from 0 to a.
√
" Za Z ay
∴ xydxdy = xydxdy
OAC y=0 x=0
.in
Za ! √ay
x2
= y dy
2 0
y=0
ng
Za
1
= y · (ay − 0)dy
2
0
eri
Za !a
a 2 a y3 a 3 a4
= y dy = = ·a = .
2 2 3 0 6 6
0
Consider the region CAB
e
gin
Divide this region into strips parallel to the x−axis. P′ Q′ is one such strip.
" 2a−y
Z2a Z
En
∴ xydxdy = xydxdy
CAB y=a x=0
Z2a
arn
!2a−y
x2
= y dy
2 0
y=a
Z2a
1
Le
= y(2a − y)2 dy
2
a
Z2a
1
w.
= y(4a2 + y2 − 4ay)dy
2
a
Z2a
ww
1
= (4a2 y + y3 − 4ay2 )dy
2
a
!2a !2a !2a
1 2 y2 y4 y3
= 4a + − 4a ·
2 2 a 4 a 3 a
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262 Engineering Mathematics - I
!
1 2 2 2 1 4 4 4a 3 3
= 2a (4a − a ) + [16a − a ] − [8a − a ]
2 4 3
4 4
!
1 15a 28a
= 6a4 + −
2 4 3
1 72a + 45a − 112a4
4 4 a4 5a4
!
= = [72 + 45 − 112] = .
2 12 24 24
Za 2a−x
.in
a4 5a4 4a4 + 5a4 9a4 3a4
Z
∴ xydydx = + = = = .
6 24 24 24 8
0 x2
a
ng
Z1 Z2−x
Example 4.27. Change the order of integration in the integral xydydx and
eri
0 x2
evaluate it.
Solution. In the above Example, put a = 1.
Z1 Z2−x
3 e
gin
∴ xydydx = .
8
0 x2
4.3 Double integral in polar coordinates
En
Usually the double integral in polar coordinates (r, θ) is of the form
arn
Zθ2 Zf2 (θ)
f (r, θ)drdθ.
θ=θ1 r= f1 (θ)
Le
Result. Reduction
π
formula
π
Z2 Z2
w.
cosn θdθ = sinn θdθ
0 0
n−1n−3 2
· · · 1 if n is odd
ww
=
n n−2 3
n−1n−3 1π
= ··· if n is even.
n n−2 22
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
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Multiple Integrals 263
Zπ Za
Example 4.28. Evaluate rdrdθ. [Jan 2014]
0 0
Zπ Za Zπ !a Zπ
r2 a2 a2 π πa2
Solution. rdrdθ = dθ = dθ = [θ] = .
2 0 2 2 0 2
0 0 0 0
.in
Zπ Z
sin θ
Example 4.29. Evaluate rdrdθ. [Jan 2014]
0 0
ng
Zπ Z
sin θ Zπ 2 !sin θ
r
Solution. rdrdθ = dθ
eri
2 0
0 0 0
Zπ
1 11π π
= sin2 θdθ = = .
2
0
e222 8
gin
Zπ Z
cos θ
Example 4.30. Evaluate rdrdθ.
0 0
En
Zπ Z
cos θ Zπ 2 !cos θ
r
Solution. rdrdθ = dθ
2 0
arn
0 0 0
Zπ
1
= cos2 θdθ
2
0
Le
π
Z2
1 1π π
= 2 cos2 θ = = .
2 22 4
0
w.
Z2 Zπ
Example 4.31. Evaluate r sin2 θdrdθ. [Jan 2013]
ww
0 0
Z2 Zπ
r sin2 θdθ dr
Solution. I =
0 0
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264 Engineering Mathematics - I
π
Z2 Z2
2
= r 2 sin θdθ dr
0 0
Z2 !2
1 π π r2 π
=2 r· · dr = · = · 4 = 4.
2 2 2 2 0 4
0
.in
π
Z2 2Zcos θ
Example 4.32. Evaluate r2 drdθ.
−π
ng
2
0
π π π
Z2 !2 cos θ Z2 Z2
r3 1 8 16 2 32
8 cos3 θdθ = 2 cos3 θdθ =
eri
Solution. I = dθ = = .
3 0 3 3 3 3 9
−π −π 0
2 2
Z2 aZcos θ p
r a2 − r2 drdθ.
π
e
gin
Example 4.33. Evaluate
0 0
π π
Z2 aZcos θ p Z2 aZcos θ
−1
En
1
Solution. 2 2
r a − r drdθ = (a2 − r2 ) 2 (−2rdr)dθ
2
0 0 0 0
π
Z 2 2 3 a cos θ
−1 (a − r2 ) 2
arn
= 3
dθ
2 2
0 0
π
Z 2
−1 2 2 2 2 3
2 3
Le
= (a − a cos θ) − (a ) 2 2 dθ
2 3
0
π
Z 2
−1
w.
= (a3 sin3 θ − a3 )dθ
3
0
π π
ww
Z2 Z2
−1 3
sin3 θdθ − a3 dθ
= a
3
0 0
−a3 2 −a3 2 π
! !
π
= 1− = −
3 3 2 3 3 2
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Multiple Integrals 265
a3 π 2 a3 3π − 4 a3
! !
= − = = (3π − 4).
3 2 3 3 6 18
"
Example 4.34. Evaluate r3 drdθ where A is the area between the circles
A
r = 2 sin θ and r = 4 sin θ. [Jan 2006]
.in
Solution. The region of integration is the shaded portion.
ng
The first integration is w.r.t. r.
Q
Consider the radius vector PQ. In the
eri
region r varies from 2 sin θ to 4 sin θ. θ x = 4 sin θ
P
varies from 0 to π. 4 x = 2 sin θ
2
" Zπ 4Zsin θ Zπ !4 sin θ θ
3
r drdθ = 3
r drdθ =
r4
e dθ O
r
gin
4 2 sin θ
A θ=0 r=2 sin θ θ=0
Zπ
1
= (44 sin4 θ − 24 sin4 θ)dθ
4
En
θ=0
Zπ
1
= (256 sin4 θ − 16 sin4 θ)dθ
4
arn
θ=0
Zπ Zπ
1 4
= 240 sin θdθ = 60 sin4 θdθ
4
θ=0 θ=0
Le
π
Z 2
= 60 × 2 sin4 θdθ
θ=0
w.
3 1 π 45π
= 120 = .
422 2
"
ww
Example 4.35. Evaluate r3 drdθ over the area bounded between the circles
R
r = 2 cos θ and r = 4 cos θ.
Solution.
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266 Engineering Mathematics - I
θ
We first integrate w.r.t. r. Consider the π
θ= 2 P
radial strip OP. Along the strip r varies
−π
from 2 cos θ to 4 cos θ. θ varies from to
2
π r
. O
2
.in
π π
" Z2 4Zcos θ Z2 4 !4 cos θ
3 3 r
r drdθ = r drdθ = dθ
4 2 cos θ θ = − π2
ng
R −π 2 cos θ −π
2 2
π π
Z2 Z2
1 1
= (44 cos4 θ − 24 cos4 θ)dθ = (256 cos4 θ − 16 cos4 θ)dθ
eri
4 4
−π −π
2 2
π π
Z 2 Z2
1 3 1 π 45π
=
4
240 cos4 θdθ = 60(2)
e cos4 θdθ = 120
422
=
2
.
gin
−π 0
2
4.4 Change of Variables in double integral
En
The evaluation of the double integral can be made easy in several
occasions by changing the variables.
arn
Case"(i) Change of variables from (x, y) to u and v.
Let f (x, y)dxdy be the given double integral.
R
Le
Let x = g(u, v) and y = h(u, v). By this transformation the elementary area dxdy is
∂(x, y)
transformed to dxdy = |J|dudv where J = is the Jacobian of the
∂(u, v)
transformation.
w.
" "
f (x, y)dxdy = F(u, v)|J|dudv.
R R
ww
Case (ii) Change of variables from Cartesian to polar coordinates.
Let x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ.
∂(x, y)
Then dxdy = |J|drdθ, where J = .
∂(u, v)
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Multiple Integrals 267
∂x ∂x cos θ −r sin θ
∂r ∂θ = r cos2 θ + r sin2 θ = r.
Now, J = ∂y ∂y
=
sin θ r cos θ
∂r ∂θ
∴ dxdy = rdrdθ. " "
f (x, y)dxdy = F(r, θ)rdrdθ.
R R
✎ ☞
.in
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Example
√
4.36. By changing into polar coordinates, evaluate the integral
Z 2
ng
Z2a 2ax−x
(x2 + y2 )dydx. [Jan 1999]
0 0
eri
p
Solution. The limits for y are y = 0, y = 2ax − x2 ⇒ y2 = 2ax − x2
x2 + y2 − 2ax = 0 ⇒ (x − a)2 − a2 + y2 = 0 ⇒ (x − a)2 + y2 = a2 .
e
gin
The limits for x are x = 0, 2a.
The region of integration is the upper Y
En
semi circle, with centre (a, 0) and radius
a. In polar coordinates r = 2a cos θ
arn
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, dxdy = rdrdθ. x= 0 x = 2a
2 2 2
x + y − 2ax = 0 ⇒ r − 2ar cos θ = 0
O (a, 0) y=0
X
⇒ r(r − 2a cos θ) = 0 ⇒ r = 0, r = 2a cos θ.
Le
The limits for r are r = 0, 2a cos θ.
π
θ varies from 0 to .
w.
2
π π
Z2 2aZcos θ Z2 4 !2a cos θ
2 r
∴I= r rdrdθ = dθ
ww
4 0
θ=0 0 0
π
2
3 1 π 3πa4
Z
1
= 24 a4 cos4 θdθ = 4a4 = .
4 422 4
0
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268 Engineering Mathematics - I
√
Z2 Z2x−x2
Example 4.37. Transform the integral (x2 + y2 )dydx into polar coordinates
0 0
and hence evaluate it. [May 2011]
Solution. In the previous problem, put a = 1.
.in
√
Z2 Z2x−x2
x
Example 4.38. Evaluate p dydx by changing into polar
x2 + y2
ng
0 0
coordinates. √
[Jan 2001]
Z2 Z2x−x2
x
Solution. Let I = dydx.
eri
p
x2 + y2
0 0 p
The limits for y are y = 0, y = 2x − x2 ⇒ y2 = 2x − x2 . x varies from 0 to 2.
x2 + y2 − 2x = 0 ⇒ (x − 1)2 − 1 + y2 = 0
e
gin
⇒ (x − 1)2 + y2 = 1.
1
En
Y
=
It is a circle with centre (1, 0) and radius 2
+y
1) 2
θ
= 1. The region of integration is the os
−
2c
(x
r=
upper semi circle. To change into polar
arn
coordinates we have x= 0 x=2
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and dxdy = rdrdθ. X
O (1, 0) (2, 0)
Le
y=0
2 2
Now, x + y − 2x = 0
w.
r2 − 2r cos θ = 0 ⇒ r(r − 2 cos θ) = 0
ww
r = 0, r = 2 cos θ.
∴ Limits for r are r = 0, 2 cos θ.
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Multiple Integrals 269
π
θ varies from 0 to .
2
π π
Z2 2Zcos θ Z2 !2 cos θ
r cos θ r2
I= √ rdrdθ = cos θ dθ
r2 2 0
0 0 0
π π
2 Z2
.in
Z
1
= cos θ4 cos2 θdθ = 2 cos3 θdθ
2
0 0
2 4
ng
= 2 .1 = .
3 3
Za Za
x2
eri
Example 4.39. Evaluate p dxdy by changing to polar coordinates.
x2 + y2
0 y
Solution. The limits for x are x = y, x = a. Limits for y are y = 0, y = a.
The shaded portion is the region of integration.
e
gin
Changing into polar coordinates we have x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, dxdy = rdrdθ.
a
When x = a, r cos θ = a ⇒ r = .
cos θ
a
∴ r varies from 0 to
En
cos θ
π
θ varies from 0 to .
4
π a π
Z4 Zcos θ 2 Z4 ! a
arn
2
r cos θ r3 cos θ
2 Y
I= rdrdθ = cos θ dθ
r 3 0 y=a
θ=0 0 0
π π
4 Z4 r = cosa θ
a3
Z
1 1
x
Le
y=
2
= cos θ 3 dθ = sec θdθ x= 0
3 cos θ 3 x=a
0 0
a3 π a3 √
O X
w.
= log(sec θ + tan θ) 04 = log( 2 + 1) . y=0
3 3
Example 4.40. Transform the integral into polar coordinates and hence evaluate
ww
√
Za Za2 −x2 q
x2 + y2 dydx. [Jun 2012]
0 0
Solution.
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270 Engineering Mathematics - I
√
The limits for y are y = 0, y = a2 − x2
y2 = a2 − x2 Y
2
π/
x2 + y2 = a2 . 2
=
2 =a
θ
x2 + y
The limits for x are x = 0, x = a.
.in
P
x=0
By changing into polar coordinates we
0
θ=
O X
have x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, dxdy = rdrdθ. y= 0
ng
In the region of integration, r varies x=a
π
from 0 to a and θ varies from 0 to .
2
eri
√ π
Za Za2 −x2 q Z2 Za p
x2 + y2 dydx = r2 rdrdθ
0 0 θ=0 r=0
Z2 Za
π
e π π
gin
Z2 !a Z2
r3 a3 a3 π a3 π πa3
= r2 drdθ = dθ = dθ = · [θ]02 = = .
3 0 3 3 3 2 6
0 0 0 0
√
Za Za2 −x2
En
dxdy
Example 4.41. Transform the integral p into polar
√ a2 − x2 − y2
0 ax−x2
coordinates and then evaluate it. [Jan 2012]
arn
Solution.
Y
The limits for y are
Le
p p
y = ax − x2 y= a2 − x2 P
y2 = ax − x2 y2 = a2 − x2
w.
O
a
X
2,0
2 2 2 2 2
x + y − ax = 0 x +y =a ,
x2 + y2 = a2 is a circle with centre (0, 0),
ww
radius= a. x2 + y2 − ax = 0 is a circle with
a a
centre , 0 and radius .
2 2
The limits for x are x = 0, x = a.
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Multiple Integrals 271
Consider the curve x2 + y2 − ax = 0
By changing into polar coordinates we have,
r2 − a · r cos θ = 0
r(r − a cos θ) = 0
.in
r , 0 ⇒ r = a cos θ.
Consider the equation x2 + y2 = a2 . We have r = a.
ng
In the region of integration we have r varies from a cos θ to a and θ varies
π
from 0 to .
eri
2 √ π
Za Za2 −x2 Z2 Za
dxdy rdrdθ
∴ p = √
a2 − x2 − y2 a2 − r2
√
0 ax−x2
e
θ=0 a cos θ
gin
π
Z2 Z0
−tdt
= dθ
π t
Z2 θ=0 r=a sin θ
=− (t)0a sin θ dθ
t2 = a2 − r2
En
Z2
π
2tdt = −2rdr.
=− (0 − a sin θ)dθ rdr = −tdt
arn
0
π when r = a cos θ,
Z2
=a sin θdθ t2 = a2 − a2 cos2 θ
Le
0
π
= a2 (1 − cos2 θ)
2
= a (− cos θ)0
= a2 sin2 θ.
π
w.
= −a cos − cos 0 = −a(0 − 1) = a.
2 t = a sin θ.
when r = a. t = 0.
ww
" q
Example 4.42. Evaluate a2 − x2 − y2 dxdy where R is the semicircle
R
x2 + y2 = ax in the first quadrant by changing to polar coordinates.
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272 Engineering Mathematics - I
a 2 a2 a 2 a2
Solution. x2 + y2 − ax = 0 ⇒ x − + y2 − =0⇒ x− + y2 = .
2 4 2 4
By changing into polar coordinates we get x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, dxdy = rdrdθ.
r2 − ar cos θ = 0 ⇒ r(r − a cos θ) = 0 ⇒ r = 0, r = a cos θ.
Limits for r are 0, a cos θ.
π
Limits for θ are 0, .
.in
2
π
" q Z2 aZcos θ p
ng
Now I = a2 − x2 − y2 dxdy = a2 − r2 rdrdθ
R 0 r=0
2 2 2
Let t = a − r ⇒ 2tdt = −2rdr ⇒ tdt = −rdr
eri
when r = 0, t = a and when r = a cos θ, t = a sin θ
π π π
Z2 aZsin θ Z2 3 !a sin θ Z2
I= −ttdtdθ = −
t
dθ =
−1
e (a3 sin3 θ − a3 )dθ
gin
3 a 3
0 a 0 0
3 2 3 4 − 3π a3
! ! !
−1 3 2 3 π −a π −a
= a .1 − a = .1 − = = (3π − 4).
3 3 2 3 3 2 3 6 18
En
R∞ R∞ 2 +y2 ) R∞ 2
Example 4.43. Evaluate e−(x dxdy and hence evaluate e−x dx.
0 0 0
[Jan 2014, Jun 2011, Jan 2010, Jan 2004]
arn
Z∞ Z∞
2 +y2 )
Solution. Let I = e−(x dxdy.
0 0
Y
Le
Since x varies from 0 to ∞ and y varies
from 0 to ∞, the region of integration is P
x=0
w.
the entire first quadrant. r
Changing to polar coordinates we get
θ
X
ww
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and dxdy = rdrdθ. O
y=0
Here, r varies from 0 to ∞ and θ varies
π
from 0 to .
2
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Multiple Integrals 273
π
Z∞ Z∞ Z2 Z∞
2 +y2 ) 2 dt
∴I= e−(x dxdy = e−r rdrdθ Let r2 = t, 2rdr = dt ⇒ rdr =
2
0 0 0 0
π
Z Z∞2
dt
= e−t dθ When r = 0, t = 0, when r = ∞, t = ∞
2
.in
0 0
π
Z2 !∞
1 e−t
= dθ
ng
2 −1 0
0
π
Z2
1 1 π π
eri
=− (0 − 1)dθ = (θ)02 = .
2 2 4
0
Z∞
2
To find e−x dx.
e
gin
0
Z∞ Z∞
2 +y2 ) π
We have, e−(x dxdy =
4
0 0
En
Z∞ Z∞
2 2 π
e−x e−y dxdy =
4
0 0
arn
Z∞ Z∞
−x2 2 π
e dx e−y dy =
4
0 0
∞ 2
Le
Z
π
−x 2
e dx =
4
0
Z∞ √
w.
−x2 π
e dx = .
2
0
ww
" s
1 − x2 − y2
Example 4.44. Evaluate dxdy over the positive quadrant of the
1 + x2 + y2
circle x2 + y2 = 1.
Solution.
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274 Engineering Mathematics - I
By changing into polar coordinates we
get x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and dxdy = rdrdθ. Y
2
π/
Now x2 + y2 = 1
θ=
=⇒ r2 = 1 P
x=0
.in
i.e., r = 1. For the region of integration,
1
r=
0
θ=
we have r varies from 0 to 1 and θ varies θ
X
π O y=0
from 0 to .
ng
2
" s
eri
1 − x2 − y2
Let I = dxdy
1 + x2 + y2
π
Z2 Z1 r
=
1 − r2
rdrdθ e
gin
1 + r2
0 0
π
Z Z12
r(1 − r2 )
= √ drdθ
1 − r4
En
0 0
π
Z Z1
2
r r3
= √ − √ drdθ
arn
1 − r4 1 − r4
0 0
π
Z2 Z1 Z1
1 2r 1 −4r 3
= √ dr + √ dr dθ
2 1 − r4 4 1 − r4
Le
0 0 0
π
Z Z1 Z1
2
1 dt 1 4
d(1 − r )
= √ dr + √ dθ [t = r2 ]
2 4
w.
1 − t2 1 − r4
0 0 0
π
Z 2 1 1
1 −1 1 1 (1 − r4 ) 2
= (sin t)0 + dθ
ww
2 4 1
0 2 0
π
Z 2 !
1π 1
= + (0 − 2) dθ
22 4
0
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Multiple Integrals 275
π
Z2 !
π 1
= − dθ
4 2
0
!
π 1 π
= − (θ)02
4 2
!
π 1 π
.in
= −
4 2 2
π2 π
= − .
8 4
ng
"
x2 y2
Example 4.45. By transforming into polar coordinates evaluate dxdy
x2 + y2
eri
over the annular region between the circles x2 + y2 = a2 and x2 + y2 = b2 , (b > a)
[Jan 2013]
Y
Solution. By changing into polar
coordinates we get x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ e b
gin
x=0
and dxdy = rdrdθ, x2 + y2 = r2 . a
In the region of integration we O X
y=0
En
have r varies from a to b and θ varies
from 0 to 2π.
arn
" Z2π Zb
x2 y2 r2 cos2 θ · r2 sin2 θ
dxdy = · rdrdθ
Le
x2 + y2 r2
θ=0 r=a
Z2π Zb
= r3 cos2 θ sin2 θdrdθ
w.
θ=0 r=a
Z2π !b
2 2r4
ww
= cos θ sin θ · dθ.
4 r=a
0
Z2π
1
= cos2 θ sin2 θ(b4 − a4 )dθ
4
0
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276 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z2π
b4 − a4
= (sin θ cos θ)2 dθ
4
0
Z2π !2
b4 − a4 sin 2θ
= dθ
4 2
0
Z2π
b4 − a4
.in
= sin2 2θdθ.
16
0
Z2π
ng
b4 − a4 1 − cos 4θ
= dθ
16 2
0
eri
2π
Z2π
4 4
b − a
Z
= dθ − cos 4θdθ
32
0 0
=
b4 − a4 2π
[θ]0 − e
" #2π
sin 4θ b4 − a4
= (2π) =
(b4 − a4 )π
gin
32 4 0 32 16
4.5 Area enclosed by plane curves
En
"
Result. Area of a region R is given by dxdy.
R
arn
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Example 4.46. Find the area of the circle of radius a by double integration.
Le
[Jan 2006]
Solution.
The circle is x2 + y2 = a2 . and finally x varies from 0 to a.
w.
By symmetry Area = 4× area in the first
√
quadrant. Za Za2 −x2 Za √
2 2
dydx = 4 (y)0 a −x dx
ww
Divide the region in the first quadrant ∴ Area = 4
x=0 y=0 x=0
into strips parallel to the y-axis. Along a
√ Za !a
p xp 2 a2 −1 x
typical strip, y varies from 0 to a2 − x2 =4 a2 − x2 dx =4 a − x2 + sin
2 2 a 0
0
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Multiple Integrals 277
a2 −1 a2 π
!
=4 sin (1) = 4 = πa2 .
2 2 2
.in
(0, a) √
y = a2 − x 2
x=0
ng
O X
y= 0 (a, 0)
eri
x2 +y2 = a2
x2 y2
Example 4.47. Find the area of the ellipse + = 1 using double integration.
e a2 b2
[Jun 2013]
gin
Solution.
Y
En
Consider the area in the first quadrant.
√
(0, b) y = ab a2 − x 2
Divide this area into strips parallel to
x=0
the y-axis. Along a typical strip, y varies
arn
bp 2 y=0
X
from 0 to a − x2 and finally x varies (a, 0)
a
from 0 to a.
Le
By symmetry, Area of the ellipse = 4× Area in the first quadrant.
√
b 2 −x2
Za a Za Za Za
w.
√
b
a2 −x2 bp 2
Area = 4 dydx = 4 a
(y)0 dx = 4 a − x2 dx
a
x=0 y=0 x=0 0
ww
Za p !a
4b 2 2
4b x p 2 2
a2 −1 x
= a − x dx = a −x + sin
a a 2 2 a 0
0
4b a2 π
= sin−1 (1) = 2ab = πab.
a 2 2
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278 Engineering Mathematics - I
Example 4.48. Using double integral, find the area bounded by the parabola
y2 = 4ax and x2 = 4ay [Jun 2013, May 2011, Jan 2010]
Solution.
Y
To find the points of intersection, solve
.in
x2 = 4ay
the two equations.
A(4a, 4a)
2
y = 4ax (1)
ng
x2 = 4ay (2)
y=0
X
O
eri
x42−y264a3 x = 0
(2)2 ⇒ x4 = 16a
3
= x(x 64a3 ) = 0
16a2 −· 4ax x=0
y2 = 4ax
x=
= 0, x33
64a x− 64a = 0
3
e
gin
x3 = 64a3 ⇒ x = 4a.
When x = 0, y = 0. One point of intersection is O(0, 0).
En
When x = 4a, 4ay = 16a2
16a2
y= = 4a.
4a
∴ The other point of intersection is A(4a, 4a).
arn
The shaded portion is the required region. Divide the region into strips
y2 p
parallel to the x−axis. Along one such strip, x varies form to 4ay and finally y
4a
Le
varies form 0 to 4a. √
Z4a Z4ay
∴ Required area = dxdy
w.
y=0 2
x= y4a
Z4a √
4ay
= [x] y2 dy
ww
4a
y=0
Z4a " p
y2
#
= 4ay − dy
4a
0
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Multiple Integrals 279
Z4a Z4a
√ 1/2 1
=2 a· y dy − y2 dy
4a
0 0
4a !4a
√ y3/2 1 y3
= 2 a · 3 −
·
2 0
4a 3 0
√ 2 1
.in
= 2 a × · (4a)3/2 − 64a3
3 12a
√
4 a √ 16a2
= 8a a −
3 3
ng
32a2 16a 2 16a2
= − = Sq.units
3 3 3
eri
Example 4.49. Find the area common to y2 = 4x and x2 = 4y using double
integration. [Dec 2011]
Solution. Put a = 1 in the previous example.
e
gin
Example 4.50. Find by double integration, the area between the parabolas
3y2 = 25x and 5x2 = 9y. [Jun 2012]
Solution. To find the points of intersection, solve the two equations.
En
25
y2 = x (1)
3
9 Y
arn
x2 = y (2)
5 x2 = 95 y
2 4 81 2
(2) ⇒ x = y A(3, 5)
25
81 × ✚✚
25
Le
✚ 4=
✚
25x x
3
x4 = 27x O(0, 0)
X
w.
x4 − 27x = 0
x(x3 − 27) = 0 y2 = 25
3 x
ww
x = 0, x3 − 27 = 0
x3 = 27
x = 3.
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280 Engineering Mathematics - I
when x = 0, 9y = 0 ⇒ y = 0.
One point of intersection is O(0, 0).
where x = 3, 9y = 5 × 9
y = 5.
∴ The other point of intersection is (3, 5).
.in
The shaded portion is the region of integration. Divide the region √ into strips
3y2 3 y
parallel to the x−axis. Along one such strip, x varies from to √ and finally y
25 5
ng
varies from 0 to 5. √
3 y
√
Z5 Z 5 Z5 √
3 y
√
5
∴ Area = dxdy = (x) dy
eri
3y2
25
0 3y2 0
25
Z5
3y2
=
3 √
√ y−
25
!
dy
e
gin
5
0
5 !5
3 y3/2 3 y3 2 √ 1
= √ 3 − · = √ [5 5] − · 53 = 10 − 5 = 5 Sq.units.
5 2 0 25 3 0 5 25
En
Example 4.51. Find the smaller of the areas bounded by the ellipse 4x2 + 9y2 = 36
and the straight line 2x + 3y = 6. [Jan 2012]
arn
Solution. Solving the given two equations, we get the points of intersection.
Y
Le
, 2)
2 2 B(0
4x + 9y = 36 (1) 4x2 +9y2 = 36
2 x+
2x + 3y = 6 (2) 3y=
w.
O
X
From (2), 3y = 6 − 2x A(3
, 0)
6 − 2x
ww
i.e., y = .
3
Substituting in (1) we get
9(6 − 2x)2
4x2 + = 36
9
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Multiple Integrals 281
4x2 + 36 + 4x2 − 24x = 36
8x2 − 24x = 0
x2 − 3x = 0
x(x − 3) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or x = 3.
.in
6
When x = 0, (2) ⇒ y = = 2.
3
One point of intersection is (0, 2)
ng
6−6
When x = 3, y = = 0.
3
The other point of intersection is (3, 0).
eri
The shaded portion is the smaller area. Divide the regionrinto strips parallel to
6 − 2x 4 2
the y−axis. Along one such strip, y varies from to 4 − x and finally x
3 9
varies from 3 to 0.
e
gin
q
4− 94 x2
Z0 Z0 q
4− 94 x2
Z
∴ Area = dxdy = y 6−2x dx
3
En
x=3 y= 6−2x 3
3
Z0 r !
4 2 6 − 2x
= 4 − x − dx
9 3
arn
3
Z0 r Z0 Z0
4 2
= (9 − x2 )dx − 2dx + xdx
9 3
Le
3 3 3
#0 " #0
2 x2
"
2 xp 2
9 −1 x 0
= 9 − x + sin − 2[x]3 +
3 2 2 3 3 3 2 3
w.
" #
2 9π 1 −3π 3π
= 0− − 2(0 − 3) + [0 − 9] = +6−3=3−
3 22 3 2 2
π 3(2 − π)
Sq.units.
ww
=3 1− =
2 2
Example 4.52. Find the smaller of the areas bounded by y = 2 − x and x2 + y2 = 4
using double integral.
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282 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution. Solving the given two equations, we get the points of intersection.
We have x2 + y2 = 4 ⇒ x2 + (2 − x)2 = 4 ⇒ x2 + 4 + x2 − 4x = 4 ⇒ 2x2 − 4x = 0
⇒ x2 − 2x = 0 ⇒ x(x − 2) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = 2.
.in
Y
When x = 0, y = 2, when x = 2, y = 0.
(0, 2)
The points of intersection are (0, 2) and
ng
y = 2− x
x=0
(2, 0). The shaded portion is the required
region. Divide this region into strips O X
eri
y= 0 (2, 0)
parallel to the y-axis. Along one such
√
typical strip, y varies from 2−x to 4 − x2
and finally x varies from 0 to 2.
e
gin
√
" Z2 Z4−x2 Z2 √ Z2 p
4−x2
Now area = dxdy. = dydx = (y)2−x dx = ( 4 − x2 − (2 − x))dx
R x=0 y=2−x x=0 x=0
En
x !2 2 2
!
xp 4 x
= 4 − x2 + sin−1 − 2(x)20 +
2 2 2 0 2 0
4 π
arn
= 2 sin−1 (1) − 2(2 − 0) + = 2 − 4 + 2 = π − 2.
2 2
Example 4.53. Find the area bounded by the parabola y2 = 4 − x and y2 = 4 − 4x as
Le
a double integral and evaluate it. [Jan 2001]
Solution. The parabola y2 = 4 − x = −(x − 4). Its vertex is at (4, 0).
Consider the parabola y2 = 4 − 4x = −4(x − 1) . Its vertex is at (1, 0).
w.
Both the parabolas are open to the left. Let us solve the two equations to find the
points of intersection, y2 = 4 − x and y2 = 4 − 4x.
ww
∴ 4 − x = 4 − 4x ⇒ 4x − x = 0 ⇒ 3x = 0 ⇒ x = 0 ⇒ y2 = 4 ⇒ y = ±2.
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Multiple Integrals 283
Y
The points of intersection are
(2, 0), (−2, 0). The shaded portion is the
required region. Divide this region into (1, 0) (4, 0)
O X
strips parallel to the x-axis. Along one
y2
.in
typical strip, x varies from 1 − to 4−y2 .
4
Finally y varies from −2 to 2.
ng
" x=4−y2
Z2 Z2 Z2
y2
Z !!
4−y2 2
Now area = dxdy. = dydx = (x) 2 dy = 4−y − 1− dy
1− y4 4
R y=−2 2 y=−2 y=−2
eri
x=1− y4
Z2 !2 !2
y2 y3 1 y3
!
2 2 2
= 4−y −1+ dy = 4(y)−2 − − (y)−2 +
4 3 −2 4 3 −2
y=−2
e
gin
1 1 16 16
= 4(2 + 2) − (8 + 8) − (2 + 2) + (8 + 8) = 16 − −4+
3 12 3 12
16 4 12
= 16 − 4 − + = 12 − = 12 − 4 = 8.
3 3 3
En
Example 4.54. Find the area of the region bounded by y = x − 2 and y2 = 2x + 4.
Solution. The parabola is y2 = 2x + 4 = 2(x + 2).
arn
The vertex is (−2, 0).
To find the points of intersection, let us solve the two equations.
The curves are y = x − 2, y2 = 2x + 4.
Le
(x − 2)2 = 2x + 4.
x2 − 4x + 4 − 2x − 4 = 0
w.
x2 − 6x = 0
x(x − 6) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = 6.
ww
When x = 0, y = −2.
When x = 6, y = 4.
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284 Engineering Mathematics - I
Y
The points of intersection are (0, −2) and
(6, 4). The shaded portion is the required
(6, 4)
region. Divide the region into strips
parallel to the x-axis. Along one such
.in
X
y2 − 4 (−2, 0)
O
strip, x varies from to y + 2 and
2 (0, −2)
finally y varies from −2 to 4.
ng
" Z4 Zy+2 Z4
eri
y+2
Now, Area = dxdy = dxdy = (x) 2 dy
x= y 2−4
R y=−2 2 y=−2
x= y 2−4
=
Z4
y+2−
y2
!!
− 2 dy =
Z4
y+2−
y2
!
e
+ 2 dy =
Z4
y+4−
y2
!
dy
gin
2 2 2
−2 −2 −2
!4
y2 y3 1 1
= + 4y − = (16 − 4) + 4(4 + 2) − (64 + 8) = 6 + 24 − 12 = 18.
2 6 −2 2 6
En
Area as double integral in polar coordinates
!
Result. Area in polar coordinates is given by rdrdθ.
R
arn
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Example 4.55. Find the area of the cardioid r = a(1 − cos θ).
Le
Solution.
w.
Since the curve is symmetric about the θ
initial line, Area = 2× area above the P
ww
θ=π
initial line. r
O θ=0
Along this region, r varies from 0 to
a(1 − cos θ) and θ varies from 0 to π. r = a(1−cos θ)
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Multiple Integrals 285
Zπ Z θ)
a(1−cos Zπ !a(1−cos θ) Zπ
r2
Area = 2 rdrdθ = 2 dθ = a2 (1 − cos θ)2 dθ
2 0
θ=0 r=0 0 0
Zπ Zπ
1 + cos 2θ
= a2 (1 − cos2 θ − 2 cos θ)dθ = a2 (1 + − 2 cos θ)dθ
2
0 0
.in
Zπ !π !
3 cos 2θ 3 1 sin 2θ
=a 2
( + − 2 cos θ)dθ = a2 (θ)π0 + − 2(sin θ)π0
2 2 2 2 2 0
0
ng
3πa2
!
3π
= a2 = .
2 2
eri
Example 4.56. Find the area of one loop of the lemniscate of Bernoulli
r2 = a2 cos 2θ.
Solution. The curve is symmetric about both the axes. One loop lies to the right
of y-axis and symmetric about the x-axis. e
gin
∴ Area = 2× area of the portion which lies above the axis.
√ π
Along the region r varies√from 0 to a cos 2θ and θ varies from 0 to .
π 4
Z4 a Zcos 2θ
En
∴ Area = 2 rdrdθ
θ
2θ
4
θ=0 r=0
π/
s
co
θ=
π
4 !a √cos 2θ a2
arn
=
P
r2
r2
Z
=2 dθ
2 0
θ=0 r
π
O
Z 4
Le
= a2 cos 2θdθ θ = −π/4
0
! π4
sin 2θ a2 π a2
w.
2
=a = sin − 0 = .
2 0 2 2 2
ww
Example 4.57. Find the area between r = 2 cos θ andπ r = 4 cos θ. π
Z2 Z2
Solution.π r=4 cos θ 1
Z2 Z
π
Z2 !4 cos θ = (16 cos2 θ − 4 cos2 θ)dθ = 6 cos2 θdθ
r 2 2
−π −π
Area = rdrdθ = dθ 2 2
2 2 cos θ
θ= −π
2
r=2 cos θ θ= −π
2
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286 Engineering Mathematics - I
π
θ
Z2 π
θ= P
2 1π 2
=6×2 cos θdθ = 12 × = 3π.
22
0
O
r
.in
θ = − π2
ng
Example 4.58. Find the area inside the circle r = a sin θ but lying outside the
cardioid r = a(1 − cos θ). [Jan 2009]
eri
Solution. The equation of the given curves are r = a sin θ, r = a(1 − cos θ). Solving,
we get a sin θ = a(1 − cos θ) ⇒ sin θ = 1 − cos θ.
⇒ sin θ + cos θ = 1 ⇒ (sin θ + cos θ)2 = 1.
sin2 θ + cos2 θ + 2 sin θ cos θ = 1 ⇒ 1 + sin 2θ = 1 e
gin
π
⇒ sin 2θ = 0 ⇒ 2θ = 0 or 2θ = π ⇒ θ = 0, θ = .
2
θ
The shaded portion is the required
En
θ = π/2
region. Consider the radius vector OP.
Q
The limits for r and θ as OP traverses
arn
the required region is as follows. r P r = a sin θ
θ=π
varies from a(1 − cos θ) to a sin θ and θ O θ=0
r
π
varies from 0 to .
Le
2 r = a(1−cos θ)
π π
Z 2 Z sin θ
r=a Z 2
2 a sin θ
!
r
Area = rdrdθ = dθ
2
w.
a(1−cos θ)
θ=0 r=a(1−cos θ) θ=0
π π
Z2 Z2
a2
ww
1 2 2 2 2
= a sin θ − a (1 − cos θ) dθ = sin2 θ − 1 − cos2 θ + 2 cos θ dθ
2 2
0 0
2 2 a2
!
a 1π π 1π a π
= − − + 2.1 = 2− = (4 − π).
2 22 2 22 2 2 4
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Multiple Integrals 287
Example 4.59. Find the area which is inside the circle r = 3a cos θ and outside the
cardioid r = a(1 + cos θ). [Jan 2013]
Solution. The shaded portion is the required area. Solving the two equations we
get the points of intersection, r = 3a cos θ and r = a(1 + cos θ).
3
θ
π/
=
.in
θ
∴ 3a cos θ =a(1 + cos θ)
r
ng
3 cos θ =1 + cos θ (3a/2,0) (3a, 0)
2 cos θ =1 π π
Z3 3aZcos θ Z3 " #3a cos θ
1 π π r2
eri
Required area ⇒ θabove
cos θ==2 × area = , − θ .== 2 rdrdθ. = 2 dθ
2 3 3 2 r=a(1+cos θ)
θ=0 r=a(1+cos θ) θ=0
π
3
=2
Z
e
[9a2 cos2 θ − a2 (1 + cos θ)2 ]dθ
gin
0
π
Z3
=2 (9a2 cos2 θ − a2 − a2 cos2 θ − 2a2 cos θ)dθ
En
0
π
Z3
= 2a2 (9 cos2 θ − 1 − cos2 θ − 2 cos θ)dθ
arn
0
π
Z3
= 2a2 (8 cos2 θ − 2 cos θ − 1)dθ
Le
0
π
Z3 !
2 8(1 + cos 2θ)
= 2a − 2 cos θ − 1 dθ
2
w.
0
π
Z3
= 2a2 (4 + 4 cos 2θ − 2 cos θ − 1)dθ
ww
0
π
Z3
= 2a2 (3 + 4 cos 2θ − 2 cos θ)dθ
0
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288 Engineering Mathematics - I
π π π
Z3 Z3 Z3
2
= 2a 3 dθ + 4 cos 2θdθ − 2 cos θdθ
0 0 0
! π3
2
π
3
sin 2θ π
3
= 2a 3(θ)0 + 4 − 2(sin θ)0
2 0
π ! π !
2
2π
= 2a 3 − 0 + 2 sin − sin 0 − 2 sin − sin 0
.in
3 3 3
√ √
3 3
= 2a2 π + 2 · = 2πa2 Sq.units.
−2·
2 2
ng
4.6 Triple integral in Cartesian coordinates
eri
Let the function f (x, y, z) be defined in a specific region V in space for all x, y and
z with proper limits. The triple integral of f (x, y, z) w.r.t. x, y and z is defined as
Zz1 Zy1 Zx1
e
gin
f (x, y, z)dxdydz.
z0 y0 x0
The evaluation of the triple integral is as follows.
(i) If all the limits are constants, then the integration can be performed in any
En
order with proper limits.
g2 (z) fZ
Zb Z 2 (y,z)
(ii) Consider f (x, y, z)dxdydz.
arn
a y=g1 (z) x= f1 (y,z)
First we integrate with respect to x treating y and z as constants. Next we integrate
the resulting function of y and z w.r.t.y treating z as constant. Finally integrate the
Le
resulting function of z w.r.tz.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
w.
Z1 Z2 Z2
Example 4.60. Evaluate x2 yzdxdydz.
ww
0 0 1
Solution.
Z1 Z2 Z2 Z1 Z2 !2
2 x3
x yzdxdydz = yz dydz
3 1
0 0 1 0 0
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Multiple Integrals 289
Z1 Z2
1
= yz(8 − 1)dydz
3
0 0
Z1 !2 Z1
7 y2 7
= z dz = z4dz
3 2 0 6
0 0
!1
28 z2
.in
=
6 2 0
28 1 7
= = .
6 2 3
ng
Za Zb Zc
eri
Example 4.61. Find (x2 + y2 + z2 )dxdydz. [Jun 2009]
0 0 0
Solution.
e
gin
Za Zb Zc Za Zb !c
2 2 2 x3
(x + y + z )dxdydz = + y2 x + z2 x dydz
3 0
0 0 0 0 0
Za Zb
En
c3
!
2 2
= + cy + cz dydz
3
0 0
Za 3 !b
arn
c b y3 2 b
= 3 (y)0 + c 3 + cz (y)0 dz
0
0
Za
c3 b cb3
!
2
Le
= + + cz b dz
3 3
0
!a
bc3 a cb3 a z3
= (z)0 + (z)0 + bc
w.
3 3 3 0
abc3 ab3 c a3 bc abc 2
= + + = (a + b2 + c2 ).
3 3 3 3
ww
log 2Zx Z
Z x+y
Example 4.62. Evaluate e x+y+z dxdydz. [Jan 2009]
0 0 0
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290 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution.
log 2Zx Z
Z x+y log 2Zx Z
Z x+y log 2Zx
Z
x+y
Z
e x+y+z dxdydz = e x ey ez dxdydz = e x ey ez dz dxdy
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Z 2Zx
log Z 2Zx
log
x+y
= e x ey (ez )0 dxdy = e x ey (e x+y − 1)dxdy
.in
0 0 0 0
Z 2Zx
log
= (e2x+2y − e x ey )dxdy
ng
0 0
Z 2 Zx
log Zx
= e2x e2y dy − x y
e e dy dx
eri
0 0 0
log 2 !x
e2y
Z !
= e2x x y x
− e (e )0 dx
0
e
2 0
gin
Z 2
log
e2x 1
! !
2x x x
= e − − e (e − 1) dx
2 2
0
En
log 2
e4x e2x
Z !
2x x
= − − e + e dx
2 2
0
arn
Z 2
log
e4x 3e2x
!
x
= − + e dx
2 2
0
!log 2 !log 2
1 e4x 3 e2x
Le
log 2
= − + (e x )0
2 4 0 2 2 0
1 3
= [16 − 1] − (4 − 1) + (2 − 1)
w.
8 4
15 9
= − +1
8 4
15 − 18 + 8 5
ww
= = .
8 8
Z1 Z1−xZx+y
Example 4.63. Evaluate ez dzdydx. [Jan 1996]
0 0 0
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Multiple Integrals 291
Solution.
Z1 Z1−xZx+y Z1 Z1−x Z1 Z1−x
z z x+y
e x+y − 1 dydx
e dzdydx = e 0 dydx =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1
Z Z1−x Z1 Z1−x Z1−x
e x ey − 1 dydx =
x
ey −
= e dy dx
.in
0 0 0 0 0
Z1
1−x
= e x ey 0 − (y)1−x
0 dx
ng
0
Z1 Z1
x 1−x
= e (e − 1) − (1 − x) dx = (e − e x − 1 + x)dx
eri
0 0
!1
x2 1
= e(x)10 − (e x )10 − (x)10 + = e − (e − 1) − 1 +
2 2
1 1
=e−e+1−1+ = . e 0
gin
2 2
√
Z3 Z1 Z xy
Example 4.64. Evaluate xydzdydx. [Jan 2001]
En
1 1 0
x
Solution.
√
Z3 Z1 Z xy Z3 Z1 √ Z3 Z1 Z3 Z1
√
arn
xy 3 3
xydzdydx = xy(z)0 dydx = xy xydydx = x 2 y 2 dydx
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
x x x x
Z3 5 1
y 2 Z3 ! 25
3 2 3
1
Le
= x 5 dx =
2 x 2 1 − dx
2 1
5 x
1 x 1
Z3 5 3 !
2 1 2 x 2
w.
3
= x − dx = 5 − (log x)31
2
5 x 5 2 1
1
2 2 √
! !
2 2 5
ww
= (3 2 − 1) − log 3 = (9 3 − 1) − log 3 .
5 5 5 5
2
Z1 Z1−x (x+y)
Z
Example 4.65. Evaluate xdzdydx. [Jan 1996]
0 0 0
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292 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution.
2
Z1 Z1−x (x+y)
Z Z1 Z1−x Z1 Z1−x
(x+y)2
xdzdydx = x(z)0 dydx = x(x + y)2 dydx
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Z1 3 1−x
! Z1
(x + y) 1
= x dx = x((x + 1 − x)3 − x3 )dx
.in
3 0 3
0 0
Z1 Z1 !1 !1
1 1 3 4 1 x2 x5
= x(1 − x )dx = (x − x )dx = −
ng
3 3 3 2 0 5 0
0 0
! !
1 1 1 1 5−2 1
= − = = .
eri
3 2 5 3 10 10
log 2Zx x+log
Z Z y
e x+y+z dzdydx.
Example 4.66. Evaluate
e [Jun 2013]
gin
0 0 0
Solution.
log 2Zx x+log
Z Z y log 2Zx
Z
x+y+z x+log y
e x+y+z dzdydx = e dydx
En
0
0 0 0 0 0
Z 2Zx
log
= e x+y+x+log y − e x+y dydx.
arn
0 0
Z 2Zx
log
= e2x ey+log y − e x · ey dydx
Le
0 0
Z 2Zx
log
= e2x · ey · elog y − e x ey dydx
w.
0 0
Z 2Zx
log
e2x yey − e x ey dydx
ww
=
0 0
log 2
Zx Zx
Z
2x y x y
= e ye dy − e e dy dx
0 0 0
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Multiple Integrals 293
log 2
Zx
Z
2x y x y x
= e yd(e ) − e (e )0 dx
0 0
log 2
Z
Zx
2x y x
y − e x (e x − 1)
=
e
ye 0 − e dy
dx
0 0
Z 2
log
.in
x
= e2x xe x − ey 0 − e2x + e x dx
0
ng
log 2
Z
= {e2x (xe x − e x + 1) − e2x + e x }dx
0
eri
Z 2
log
= xe3x − e3x + e2x − e2x + e x dx
0
log 2
Z
e
gin
= xe3x − e3x + e x dx
0
Z 2
log log 2
Z log 2
Z
3x 3x
= xe dx − e dx + e x dx.
En
0 0 0
log 2 !log 2
e3x e3x
Z !
log 2
= xd − + ex 0
arn
3 3 0
0
!log 2 log 2
xe3x e3x
Z
1
= − dx − e3 log 2 − 1 + (elog 2 − 1)
Le
3 0 3 3
0
3x
!log 2
8 e
1
= log 2 · − − [8 − 1] + (2 − 1)
3 3 9
w.
0
!
8 8 1 7
= log 2 − − − +1
3 9 9 3
ww
!
8 7 7
= log 2 − + −1
3 9 3
!
8 7 + 21 − 9
= log 2 −
3 9
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294 Engineering Mathematics - I
8 19
= log 2 − .
3 9
$
dxdydz
Example 4.67. Evaluate p for all positive values of x, y, z for
1 − x2 − y2 − z2
which the integral is real. [Jan 2013, Jan 2012]
Solution. The integral is real for all values of x2 + y2 + z2 < 1.
.in
√ √
$ 1−x 2 2
Z1 Z1−x2 Z −y
dxdydz 1
∴ p = p dzdydx
ng
1 − x2 − y2 − z2 1 − x2 − y2 − z2
0 y=0 z=0
√1−x2 −y2
√
Z1 Z1−x2 −1 z
eri
= sin p dydx
1 − x2 − y2 0
0 0
√
Z Z1−x2
1
=
e (sin−1 1 − sin−1 0)dydx
gin
0 0
√
Z1 Z1−x2
π
= dydx
2
En
0 0
Z1 √
π 2
= [y]0 1−x dx
2
arn
0
Z1 p
π
= 1 − x2 dx
2
0
Le
" #1
π xp 2
1 −1
= 1 − x + sin x
2 2 2 0
" #
π 1 −1
w.
= sin 1 − 0
2 2
π 1 π π2
= · · = .
ww
2 2 2 8
√ √ 2 −x2 −y2
Za Za2 −x2 aZ
1
Example 4.68. p dzdydx. [Dec 2011]
a2 − x2 − y2 − z2
0 0 0
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Multiple Integrals 295
Solution.
√2 2 2
√a2 −x2 −y2
√ √
Za Za2 −x2 aZ−x −y Za Za2 −x2
1 −1 z
p dzdydx = sin p dydx
a2 − x2 − y2 − z2 a2 − x2 − y2 0
0 0 0 0 0
√
Za Za2 −x2
= sin−1 1 − sin−1 0 dydx
.in
0 0
√
Za Za2 −x2
π
= dydx.
ng
2
0 0
Za √
π 2 −x2
[y]0 a
eri
= dx
2
0
Za p
π
a2 − x2 dx
e
=
2
gin
0
" 2 #a
π a −1 x xp 2 2
= sin + a −x
2 2 a 2 0
π a2 −1
" #
En
= sin 1 − 0
2 2
πa2 π π2 a2
= · = .
4 2 8
$
arn
dxdydz
Example 4.69. Evaluate , where V is the region bounded by
(x + y + z + 1)3
V
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, and x + y + z = 1. [Jan 2014, Dec 2011]
Le
Solution. The limits for x, y and z are as follows.
z : 0 to 1 − x − y
w.
y : 0 to 1 − x
x : 0 to 1
ww
$ Z1 Z1−x 1−x−y
Z
dzdydz
∴ = (1 + x + y + z)−3 dzdydx
(1 + x + y + z)3
V 0 0 0
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296 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z1 Z1−x" #1−x−y
(1 + x + y + z)−2
= dydx
−2 0
0 0
Z1 Z1−x
1
=− 2−2 − (1 + x + y)−2 dydx
2
0 0
Z1 Z1−x
.in
!
1 1 −2
=− − (1 + x + y) dydx
2 4
0 0
Z1
ng
#1−x
(1 + x + y)−1
"
1 1 1−x
=− [y]0 − dx
2 4 −1 0
0
eri
Z1 !
1 1
=− (1 − x) + 2−1 − (1 + x)−1 dx
2 4
0
1 1 1 1 x2
= − (x)0 − ·
!1
1 1
e 1
+ [x]0 − (log(1 + x))0
gin
2 4 4 2 0 2
!
1 1 1 1
=− − + − log 2
2 4 8 2
!
1 2−1+4
En
=− − log 2
2 8
!
1 5 1 5
=− − log 2 = log 2 − .
2 8 2 16
arn
$
Example 4.70. Find the value of xyzdxdydz through the positive spherical
octant for which x2 + y2 + z2 ≤ a2 . [Jan 2014, Jun 2010]
Le
Solution. The limits for x, y, z are as follows.
q
z : 0 to a2 − x2 − y2
w.
p
y : 0 to a2 − x2
x : 0 to a.
ww
√ √
$
2 −x2 −y2
aZ
Za Za2 −x2
∴ xyzdxdydz = xyzdzdydx.
x=0 y=0 z=0
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Multiple Integrals 297
√ √
Za Za2 −x2 a2 −x2 −y2
z2
" #
= xy · dydx.
2 0
x=0 y=0
√
Za Za2 −x2
1
= xy · (a2 − x2 − y2 )dydx
2
0 0
√
.in
Za Za2 −x2
1
= a2 xy − x3 y − xy3 dydx
2
0 0
ng
Za " 2 2 4
# √a2 −x2
1 y y y
= a2 x · − x3 − x dx
2 2 2 4 y=0
0
eri
Za
a2 x 2 x3 2
!
1 2 2 x 2 2 2
= (a − x ) − (a − x ) − (a − x ) dx
2 2 2 4
0
1
Za
e
a4 x a2 x3 a2 x3 x5 x 4
!
gin
4 2 2
= − − + − (a + x − 2a x ) dx
2 2 2 2 2 4
0
Za
a4 x5 a4 x5 a2 3
!
1 2 3
= x−a x + − x− + x dx
En
2 2 2 4 4 2
0
!a 4 a
!a !a !a !a !
1 a4 x2 1 x6 a4 x2 1 x6 a2 x4
!
2 x
= −a + − − +
2 2 2 0 4 0 2 6 0 4 2 0 4 6 0 2 4 0
arn
1 a6✁ a6✁ a6 a6✁ a6 a6✁
= ✁ − ✁ + − ✁ − + ✁
2 ✁4 ✁4 12 ✁8 24 ✁8
!
1 6 1 1
Le
= ×a −
2 12 24
a6 2 − 1
!
=
2 24
w.
a 6
= .
48
ww
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298 Engineering Mathematics - I
4.7 Volume as triple integral
Result. If V is the volume bounded by a definite$ region D in space, then the
volume is calculated by the triple integral V = dxdydz with proper limits.
D
.in
x2 y2 z2
Example 4.71. Find the volume of the ellipsoid + + = 1 using triple
a2 b2 c2
ng
integral.
Solution. We know that the ellipsoid is symmetric about the
$ coordinate planes.
eri
∴ Volume of the ellipsoid = 8×Volume in the first octant = 8 dxdydz.
V
x2 y2 z2
The ellipsoid is given by 2 + 2 + 2 = 1
a b c r
e x2 y2
gin
In the first octant, z varies from 0 to c 1− −
r a2 b2
x2
y varies from 0 to b 1 − 2
a
and x varies from 0 to a.
En
r
2 2
1− x2 − y2
q
2
a b 1− x2 c a b
arn
Z Z a Z
∴ Volume = 8 dzdydx
x=0 y=0 z=0
q
2
b 1− x
Le
r
Za Z a2 c
2
1− x2 − y2
2
a b
=8 (z)z=0 dydx
x=0 y=0
w.
q
2
b 1− x
Za Z a2 r
x2 y2
= 8c 1− − dydx
a2 b2
ww
x=0 y=0
q
2
b (1− x )
Za Z a2 s !
1 x2
= 8c b2 1 − 2 − y2 dydx
b a
x=0 y=0
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Multiple Integrals 299
q
2
b 1− x2
Za 2 x2
s a
b (1 − ) 2
!
8c a2 −1 y y x
= sin q +2 b2 1 − 2 − y2 dx
b 2 x 2 a
b2 1 −
x=0 a2 0
Za b2 1 −
x2
8c a2
= sin−1 1dx
b 2
0
.in
Za
x2
!
π
= 4bc 1 − 2 dx
2 a
0
ng
!a
x3
= 2πbc x − 2
3a 0
a 4πabc
eri
= 2πbc a − = .
3 3
x2 y2 z2
Note. The volume of the portion of the ellipsoid 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 which lies in
1
a b c
1 4πabc πabc e
gin
the first octant is × Volume of the ellipsoid = × = .
8 8 3 6
Example 4.72. Find the volume of the sphere x2 +y2 +z2 = a2 using triple integrals.
En
[Jan 2006]
Solution. We know that the sphere is symmetric about the coordinate planes.
arn
∴ Volume of the sphere = 8× Volume of the portion of the sphere
that lies in the first octant.
The sphere is given by x2 + y2 + z2 = a2 .
Le
p
In the first octant z varies from 0 to a2 − x2 − y2 .
√
y varies from 0 to a2 − x2 .
w.
and x varies from 0 to a.
$
Volume of the sphere = 8 × dzdydx.
ww
V
√ √ 2 −x2 −y2
Za Za2 −x2 aZ
=8 dzdydx
x=0 y=0 z=0
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300 Engineering Mathematics - I
√
Za Za2 −x2 √2 2 2
a −x −y
=8 (z)0 dydx
x=0y=0
√
Za Za2 −x2 q
=8 a2 − x2 − y2 dydx
x=0 y=0
√
.in
Za ! a2 −x2
a2 − x2 y y
q
=8 sin−1 √ + 2 2
a −x −y2 dx
2 a2 − x2 2 0
x=0
ng
Za
a2 − x2 −1
=8 sin (1)dx
2
x=0
eri
Za
π
=4 (a2 − x2 )dx
2
x=0
= 2π a x −
x3
2
!a
e
gin
3 0
3 4πa3
!
3 a
= 2π a − = .
3 3
En
Note
arn
The volume of the portion of the sphere that lies in the first octant is
1 1 4πa3 πa3
× Volume of the sphere = × = .
8 8 3 6
Le
Example 4.73. Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the plane
w.
x y z
+ + = 1 and the coordinate planes. [Jun 2006]
a b c
Solution. Let D be the region in space bounded by the tetrahedron.
ww
x y z
The region of integration is given by + + = 1, x = 0, y = 0, z = 0.
a b c x y
Along the region of integration z varies from 0 to c 1 − − .
a b
x
y varies from 0 to b 1 − .
a
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Multiple Integrals 301
and x varies from 0 to a.
x x y
Za b(Z1− a ) c(1−
Za−b)
∴ Volume = dzdydx.
x=0 y=0 z=0
1− ax
Za b(Z )
c(1− x − y )
= (z)0 a b dydx.
.in
x=0 y=0
x
Za b(Z1− a )
x y
ng
= c 1 − − dydx.
a b
x=0 y=0
Za !b(1− ax )
eri
xy y2
=c y− − dx.
a 2b 0
x=0
Za
=c
n
b 1−
x x
a e
− b 1−
a
x 1 2
a
− b 1−
2b
x 2 o
a
dx
gin
x=0
Za
bc x 2
= 1− dx
2 a
En
x=0
a
1 − x 3
bc
= a
2 3 −1
a
arn
0
−abc
= [0 − 1]
6
abc
= .
6
Le
Example 4.74. Find the volume of the portion of the cylinder x2 +y2 = 1 intercepted
w.
between the plane x = 0 and the paraboloid x2 + y2 = 4 − z. [Jun 2012]
Solution. The surfaces are x2 + y2 = 1, x = 0 and x2 + y2 = 4 − z.
ww
For the required volume integral
x varies from 0 to 1
√
y varies from 0 to 1 − x2
z varies from 0 to 4 − x2 − y2 .
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302 Engineering Mathematics - I
√ 2 −y2
Z1 Z1−x2 4−x
Z
Volume = 4 dzdydx
x=0 y=0 z=0
√
2
Z1 Z1−x
4−x2 −y2
= 4 [z]0 dydx
.in
x=0 y=0
√
Z1 Z1−x2
=4 (4 − x2 − y2 )dydx
ng
x=0 y=0
Z1 √ √ 3
! √1−x2
2 2 y
4(y)0 1−x − x2 (y)0 1−x −
=4 dx.
eri
3 0
x=0
x = sin θ.
Z1
=4 2
p
2
(4 − x ) 1 − x −
(1 − x2 )3/2
!
dx.
e dx = cos θdθ.
gin
3
0
When x = 0, sin θ = 0 ⇒ θ = 0.
Zπ/2
(cos2 θ)3/2
!
π
=4 (4 − sin2 θ) cos θ − cos θdθ When x = 1 sin θ = 1 ⇒ θ = .
3 2
En
0
Zπ/2
cos3 θ
!
2
=4 4 cos θ − sin θ cos θ − cos θdθ
3
arn
Zπ/2
cos4 θ
!
2 2 2
=4 4 cos θ − sin θ cos θ − dθ
3
Le
0
Zπ/2
cos4 θ
!
=4 4 cos2 θ − sin2 θ(1 − sin2 θ) − dθ
w.
3
0
Zπ/2
cos4 θ
!
2 2 4
ww
=4 4 cos θ − sin θ + sin θ − dθ
3
0
π/2
Zπ/2 Zπ/2 Zπ/2
Z
1
= 4 4 cos2 θdθ − sin2 θdθ + sin4 θdθ − cos4 θdθ
3
0 0 0 0
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Multiple Integrals 303
" #
1 π 1 π 3 1 π 1 3 1 π
=4 4· · − · + · · − · · ·
2 2 2 2 4 2 2 3 4 2 2
" #
1 π 3 1
=4· · 4−1+ −
2 2 4 4
" #
3 1
7=π 3+ −
4 4
.in
" #
1
=π 3+
2
7π
ng
= Cubic units.
2
Example 4.75. Find the volume bounded by the cylinder x2 +y2 = 4 and the planes
eri
y + z = 4 and z = 0. [May 2011]
Solution.
e
gin
The given surface is x2 + y2 = 4, z = 0 and
y + z = 4.
In the region, x varies from −2 to 2,
En
√ √
y varies from − 4 − x2 to 4 − x2 , z
varies from 0 to 4 − y.
arn
√
Z2 Z4−x2 Z4−y
∴ Volume = dzdydx
√
x=−2 y=− 4−x2 z=0
Le
√
Z2 Z4−x2
4−y
= [z]0 dydx.
√
w.
x=−2 y=− 4−x2
√
Z2 Z4−x2
= (4 − y)dydx.
ww
√
x=−2 y=− 4−x2
Z2 √ " 2 # √4−x2
2 y
4(y) √4−x 2 −
dx.
= √
− 4−x 2 − 4−x2
x=−2
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304 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z2 " p p 1 #
2 2 2 2
= 4 4 − x + 4 − x − 4 − x − (4 − x ) dx.
2
−2
Z2 p
= 8 4 − x2 dx.
−2
.in
Z2 p
=8×2 4 − x2 dx.
0
ng
" p #2
x 2
4 −1 x
= 16 4 − x + sin
2 2 2 0
eri
h i
= 16 2 sin−1 1
π
= 16 × 2 ×
2
= 16π Cubic units.
e
gin
Example 4.76. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the cylinders x2 + y2 = a2
and x2 + z2 = a2 .
En
Solution. The surfaces are the cylinders x2 + y2 = a2 and x2 + z2 = a2 .
arn
In the given region,
x varies from −a to a,
√ √
Le
y varies from − a2 − x2 to a2 − x2 and
√ √
z varies from − a2 − x2 to a2 − x2 .
w.
√ √
Za Za2 −x2 Za2 −x2
Volume = dzdydx.
ww
√ √
x=−a y=− a2 −x2 z=− a2 −x2
√
Za Za2 −x2 √
2 2
= [z] √a −x dydx.
− a −x2
2
√
x=−a y=− a2 −x2
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Multiple Integrals 305
√
Za Za2 −x2 p p
= a2 − x2 + a2 − x2 dydx.
x=−a y=− √a2 −x2
√
Za Za2 −x2 p
= 2 a2 − x2 dydx
x=−a y=− √a2 −x2
.in
Za p √
2 2
=2 a2 − x2 (y) √a −x
2 2
dx
− a −x
x=−a
ng
Za p p p
=2 2
a −x 2 2 2 2 2
a − x + a − x dx
x=−a
eri
Za p p
=2 a2 − x2 · 2 a2 − x2 dx.
x=−a
Za "
x3
!a #
e
gin
2 2 2 a
=4 (a − x )dx. = 4 a · (x)−a −
3 −a
x=−a
2a3 4a3 16a3
" # " #
2 1 3 3 3
= 4 a (a + a) − (a + a ) = 4 2a − =4× = Cubic units.
3 3 3 3
En
Example 4.77. Find the volume of the region bounded by the surfaces y2 = 4ax
and x2 = 4ay and the plane z = 0 and z = 3.
arn
Solution. Let us find the common points of the region bounded by
y2 = 4ax (1)
Le
and x2 = 4ay. (2)
x2
(2) ⇒ y = .
w.
4a
Substituting in (1) we get
ww
x4
= 4ax.
16a2
x4 = 64a3 x.
x4 − 64a3 x = 0
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306 Engineering Mathematics - I
x(x3 − 64a3 ) = 0
x = 0, x3 = 64a3
x = 4a.
For the given region,
x varies from 0 to 4a,
.in
x2 √
y varies from to 4ax,
4a
z varies from 0 to 3.
ng
√
Z4a Z4axZ3
∴ Volume = dzdydx
eri
x=0 y= x2 z=0
4a
√ √
Z4a Z4ax Z4a Z4ax
3
= [z]0 dydx. = 3dydx.
x=0 y= x2 e x=0 y= x2
gin
4a 4a
Z4a √
=3 [y] x24ax dx.
4a
x=0
En
Z4a √ x2
!
=3 4ax − dx.
4a
0
arn
√ x3/2 4a 1
" # " 3 #4a
x
= 3 2 a − ·
3/2 0 4a 3 0
!
√ 2 3/2 1 3
Le
= 3 2 a (4a) − · 64a
3 12a
√
√ 16a2
!
4 a
=3 · 4a 4a −
3 3
w.
16a2
!
16a √ √
=3 a·2 a−
3 3
ww
2 2 16a2
!
32a 16a
=3 − =3× = 16a2 Cubic units.
3 3 3
Example 4.78. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the surfaces y2 = x and
the planes x + y + z = 2 and z = 0.
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Multiple Integrals 307
Solution. The given region is bounded by
y2 = x (1)
x+y+z=2 (2)
z = 0. (3)
Whenz = 0, (2) ⇒ x + y = 2
.in
x = 2 − y.
Substituting in (1) we get
ng
y2 = 2 − y
y2 + y − 2 = 0
eri
(y − 1)(y + 2) = 0
∴ y = −2, 1.
For the given region we have, e
gin
y varies from −2 to 1,
x varies from y2 to 2 − y and
En
z varies from 0 to 2 − x − y.
Z1 Z2−y 2−x−y
Z
∴ Volume = dzdxdy
arn
y=−2 x=y2 z=0
Z1 Z2−y
2−x−y
= [z]0 dxdy
Le
y=−2 x=y2
Z1 Z2−y
= (2 − x − y)dxdy
w.
y=−2 x=y2
Z1 " 2 #2−y
2−y x 2−y
= 2 · [x]y2 − − y[x]y2 dy
ww
2 y2
y=−2
Z1 !
2 1 2 4 2
= 2{2 − y − y } − {(2 − y) − y } − y{2 − y − y } dy.
2
−2
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308 Engineering Mathematics - I
Z1 !
1
= 4 − 2y − 2y2 − [4 + y2 − 4y − y4 ] − [2y − y2 − y3 ] dy
2
−2
Z1
y2 y4
!
2 2 3
= 4 − 2y − 2y − 2 − + 2y + − 2y + y + y dy
2 2
−2
Z1
3y2 y4
.in
!
3
= 2 − 2y − +y + dy
2 2
−2
#1 " #1 " 4 #1 " #1
y2 3 y3 1 y5
"
ng
y
= 2[y]1−2 −2 − + +
2−2 2 3 −2 4 −2 2 5 −2
1 1 1
= 2(1 + 2) − (1 − 4) − (1 + 8) + (1 − 16) + (1 + 32)
eri
2 4 10
9 15 33
=6+3− − +
2 4 10
9 15 33 180 − 90 − 75 + 66 81
=9− −
2 4
+
10
=
e
20
=
20
Cubic units.
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
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