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 UNIT – I: ELECTROSTATICS

CHAPTER-1
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Electric Field and Dipole

Topic-1 Concepts Covered Electric charge, Electrostatic charge, Properties of electric charge,
Coulomb’s law, Principle of superposition, Electric eld, Electric eld lines, Electric
dipole, Torque on a dipole, Electric dipole moment, Electric eld due to dipole

Revision Notes
Electric Charge
Electric charge is the property of a matter due to which, it experiences a force when placed in an electromagnetic
field.
Point charge is an accumulation of the electric charges at a point, without spatial extent.
Electrons are the smallest and lightest fundamental particles in an atom having negative charge as these are
surrounded by invisible field known as electrostatic field.
Protons are comparatively larger and heavier than electrons with positive electrical charge which is similar in
strength as electrostatic field in an electron with opposite polarity.
Two electrons or two protons will tend to repel each other as they carry like charges, negative and positive
respectively.
The electron and proton will get attracted towards each other due to their unlike charges.
The charge present on the electron is equal and opposite to charge on the proton.
Charge on a proton = + 1.6 × 10 –19 C
and, charge on an electron = – 1.6 × 10–19 C
Electrostatic Charge
Electrostatic charge means the charge is at rest.
Electrostatic charge is a fundamental physical quantity like length, mass and time.

Charge on a body is expressed asq = ± ne

The magnitude of charge is independent of the speed of the particle.
Based on the flow of charge across them, materials are classified as:
• Conductors: Allow electric charge to flow freely, e.g., metals.
• Semi-conductors: Behave as the conductor or insulator depending on the number of free electrons and holes
availability. e.g., silicon.
• Insulators: Do not allow electric charge to flow, e.g., rubber, wood, plastic, etc.

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2 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

Net chargeon a body is given by:

• Charging by friction: Charging insulators
• Charging by conduction:Charging metals and other conductors
• Charging by induction: Wireless charging
Charging by Rubbing
On rubbing a glass rod and silk cloth piece together, glass rod gets positively charged whereas silk cloth gets
negatively charged.
If a plastic rod is rubbed with wool, it becomes negatively charged.
Charging by Induction
Charging by induction means charging without contact.
If a negatively charged rod is brought near neutral metal with insulator mounting, it repels free electrons and
attracts positive charges on metal.

Key Words
Electric Charge :Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed
in an electromagnetic field.
Friction: It is the opposing force.
Neutral metal: Metal having no net charge.
If far end is connected to Earth by a wire, electrons will flow towards ground while positive charges are kept
captive by the rod.
When the rod is removed, the captive positive charge is distributed evenly.
Properties of Electric Charge
Addition of charges
If a system contains three point charges q1, q2, and q 3, then the total charge of the system will be the algebraic
addition of q 1, q2 and q3, i.e., charges will add up.
q = q1 + q 2 + q 3
Conservationof charges
Electric charge is always conserved. It is the sum of positive and negative charges present in an isolated system,
which remains constant.
Charge can neither be created nor destroyed in the process, but only exists in positive-negative pairs.
Quantization of charges
Electric charge is always quantized i.e., electric charge is always an integral multiple of chargee’.
‘
Net charge qnet of an object having Ne electrons, N p protons and N n neutrons is:
qnet = – eNe + eN p + 0N n = e(N p – Ne) = ± ne
Neutron (n): m = 1.675 × 10–27 kg; q = 0
Proton (p): m = 1.673 × 10–27 kg; q = +1.6 × 10 –19 C
Electron (e): m = 9.11 × 10–31 kg; q = –1.6 × 10–19 C
Coulomb’sLaw
The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges q1 and q2 separated by adistance r is directly
proportional to product of magnitude of charges and inversely proportional to square of the distance between
charges, written as:
| q || q | 1 | q1| | q2|
F= k 1 2 2 =
r 4πε0 r2
where, F = F orce of attraction/repulsion between charge q1 and q2.
q1, q2 = Magnitudes of charge 1 and charge2 respectively
r = Distance between charges q1, q2
1
k = Constant whose value depends on medium where charges are kept, k=
1 4πε0
As e = K’e0, k =
4πK ' ε0
e0 = Permittivity of vacuum or free space = 8.854 × 10 –12 F/m
K’ = Relative per mittivity of medium or dielectric constant.
For vacuum, relative permittivity, K’ = 1,
As e = K’ e0, therefore the force of attraction/repulsion between two electric charges q1, q2placed in the vacuum and
medium will be:
1 . q1 q2 1 . q1 q2
F = 2
(vacuum) and F= ( medium )
4πε0 r 4πε0εr r 2
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 3
The unit coulomb (C) is derived from the SI unit ampere (A) of the electric current.

dq
Current is the rate at which charge moves past a point or through a region, i = , hence 1 C=(1 A) × (1 s).
dt
The vector form of Coulomb force with r 12 = unit vector from q 1 to q2 is given as:
1 q1q2 1 q1q2
F12 = . r 12 and F21 = r 21
4πε0 r 2 4πε0 r 2

⇒ F21 = − F12

Principle of Superposition
The force on any charge due to other charges at rest is the vector sum of all the forces on that charge due to the other
charges, taken one at a time.
The individual forces are unaffected due to presence of other charges.
→
Force exerted by q1 on q3 = F13
→
Force exerted by q2 on q3 = F 23

→ →
Net force exerted on q3 is vector sum of F13 and F 23

Electricfield
The space around a charge up to which its electric force can be experienced is called electric field.

If a test charge q0 is placed at a point where electric field is E, then force on the test charge F
is = q0E
The electric field strength due to a point source charge ‘ q’ at an observation point ‘A’ at a distance ‘ r’ from the source
charge is given by:
→ 1 .q→
E= r or E =
1 .q
4πε0 r 3 4πε0 r 2

The unit of electric field is N/C.

4 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

Electric field inside the cavity of a charged conductor is zero.

If a charged/uncharged conductor is placed in an external field, the field in the conductor is zero.
In the case of a charged conductor, electric field is independent of the shape of the conductor.

Electricfield lines
Electric field lines are imaginary lines that originates from the positive charge and terminates at negative charge.
Direction of electric field lines around positive charge is imagined by positive test charge q0 located around source
charge.

Electric field has the same direction as force on the positive test charge.
Electric field lines linked with negative charge are directed inward described by force on positive test charge q0.
The electric field lines never intersect each other.
Strength of electric field is encoded in density of field lines.
Electric Dipole
The system formed by two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance is called an electric dipole.
The electric field exists due to a dipole.

The force on a dipole in a uniform electric field is zero in both stable as well as unstable equilibrium.
The potential energy of a dipole in an uniform electric field is minimum for a stable equilibrium and maximum for
an unstable equilibrium.
Torque on a dipole
In a dipole, when the net force on dipole due to electric field is zero and center of mass of dipole remains fixed, the
forces on charged ends produce net torque t about its center of mass.
t = F dsin q = qE dsin q = pEsin q
t = p× E
• d =2 a

• If q = 0 o or 360o, dipole exists in stable equilibrium state.

• If q = 180o, dipole exists in an unstable equilibrium state.
In the uniform electric field, the dipole experiences torque, the net force on dipole is zero.
In the uniform electric field, the dipole experiences a rotatory motion.
In the non-uniform electric field, dipole experiences torque and net force.
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 5

In the non-uniform electric field, dipole experiences rotatory and translatory motion.
• The torque aligns the dipole with the electric field and it becomes zero.
• The direction of the torque is normal to the plane going inward.
ElectricDipole Moment
Dipole moment is a vector quantity whose unit is coulomb-metre (Cm).

Dipole moment vector of electric dipole is p = q ×2 a between pair of charges q, –q, along the line, separated by
distance 2a.
Electricfield due to a dipole
For point P at distance r from the centre of the dipole on charge q, for r>>a, total field at point P is
4qa
E=
4πε0r 3

1 . 2p
= (if a << r)
4πε0 r 3

For point P on the equatorial plane due to charges +q and –q, electric field of dipole at a large distance,
1 p
E=
4πε0 r 3

Gauss’ Theorem and its Applications

Topic-2
Concepts Covered Electric ux, Continuous charge distribution, Gauss’ theorem

Revision Notes
ElectricFlux
Electric flux is proportional to algebraic number of electric field lines passing through the surface, outgoing lines
with positive sign, incoming lines with negative sign.

Due to arbitrar y arrangement of electric field lines, electric flux can be quantified as f E=EA
If vector A is perpendicular to the surface, magnitude of vector A parallel to electric field is Acos q
AII = A cos q
f E = EA II = EAcos q
In non-unifor m electric field, the flux will be f E=∫E.dA
6 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

ContinuousCharge Distribution
It is a system in which the charge is uniformly distributed over the material. In this system, infinite number of
charges are closely packed and have minor space among them. Unlike the discrete charge system, the continuous
charge distribution is uninterrupted and continuous in the material. There are three types of continuous charge
distribution system.

q0 x λ
4πε0 ∫ r 2
For linear charge distribution ( l), F = dr (Where, l = linear charge density)

q0 s σ
For surface charge distribution (s), F = (Where, s = surface charge density)
4πε0 ∫ r 2
dSr

q0 V ρ
For volume charge distribution ( ρ), F = (Where, r = volume charge density)
4πε0 ∫ r 2
dV r
Gauss'theorem
The net outward normal electric flux through any closed surface of any shape is equal to 1/e0 times to net charge
enclosed by the surface.
q
The electric field flux at all points on Gaussian surface is φ = E ∫ dA = .
0 ε

Mnemonics
Concept:Characteristics of Electric field lines
Mnemonic: India Starts Playing Night Cricket Tournament Daily with New Inspiration.
Interpretation:

If there is a positive flux, net positive charge is enclosed.

If there is a negative flux, net negative charge is enclosed.
If there is zero flux, no net charge is enclosed.
q
The expression for electric field due to a point charge on Gaussian surface isE =
4πε0r 2
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 7

σ
In an insulating sheet, the charge remains in the sheet, so electric field,E=
2ε0
Gauss theorem works in cases of cylindrical, spherical and rectangular symmetries.
→ λ
The field outside the wire points radially outward which depends on distance from wire, E= n , where, l is
2πε0r
linear charge density.

Closed surface: It is a surface which divides the space inside and outside region, where one can’t move from one
region to another without crossing the surface.
Gaussiansurface:It is a hypothetical closed surface having similar symmetry as problem on which we are working.
ElectrostaticShielding: It is the phenomenon of protecting a certain region of space from external electric field.
Dielectric: The non-conducting material in which charges are easily produced on the application of electric field is
called dielectric. e.g., air, H2 gas, glass, mica, paraffin wax, transformer oil, etc.

Key Formulae
1 q1 q2
Coulomb’s force: F = ;
4πε0 r 2
where all alphabets have their usual meanings.
Electric field due to point charge q:
kq 1 .q
E= 2 = 2
r 4πε0 r

1 . 2p
Electric field due to a dipole at a point on the dipole axis: E = (r >>>a )
4πε0 r 3

1 .p
Electric field due to a dipole at a point on an equatorial plane: E = (r >>>a )
4πε0 r 3

Torque on an electric dipole placed in an electric field, τ = pEsin θ

Electric flux through an area A: f = E.A = EAcos q
Electric flux through a Gaussian surface: φ = ∫ E.dS
qenc
Gauss’s Law: φ =
ε0
λ 2kλ
Electric Field due to an infinite line of charge: E= =
2πε0r r

where, E = electric field [N/C],

l = charge per unit length [C/m]
8 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

–12
e0 = permittivity of free space = 8.85 × 10 [C2/N m 2], r = distance (m), k = 9 × 10 9 Nm 2C–2
Electric field due to a ring at a distance xis:

1 . qx
E= 3/ 2
4πε0 r 2 + x 2
( )
1 . q
When, x>>>r: E=
4πε0 x 2

When x<<<r: E = 0

where,
E = electric field [N/C]
s = charge per unit area [C/m 2]
e 0 = 8.85 × 10–12 [C2/Nm 2]
x = distance from charge [m]
R = radius of the disc [m]
σ
Electric field due to a thin infinite sheet: E = n
2ε0

CHAPTER-2
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

Electric Potential
Topic-1 Concepts Covered Electric potential, potential difference, equipotential surfaces.
Electrical potential energy of system of two point charges and of electric dipole.

Revision Notes
Electricpotential
Electric potential is the amount of work done by an external force in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to
a point in an electrostatic field without producing an acceleration.
W
It is written as V=
q
where, W = work done in moving charge q through the field, q = charge being moved through the field.

J Nm
The SI units of electric potential are , Volt, .
C C

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 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 9
Potential difference
Electric potential difference is defined as the amount of work done in car rying a unit charge from one point to
another in an electric field.
Electric potential difference
Work ∆PE W
= = =
Charge Charge q
Between two points A and B, WAB = – VAB × q
where, VAB = V B – VA is potential difference between A and B.
In a region of space having an electric field, the work done by electric field dW, when test charge q, is displaced by a
distance dI, then,
→ →
dW = q E.dl
B → →

WAB
∫ q E.dl B → →
∆V = VAB = VB − V A = − =−A = −∫ E. d l
q q A

Electricpotential due to point charge

The electric potential by point charge q, at a distancer from the charge, can be written as,
1 q
VE = ·
4πε0 r
where, e0 is absolute electrical permittivity of vacuum (free space).
Electric potential is a scalar quantity.
Dimension of Electric potential is [M L 2T–3A–1].
For a single point charge q, the potential difference between A and B is given by,
B B B
→ →
∆V = VB − V A = −∫ E .dl = −∫ Edl cos0° = −E ∫ dl
A A A

where, E is the field due to a point charge, dI = dr, so that,

rB rB
VB − V A = − ∫
rA
q . dr
=
q 1
4πε 0 r 2 4πε0 r [] rA
=
q
[ 1 1
−
4 πε0 rB r A ]
If r B = ∞, then V B = 0 so,
1 . q kq
VA = =
4πε0 rA rA
Dipole and systemof charges
Electric dipole consists of two equal but opposite electric charges which are separated by a certain or least
distance.
The net potential due to a dipole at any point on its equatorial line is always zero. So, work done in moving a
charge on an equatorial line is always zero.
Electric potential due to dipole at a point at distance r and making an angle q with the dipole moment p is given by,
→
1 . p cos θ 1 . p .r
V= = (r >> a)
4πε0 r2 4πε0 r 2
Potential at a point due to system of charges is the sum of potentials due to individual charges.
In a system of charges q1, q2, q3, …qn having positive vectors r 1, r 2, r 3,…..rn relative to point P, the potential at
point P due to total charge configuration is algebraic sum of potentials due to individual charges, so,
10 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

V = V 1 + V 2 + V 3 + ….. + V n

1 q1 q2 q3 q
= (+ + + .... + n
4πε0 r1 r2 r3 rn
)
1 n qi
V= ∑
4πε0 i =1 ri
It is known tha t in a uniformly charged spherical shell, electric potential outside the shell is given as:
1 .q
V= (r ≥ R )
4πε0 r
where, q is the total charge on shell and R is the shell radius.

Key Words
Electric potential: The amount of work needed to move a unit charge from a reference point to a specific point
against an electric field.
Dipole: A pair of equal and oppositely charged or magnetized poles separated by a certain distance.
Equipotential surfaces
Equipotential surface is a surface in space on which all points have same potential. It requires no work to move the
→
charge on such surface, hence the surface will have no electric field, so E will be at right angle to the surface.
Work done in moving a charge over equipotential surface is always zero.
Electric field is always perpendicular to the equipotential surface.
Spacing among equipotential surfaces allows to locate regions of strong and weak electric field.
Equipotential sur faces never intersect each other. If they intersect then the intersecting point of two equipotential
surfaces results in two values of electric potential at that point, which is impossible.

Potential energy of a system of two charges,

1 q1 q2
U=
4πε0 r12

Potential energy of a system of three charges,

1 q1 q2 q1 q3 q2 q3
U= (
4πε0 r→
+ → + → (
12 r13 r23
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 11

Potential energy due to single charge in an external field:

Potential energy of a charge q at a distance r in an external field,
→
U = qV ( r )
→
Here, V ( r ) is the external potential at point r.

Potential energy due to two charges in an external field,

→ → 1 q1 q2
U = q1V (r1 ) + q2 V(r2 ) + .
4πε0 r12

Potential energy of a dipole in an external field:

→
When a dipole of charge q1 = + q and q 2 = – q having separation '2a' is placed in an external field (E ).
U(q) = –pEcos q
Here, p = 2aq and q is the angle between electric field and dipole.

Capacitance
Topic-2 Concepts Covered Dielectrics, electric polarization, capacitor and capacitance, combi
nation of capacitor, energy stored in capacitor.

Revision Notes
Conductorsand insulators
Conductors are the materials through which charge can move freely. Examples: Metals, semi-metals as carbon,
graphite, antimony and arsenic.
Insulators are materials in which the electrical current does not not flow easily. Examples:Plastics and glass.
Dielectrics
These are the materials in which induced dipole moment is linearly proportional to the applied electric field.

Electrical displacement or electrical flux density, D = e r e0E.

where, er = Electrical relative permittivity, e 0 = Electrical permittivity of free space andE is electric field.
If a dielectric is kept in between the plates of capacitor, capacitance increases by factork’‘ (kappa) known as dielectric
A
constant, so C = κε 0
d
where, A = area of plates
12 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

ε
k = dielectric constant of material is also called relative permittivity κ = ε r =
ε0

Material Dielectric Dielectric strength

Constant(k) (106 V/m)
Air 1.00059 3
Paper 3.7 16
Pyrex Glass 5.6 14
Water 80 -
In dielectric, polarization and production of induced charge takes place when dielectric is kept in an external electric
field.
Electricpolarization
Electric polarization P is the difference between electric fields D (induced) and E (imposed) in dielectric due to
D −E
bound and free charges written as P =
4π
In term of electric susceptibility: P = c eE
In MKS: P = e0c eE,
The dielectric constant k is always greater than 1 asc e > 0
Key Word
Electric polarization: It is the separation of center of positive charge and the center of negative charge in a
material. The separation can be caused by a sufficiently high electric field.

Capacitor
A capacitor is a device which is used to store charge.
Amount of charge ‘Q’ stored by the capacitor depends on voltage applied and size of capacitor.
Capacitor consists of two similar conducting plates placed in front of each other where one plate is connected to
positive terminal while other plate is connected to negative terminal.
Electric charge stored between plates of capacitor is directly proportional to potential difference between its plates,
i.e.,
Q = CV
where, C = Capacitance of capacitor, V= potential difference between the plates
In capacitor, energy is stored in the form of electrical energy, in the space between the plates.
Capacitance
Capacitance of a capacitor is ratio of magnitude of charge stored on the plate to potential difference between the
Q
plates, written as C = .
DV
where, C = capacitance in Farads (F), Q = charge in Coulombs (C), ΔV = electric potential difference in Volts (V),
SI unit of capacitance is Farad (F)
1C
1F = = 9 × 1011 stat Farad,
1V
Where, stat-Farad is electrostatic unit of capacitance in C.G.S. system
Capacitance of a conductor depends on size, shape, medium and other conductors in surrounding.
Parallel plate capacitor with dielectric among its plates has capacitance which is given as:
A
C = κε0 ,
d
where, e0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m
Capacitor having capacitance of 1 Farad is too large for electronics applications, so components with lesser values of
capacitance such as µ (micro),n (nano) and p (pico) are applied such as:

PREFIX MULTIPLIER
–6
µ 10 (millionth) 1 µF = 10–6 F

n 10–9 (thousand-millionth) 1 nF = 10–9 F

p 10–12 (million-millionth) 1 pF = 10–12 F

 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 13
Combination of capacitorsin seriesand parallel
Capacitorsin series
(i) If a number of capacitors of capacitancesC1, C2, C3, .................. C
n are connected in series, then their equivalent
capacitance is given by:

1 1 1
= + 1 + 1 + ……………….
Cs C1 C2 C3 Cn

In series combination, the chargeon each capacitor is same, but the potential difference on each capacitor depends
on their respective capacitance, i.e.,

q1= q 2 = q 3 ………….. qn = q
If V1, V2, V3, ..........,Vn be the potential differences across the capacitors andV be the emf of the charging battery, then
V = V 1 + V 2 + V 3 + ............. +Vn
As charge on each capacitor is same, therefore
q = V 1C1 = V 2C2 = V 3C3 .............
the potential difference is inversely proportional to the capacitance, i.e.,

1
V µ
C
In series, potential difference across largest capacitance is minimum.
The equivalent capacitance in series combination is less than the smallest capacitance in combination.
Capacitorsin parallel
(i) If a number of capacitors of capacitancesC1, C2, C3................C
n are connected in parallel, then their equivalent
capacitance is given by,
Cp = C1 + C 2 + C 3 +................ + Cn
In parallel combination, the potential difference across each capacitor is same and equal to the emf of the charging
battery, i.e.,
V1= V 2 = V 3 = …………… = V n= V

while the charge on different capacitors may be different.

If q1, q2, q3, ..............,qn be the charges on the different capacitors, then q1 + q 2 + q 3 +….……….. + q n = VC p
As potential drop across each capacitor is same, so
14 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

q1 q
Þ V = = q2 = q3 = …….. = n
C1 C2 C3 Cn

The charges on capacitors are directly proportional to capacitances, i.e.,q µ C

Parallel combination is useful when large capacitance with large charge gets accumulated on combination.
1 QV 1
Force of attraction between parallel plate capacitor will be F = = QE where Q is charge on capacitor.
2 d 2
Capacitanceof parallel plate capacitorwith and without dielectric medium between the plates
Parallel plate capacitor is a capacitor with two identical plane parallel plates separated by a small distance where
space between them is filled by dielectric medium.
The electric field between two large parallel plates is given as:
σ
E= ,
ε0

Where, s = charge density and e0 = permittivity of free space

Surface charge density,
Q
σ= ,
A
where, Q = charge on plate and A = plate area
Capacitance of parallel-plate capacitor with area A separated by a distanced is written as
A
C = εr ε0
d

If a dielectric slab is placed in between the plates of a capacitor, then its capacitance will increase by certain amount.
Capacitanceof parallel plate capacitor depends on plate areaA, distance d between the plates, medium between the
plates (k) and not on charge on the plates or potential difference between the plates.
If we have number of dielectric slabs of same area as the platesof the capacitor and thicknesses t 1, t 2, t 3 ,.... and
dielectric constant k 1, k2, k3...... between the plates, then the capacitance of the capacitor is given by

ε0 A
C=
t1 t 2 t 3
+ + + ....
κ1 κ 2 κ 3
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 15

Where, d = t 1 + t 2 + t 3 + .....
If slab of conductor of thickness t is introduced between the plates, then

ε0 A ε0 A
C = t (d − t ) = t (d − t )
+ +
κ 1 ∞ 1

ε0 A
C= ( k = ¥ for a conductor)
d−t

When the medium between the plates consists of slabs of same thickness but areas
A1, A2, A3 ,... and dielectric
constants k 1, k2, k3..., then capacitance is given by
ε0 ( κ 1A1 + κ 2A2 + κ 3A3 ....)
C=
d
C Capacitance in medium
\k = m =
C0 Capacitance in vacuum
When space between the plates is partly filled with medium of thickness t and dielectric constant k, then capacitance
will be:
ε0 A ε 0A
C= =
t 1
d−t + d − t 1−
κ κ
ε0 A
When there is no medium between the plates, then k =1, so Cvacuum =
d
Capacitance of spherical conductor of radius R in a medium of dielectric constant k is given by,
C = 4pe0kR
Energy storedin capacitor
In capacitor, energy gets stored when a work is done on moving a positive charge from negative conductor to
positive conductor against the repulsive forces.
1 Q2 1 2 1
U = 2 C = 2 QV = 2 CV

Polar atom: Atom in which positive and negative charges possess asymmetric charge distribution about its centre.
Polarisation: The stretching of atoms of a dielectric slab under an applied electric field.
Dielectric strength: The maximum value of electric field that can be applied to dielectric without its electric
breakdown.
Dielectric: It is an electrically insulated or non-conducting material considered for its electric susceptibility.
Permittivity: It is a property of a dielectric medium that shows the forces which electric charges placed in medium
exerts on each other.
OR
It is the measure of resistancethat is encountered when forming an electric field in a particular medium. More
specifically, permittivity describes the amount of charge needed to generate one unit of electric flux in a particular
medium.

Mnemonics
Concept:Characteristics of equi-potential surface
Mnemonics:Exclusivepeaceand No war; Noble India is super power
Interpretations:Exclusivepeace:Electric field is perpendicular to the sur face
No war: No Work is done on moving a charge on the surface
Noble India: Never Intersects
Super Power: Same potential everywhere on the surface
16 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

Key Formulae
W
Electric Potential, V = , measured in volt;
q 1 volt = 1 Joule / coulomb.
∆U W
Electric potential difference or “ voltage” ( ∆V ) = V fi − V = = .
q q
1 q
Electric potential due to a point charge q at a distance r away: V = ·
4πε0 r
f
→ →
Finding V from E: V f – Vi = – ∫ E .d S
i

1 q1 q2
Potential energy of two point charges in absence of external electric field: U =
4πε0 r12

q1 q2
Potential energy of two point charges in presence of external electric field: q1 V(r1 ) + q2V (r 2 ) +
4πε0r12

Q
Capacitance, C= , measured in Farad; 1 F = 1 coulomb/volt
V
Parallel plate capacitor:
A
C = ke0
d
Cylindrical capacitor:
L
C = 2pke 0
ln (b / a)
where, L= length, b= radius of the outer conductor, a = radius of the inner conductor.
Spherical capacitor:
ab
C = 4pk e0
b- a
where, b = radius of the outer conductor, a = radius of the inner conductor
Maximum charge on a capacitor:
Q = VC
For capacitors connected in series, the chargeQ is equal for each capacitor as well as for the total equivalent.
If the dielectric constantk is changed, the capacitance is multiplied by k, the voltage is divided by k and Q is
unchanged. In vacuum, k = 1 and when dielectrics are used, replace e0 with k e 0.
Electrical energy stored in a capacitor: [Joules (J)]
QV CV 2 Q2
U E= = =
2 2 2C
Surface charge density orCharge per unit area: [C/m2]
q
s=
A
Energy density:
• Electric energy density is also called Electrostatic pressure.
• Electric force between plates of capacitor,
1
F= e E2·A
2 0
• Energy stored in terms of Energy density,
E 1
= e0 E2
A ×d 2
1
U= e0 E2
2
where, U = energy per unit volume [J/ m 3], e0= permittivity of free space, = 8.854 × 10 –12 C2/Nm 2, E = energy
[J]
• Capacitorsin series:
1 1 1
= + ...
Ceff C1 C2
• Capacitorsin parallel:
Ceff = C 1 + C 2...
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 17

UNIT – II: CURRENT ELECTRICITY

CHAPTER-3
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric Current & Cells
Topic-1 Concepts Covered Electric current, drift velocity, Ohm’s law, V-I characteristics,
Resistivity and conductivity, Temperature dependence of resistance, Cells and their
combinations.

Revision Notes
Electriccurrent
dq
Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charge, across the cross section of conductor i.e.,I =
dt
q
When charge flows at a constant rate, the corresponding electric current can be written as : I =
t
Conventional current in an external circuit flows from positive terminal to negative terminal.
Free electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal in the external circuit.
1 Ampere current = 6.25 × 10 18 electrons flowing per second.
Direct current is unidirectional flow of electric charge.
Flow of electricchargesin metallic conductor
When an electric field is applied to a metal at certain points, free electrons experience force and start moving.
Without external applied electric field, free electrons will move randomly through metal from one point to other
giving zero net current.
Motion of conducting electrons in electric field is a combination of motion due to random collisions.
Drift velocity, mobility and their relation with electric current
Drift velocity is an average velocity which is obtained by certain particles like electrons due to the presence of electric
field.
Drift velocity is written as :
eE
vd = − τ
m
λ
where, relaxation time, τ = ,
v
here e = charge, m= mass,
λ = meanfreepath
When electric current is set up in a conductor, electrons drift through the conductor with velocity vd, is given as
I
vd = or I = neAv d
neA
where, I = Electric current through conductor,
n = Number of free electrons per unit volume,
A = Area of cross-section, e = Charge of electron
Drift velocity of electrons under ordinary conditions is of the order of 0.1 mm/s.
Mobility is the drift velocity of an electron when applied electric field is unity.
v
Mobility, µ = d
E
eτ E / m eτ
or m = =
E m
Electricalresistivity and conductivity
Resistivity is the specific resistance that is given by the conductor having unit length and unit area of cross-section.
m
ρ= 2
ne τ

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18 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity shown as :

1 ne2τ
σ= =
ρ m
Ohm’s law
The flow of current through conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference established across the
conductor, provided other physical conditions remain constant.
or, Iµ V
or, I = GV
1
Here, G=
R
1
or I= V
R
or V = IR
where, R = resistance of conductor
V-I characteristics(linear and non-linear)
V-I characteristic curves show the relationship between the current flowing through an electronic device and applied
voltage across its terminals.
Linear V-I Characteristics
A linear V-I curve has a constant slope and hence a constant resistance. Carbon resistors and metals obey the Ohm's
law and have a constant resistance. This means that theV-I curve is a straight line passing through the origin.

An electronic component may exhibit linear characteristic only in a particular region. For example, a resistance
shows linear behaviour mostly in its operating region.
Non-linear V-I Characteristics
A circuit component has a non-linear characteristic if the resistance is not constant throughout and is some function
of voltage or current. The diode, for example, has varying resistance for different values of voltage.
However, it has linear characteristic for a narrow operating region.

Note that in the graph above, we can also see the maximum forward and reverse voltage in which the diode can be
operated without causing breakdown and burning up of the diode.
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 19
Electricalenergy and power
Electrical energy due to conduction of charged particles in a conductor causing electric current (i) is given as
V2
E = V × i × t = i2 × R × t = ×t
R
where, E = Electrical energy, V = Potential difference, t = Time taken, i = Current, R = Resistance
The SI unit of energy is Joule (J).
Power is the work done per unit time which is the rate of energy consumed in a circuit.
W
P=
t
W
Since, Voltage V = ,
q
q
So P = V = VI
t
V2 q
or P = I 2R or Here, I =
R t
The unit of power is J/s or W (Watt).
Temperaturedependenceof resistivity
With small change in temperature, resistivity varies with temperature as :
r = r 0(1 + a ΔT)
where, a = temperature coefficient of resistivity.
Internal resistanceof cell
Cell is a device that maintains the potential difference that is present between the two electrodes as a result of
chemical reaction.
Internal resistance is the resistance of electrolyte that is present in a battery which resists the flow of current when
connected to a circuit.
Emf E is the potential difference between the electrodes of cell, when no current flows through it.
Potential difference and emf of a cell
The emf and terminal potential difference of a cell : Let emf of a cell beE and its internal resistance, r.If an external
resistance R be connected across the cell through a key, then IR = V = potential difference across the external
resistanceR. This is equal to the terminal potential difference across the cell.

E=V+I r
E− V
⇒ I=
r
So V = E – Ir
∴ V < E. (if there is flow of current)
When cur rent is drawn from a cell, its terminal potential difference is less than the emf.
Combination of cells in seriesand parallel
(i) Seriescombinationof cells: This combination is used when an external resistance R ( ) of the circuit is much larger
as compared to the internal resistance (r) of the cell i.e.,
R>>r
Let n cells, each of emfE and internal resistance r be connected in series across an external resistanceR,then the
current in the circuit will be
nE
IS =
R + nr
(ii) Parallel combination of cells : This combination is used when the external resistance R is much smaller as
compared to the internal resistance (r) of the cell, i.e.,
R<<r
When m cells are connected in parallel across a resistance R, then current through the resistance is given by
E mE
IP = =
R+ r /m mR + r
20 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

If m cells of emfsE1, E2, E3,..... Emand of internal resistancesr 1, r 2, r 3,.....r mare connected in parallel across an external
resistance R, then the current through the external resistance is given by
E1 E2 E3 E
+ + .....+ m
r1 r2 r3 rm
IP =
R+[ 1 1 1
+ + + ....+
r1 r 2 r3
1
rm ]
Conductance: The reciprocal of resistance with unit as Siemen, “S.

Kirchhoff’s Rules & Wheatstone Bridge

Topic-2
Concepts Covered Kirchoff ’s rules, Wheatstone bridge.

Revision Notes
Kirchhoff ’s rules
Kirchhoff ’s rules tell us about the relationship between voltages and currents in circuits.
First rule
Kirchhoff ’s first rule is also known as junction rule which states that for a given junction or node in a circuit, sum of
the currents entering in a junction is equal to sum of currents leaving that junction.
I1 = I 2 + I 3

I2

I1
I3

OR
The algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a junction in a closed circuit is zero. i.e.,SI = 0
This is also called as the law of conservation of charge.
Second rule
Kirchhoff ’s second rule is also known as loop rule which shows that around any closed loop in a circuit, sum of the
emfs and the potential differences across all elements is zero.
i.e., SV = 0 or SV = SIR
This is also called as the law of conservation of energy.

R3
D C
I1+ I 2

R2 E2
I2
E B

R1 E1
I1
F A

For example : Applying voltage law in loop AFEBA,

E1 – E2 = I 1R1 – I2R2
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 21
WheatstoneBridge
It is a circuit having four resistances P, Q, R and S, a galvanometer (G) and a battery connected as shown.
WheatstoneBridge
Balancedcondition: P/Q = R/S
Node : An end point to any branch of a network or a junction common to two or more branches.

UNIT – III: MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM

CHAPTER-4
MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
Magnetic Field and Biot-Savart law
Topic-1 Concepts Covered Magnetic eld, Oersted's experiment, Biot-Savart law and its
application to current carrying circular loop.

Revision Notes

Conceptof Magnetic field

Magnetic field is a region around a magnet where force of magnetism acts which affects other magnets and
magnetic materials.
Magnetic field also known as B-field can be pictorially represented by magnetic field lines.
Magnetic fields are produced by electric currents, which can be macroscopic currents in wires, or microscopic
currents associated with electrons in atomic orbits.
Lorentz Force:When a charge q moving with velocity v enters a region where both magnetic fields and electric fields
exist, both fields exert a force on it.
→ → → →
Lorentz Force, F = q[ E+ v × B]

→ → → → → →
where, F = magnetic force, q = charge, v = velocity, B = magnetic field, E = electric field, q E= electric
→ →
force on the charge, q(v × B ) = magnetic force on the charge

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22 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

SI unit of magnetic field is Tesla, while smaller magnetic fields are measured in terms of Gauss.
1 Tesla = 10 4 G
→ →
When a test charge q0 enters a magnetic field B directed along negative z-axis with a velocity v making an angle q
with the z-axis, then,
→ → → ∧
Fm = q0 ( v× B) = q 0vB sin qn

Characteristics of motion of particle in magnetic field

Velocity and kinetic energy of particle do not change, as force is always perpendicular to velocity.
Direction of velocity will continuously change, if q = 0.
When q =0, no force will act on the particle, hence there will be no change in velocity.
When q =90°, test charge describes a circle of radius

mv
,
q0 B
where, m is mass of the particle; larger the momentum, bigger the circle described.
mv sinq
In case ofq being any other angle than 0° and 90°, testcharge will show circular path of radius ,
q0 B
which moves along the direction of magnetic field with speed of v cos q.
Momentum along the direction of magnetic field will remain same.
q B
Angular speed of test charge 0 is independent of initial speed of particle.
m
Centripetal force on test charge q0v B sin q is independent of the mass of particle.
When the particle enters the magnetic field with the same momentum, then radius of path will be,
mv
r=
q0 B
1
where, r
q0
Oersted’s experiment
Oersted observed that:
When there is no current, compass needle below a wire shows no deflection.
When the flow of current is in single direction, then the compass needle deflects in a particular direction.
When the flow of current is reversed, deflection in compass needle occurs in the opposite direction.
From an experiment, it is concluded that an electrical current produces a magnetic field which surrounds the wire.
Biot-Savart's law
The magnetic field due to a current element at a nearby point is given by:
→ →
→ µ0 dS× r
where, dB = I
4π r3

→
dB = Magnetic field produced by cur rent element
→
dS = Vector length of small section of wire in direction of current
→
r = Positional vector from section of wire to where magnetic field is measured
I = Current in the wire
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 23

→ →
q = Angle between ds and r
m0 = Permeability of free space and m0 = 4p × 10 –7 Wb/Am
The magnitude of magnetic field,
→ µ0 Idl sin θ
| dB| =
4π r2

Key Words
Angular Speed: It is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement, and it is expressed as follows: ω = θt.
Permeability: It is also called magnetic permeability, is a constant of proportionality that exists between magnetic
induction and magnetic field intensity.

Applications of Biot-Savart's Law

Magnetic field at a point in circular loop will be:
→ µ0IR 2 →
B= 3/ 2
r [Here, r 2 = R 2 + x 2]
( )
2
2 R +x 2

Magnetic field at the centre of the coil

→ µ0NI →
B= r [x = 0]
2R

2µ0Ni A
Magnetic field at very large distance from the centre: B = [Here, R2 << r 2
or, R2 + x 2 ≈ x2]
4πx 3
where, A = Area of circular loop
= pR2
Magnetic field due to current carrying circular arc with centr e O will be:
µ πi µ i
(i) B = 0 . = 0
4π r 4r

(ii) B = µ0 . θi
4π r
24 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

µ0 . ( 2π − θ)i
(iii) B =
4π r

Magnetic field at common centre of non-coplanar and concentric coils, where both coils are perpendicular to each
other will be:

µ0 2 2
B = B12 + B22 = i1 + i 2
2r

Key Formulae
→ → → → → →
→
Lorentz force, F = q( E + v × B) µ0 . i (dl × r )
Biot-Savart's law, d B =
4π r3
In unifor m magnetic field B, frequency of circular
motion of charged particle, Magnetic field at a point due to circular loop,
qB → µ0 R2
f= B= .I
2pm 2 ( R + x 2 )3 / 2
2

q2 r 2B2
and KEm =
2m

Mnemonics
Concept:Path of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field depending on the angle between the magnetic field
and the velocity of the particle:
Mnemonics:Circle–circle ninety (90°) angle, go straight if it is zero (0°), go for helical, all other angle magnetic field
is zero.

Path is a circle if angle between magnetic field and velocity of charged

⇒
particle is 90°.
Path is a straight line if angle between magnetic field and velocity of
⇒ charged particles is 90°
Path is helix if any other angle between magnetic field and velocity of
⇒ charged particle.
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 25

Ampere's Circuital Law and its Applications

Topic-2 Concepts Covered Ampere's law and it applications to innitely long straight wire,
straight solenoid

Revision Notes
Ampere’s circuital law states that the line integral of magnetic field around a closed path is µ0 times of total current
enclosed by the path, ∫ B.dI = µ0I
where,
B = Magnetic field
dl = Infinitesimal segment of the path
µ0 = Magnetic permeability of free space
I = Enclosed electric current by the path

Magnetic field at a point will not depend on the shape of Amperian loop and will remain same at every point on the
loop.
Forces between two parallel currents
Two parallel wires separated by distance r having currents 1I and I2 where magnetic field strength at second wire due
to current flowing in first wire is given as:
µ 0I 1
B=
2πr
• In this, the field is orientated at right-angles to second wire where force per unit length on the second wire will
be:
F µ 0I 1I 2
=
l 2πr
• Magnetic field-strength at first wire due to the current flowing in second wire will be:
µ 0I 2
B=
2πr
One ampere is the magnitude of current which, when flowing in each parallel wire one metre apart, results in a force
between the wires as 2 × 10–7 N per metre of length.
Applications of Ampere’s law to infinitely long straight wire, straight solenoids
(i) Magnetic Field due to long straightwire
Ampere's law describes the magnitude of magnetic field of a straight wire as:
µ 0I
B=
2πr
where,
• Field B is tangential to a circle of radius r centered on the wire.
• Magnetic field B and path length L will remain parallel where magnetic field travels.
26 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

(ii) Magnetic Field due to Solenoid

Solenoid:
Solenoid is a tightly wound helical coil of wire whose diameter is small compared to its length.
Magnetic field generated in the centre, or core of a current carrying solenoid is uniform and is directed along
the axis of solenoid.
Magnetic field due to a straight solenoid:
• at any point in the solenoid, B = m0nI
µ 0nI
• at the ends of solenoid, Bend =
2
where, n = number of turns per unit length, I = current in the coil.

Key Formulae
→ →
Ampere's circuital law: ∫ B . dl = µ0I µ 0Ni
r =
2πr
Magnetic field at the sur face of a solid cylinder:
Force between two parallel wires,
µ 0I
B= µ 2i i
2πR F = 0 × 1 2 ×l
4π a
Magnetic field inside the solenoid:
Force between two moving charge particle,
B = m0nI
µ q qv v
Fm = 0 × 1 2 2 1 2
Magnetic field in a tor roid with mean radius r: 4π r

Torque and Galvanometer

Topic-3 Concepts Covered Torque experienced by a current loop in uniform magnetic eld,
moving coil galvanometer and its current sensitivity conversion to ammeter and voltmeter.

Revision Notes
Torque: It is a force that produces or tends to produce rotation or torsion.
Galvanometer:A galvanometer is an electromechanical measuring instrument for electric current.
Torque experienced by a current loop in uniform magnetic field
If a rectangular loop of length l , breadth b with current I flowing through it is in a uniform magnetic field of induction, B
where angle q is between the normal and in direction of magnetic field, then the torque experienced will be:
t = nBIA sin q
where, n = number of turns in the coil
\ nIA = M
Further, t = MB sin q
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 27

Torque will be maximum when the coil is parallel to magnetic field and will be zero when coil is perpendicular to
magnetic field.
→ → → →
In vector notation, torque τ experienced will be τ = M × B
Moving coil galvanometer
It is an instrument used for detection and measurement of small electric currents.
In this, when a current carrying coil is suspended in uniform magnetic field, it experiences a torque which rotates
the coil.
The force experienced by each side of the galvanometer will be F = BIl which are opposite in direction.

Opposite and equal forces form the couple which generates deflecting torque on the coil having number of turns n
is given as:
t = F×b
= nBIl × b
= nBIA

In moving coil galvanometer, current in the coil will be directly proportional to the angle of the deflection of the coil,
Iµq
i.e., where, q is the angle of deflection.
28 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

Current sensitivity of galvanometer

Current sensitivity of galvanometer is the deflection produced when unit current passes through the galvanometer.
A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if it produces large deflection for a small current.
C
I= q
nBA
q nBA
Current Sensitivity, =
I C
Voltage sensitivity of galvanometer is the deflection per unit voltage given as
q θ nBA
Voltage Sensitivity, = =
V IG CG
where, G = galvanometer resistance, C = torsional constant.
Increase in sensitivity of moving coil galvanometer depends on:
(i) number of tur ns n
(ii) magnetic field B
(iii) area of coil A and
(iv) torsional constant.
Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter
Galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by connecting a low resistance known as shunt in parallel with the
galvanometer coil.
If I g being the maximum current with full scale deflection passes through galvanometer, then current through shunt
resistance will be
i s = (i – i g)
where, G = Galvanometer resistance, S = Shunt resistance and i = Current in circuit
Now, effective resistance of ammeter will be:
1 1 1
= +
Ra G S
GS
Ra =
G+ S

Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter

Voltmeter measuresthe potential difference between the two ends of a current carrying conductor.
Galvanometer can be converted to voltmeter by connecting high resistance in series with galvanometer coil.
As resistance R is connected in series with galvanometer, current through the galvanometer will be,
V V
ig = or, R = − G
R+ G ig

Effective resistance of voltmeter is Rv = G + R,

where, Rv is very large making the voltmeter to connect in parallel since it can draw less current from the circuit.
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 29

Key Formulae
t max = NBiA θ nAB
Voltage Sensitivity = =
θ nAB V CG
Current Sensitivity = =
I C

CHAPTER-5

MAGNETISM AND MATTER

Revision Notes

Magnetic field intensity due to magneticdipole (bar magnet) along its axis and perpendicularto its axis
Bar magnet has two magnetic poles known as north pole and south pole each having strength m. If the separation
between the poles known as magnetic length is 2l, then bar magnet is said to havemagnetic dipole moment
which is M = m × 2l = 2ml
Direction of magnetic dipole moment is from South pole to North pole of bar magnet.
Lines of magnetic force run in closed loops and form continuous closed loops.
Point lies on axial line of bar magnet:
If 2l is length of bar magnet, m is magnetic strength or intensity of each pole, M is magnetic dipole moment, then
magnetic field at point P due to:

North pole of magnet (N)

µ 0 ( +m)
B=
4π(d − l )2

Key Words
Magnetic length: It is the distance between the two poles of a magnetic dipole.
Magnetic dipole moment: It is the product of pole strength and separation between two poles. It is denoted by M.
Magnetic intensity: It is the magnetic moment per unit volume.

South pole of magnet (S)

µ 0 ( −m)
B=
4π(d + l )2
Hence, resultant at point P when 2l << d:
µ 0 2M
B=
4πd3
where, M = m × 2l.
Point lies on equatorial line of bar magnet
If 2l is magnet length of bar magnet, m is magnetic intensity of each pole, m0 is permeability of free space, then
magnetic field at point P due to:
North pole of magnet (direction N–P)
+µ 0 (m)
B=
4π(d2 − l 2 )

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30 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

South pole of magnet (direction P–S)

−µ 0m
B=
4π(d2 + l 2 )
Hence resultant at point P when 2l << d:
µ 0M
B=
4πd3
where, M = m × 2l
Torque on a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) in uniform magneticfield
A bar magnet with length 2 l and pole strength m in uniform magnetic field induction B at angle θ with force mB
acting on North and South pole along the direction opposite to magnetic field results as a couple where torque τ due
to couple will be:

Key Words
Magnetic dipole: A system of two equal and opposite magnetic poles separated by small distance.

t = force × perpendicular distance

t = F × NA
= mB × NA
= mB × 2lsin q
= MBsin q
where, M = m × 2l

In vector form:
→ → →
τ = M ×B
The direction of t is perpendicular to plane containing, so when B = 1 and q = 900,
t=M
Magnetic moment M of the magnet will be equal to the torque required to keep the magnet at right angles to a
magnetic field of unit magnetic induction .
Magnetic field lines
They are imaginary closed loops which continuously represent the direction of magnetic field at any point. Tangent
at any point of these loops give the direction of magnetic field at that point.
Concentration of field lines gives strength of magnetic field.
Two field lines can never intersect each other. If they would, there will be two tangents at the point of intersection,
which mean two directions of magnetic lines, which is impossible.
In a ‘uniform’ magnetic field, the field lines are parallel and equidistant.
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 31

If a magnetic needle is placed in a magnetic field and left, it will experience a torque and start oscillating in simple
harmonic motion.
Torque on a magnetic needle,
τ = M ×B

where, B is external magnetic field in which magnetic needle is kept.

Time period of oscillations of magnetic needle,
I
T=2π
MB
where, I is moment of inertia of magnetic needle.
Potential energy of a magnet in a magnetic field,
U = −M .B
Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid
If a solenoid of length 2l, radius a with current I having n number of turns per unit length, then the magnetic
moment of solenoid,
µ 2M
M (= NIA), B = 0
4πd3

Magnetic moment of a bar magnet is equal to magnetic moment of an equivalent solenoid that produces same
magnetic field.
Gauss' Law for Magnetic Fields
Gauss’ Law for magnetism applies to the magnetic flux through a closed surface.
It shows that no magnetic monopoles exist and total flux through closed surface will be zero.
The Gauss’s lawfor magnetic fields in integral form is given by
→ →
φ = ∫ B .d A = 0

Propertiesof Dia, para and FerromagneticSubstances:

S.No. Diamagnetic Substances ParamagneticSubstances FerromagneticSubstances

1. These substances acquire These substances acquire feeble These substances acquire strong
feeble magnetism opposite to magnetism in the direction of magnetism in the direction of
the direction of magnetic field magnetic field when placed in magnetic field when placed in
when placed in magnetic field. magnetic field. magnetic field.

H H H
M M M

2. Permeability is less than one Permeability is slightly greater Permeability is much greater than
(µ<1). than one (µ>1). one (µ>>1).
3. Susceptibility is small, Susceptibility is small and positive Susceptibility is large and positive
negative, and independent of and inversely proportional to 1
and follow Curie’s Law , χ ∝
temperature. 1 T
the absolute temperature, χ ∝ (Curie’s Law)
(Curie’s Law) T
At Curie temperature,
ferromagnetic substance changes
to paramagnetic substance.
32 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

Mnemonics
Concept:Four characteristics of magnetic field lines (i) Imaginary Lines
Mnemonics:I love new stories Tina found new Cook- (ii) Extended from North to South pole
ies. (iii) Tangent gives (magnetic) field direction
Interpretations: (iv) Never Cross each other

Key Formulae
Magnetic field due to short dipole at distance ‘d’ on axial line:
µ 0 2M
Baxial =
4πd3
Magnetic field due to short dipole at distance ‘d’ on equatorial line:
µ M
Bequi = 0 3
4πd
Torque on a magnetic dipole in uniform magnetic field: τ = MB sin θ

UNIT – IV:
ELECROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING
CURRENTS
CHAPTER-6
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Magnetic Flux and Faraday's Laws

Topic-1 Concepts Covered Electromagnetic induction, Faraday's laws & Lenz's Law.

Revision Notes
Electromagneticinduction
Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating the electric current with a changing magnetic field.
It takes place whenever a magnetic field is changing or electric conductors move relative to one another when
they are in fluctuating magnetic field.
The current produced by electromagnetic induction is more when the magnet or coil moves faster. When magnet
or coil moves back and forth repeatedly, then alternating current is produced.
If magnetic field is changing, the changing magnetic flux will be f B = NBA cos θ, where, θ is the angle between
magnetic field and normal to the plane.

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 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 33
Magnetic flux density
The change in magnetic flux per unit change in area is called magnetic flux density.

Key Word
Magnetic flux: Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic field which passes through a given area.
It is the number of magnetic field lines passing through a given closed surface.
It is the product of the average magnetic field and the perpendicular area that it penetrates.

Magnetic flux is given by:

→ →
df = B . dA
→ →
For B parallel to dA , we have
df = B( dA)cos 0° = B(dA)
df
Therefore, B = ....(i)
dA
i.e., magneticinduction is equal to the magnetic flux density. In other words, the magnetic field may be measured
in terms of magnetic flux density. From equation (i), we find:
Unit of df
Unit of B=
Unit of dA
Wb
Or, T =
m2
i.e., Tesla = W eber per square metre.
Faraday’sLaws of ElectromagneticInduction
The induced emf in a closed loop due to a change in magnetic flux through the loop is known as Faraday’s law.
Faraday’sFirst Law of Electromagnetic Induction states that whenever a conductor is placed in varying magnetic
field, an emf is induced which is known as induced emf and if the conductor circuit is closed, current is also
induced which is called induced current.
Faraday’sSecondLaw of Electromagnetic Induction states that the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of
flux linkage where flux linkage is the product of number of turns in the coil and flux associated with the coil.
dφB
ε=−
dt
→ →
f B is magnetic flux through the circuit and is represented as φB = B .dA
∫
With N loops of similar area in a circuit and f B being the flux through each loop, emf is induced in every loop.
Writing the formula for Faraday's law as
∆φ
ε = −N
∆t
where, e = Induced emf [V], N = Number of turns in the coil
Δf = Change in the magnetic flux [W b],
Δt = Change in time [s]
The negative sign indicates that e opposes its cause.
If there is no change in magnetic flux, no emf is induced.
Induced emf and current
A changing magnetic flux induces an electric field which induces a cur rent in the circuit.
A wire moving in the field induces a cur rent which acts same as current provided by a battery.
Changing magnetic flux and induced electricfield are related to induced emf as per Faraday’s law.
The induced EMF in a conductor moving is related to the magnetic field as
E = B.l.vsin q

Key Words
Induced emf: A short-lived voltage generated by a conductor or coil, moving in a magnetic field.
Induced electric field: Field generated due to changing magnetic flux with time.
34 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

Induced current
When a conductor moves across flux lines, magnetic forces on the free electrons induce an electric cur
rent.
When a magnet is moved towards a loop of wire connected to an ammeter, ammeter shows current induced in
the loop.

When a magnet is held stationary, there will be no induced current in the loop, even though the magnet is inside
the loop.

When a magnet is moved away from the loop, the ammeter shows opposite current induced in the loop.

Motional emf
The relationship between an induced emf e in a wire or a conductor moving at a constant speed v through a
magnetic field B is given by:
f B = Blx
−dφB −d
e= = ( Blx )
dt dt
dx
= −Bl
dt
dx
= Blv = −v
dt

An induced emf from F araday’s law is generated from a motional emf that opposes the change in flux.
Magnetic and electric forces on charges in a rod moving perpendicular to magnetic field is given as:
At equilibrium, FE = FB
qE = qvB
E = vB
V V
= vB [Here, E = ]
l l
V = Bvl
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 35
Lenz’s law
Lenz’s law is used to determine the direction of induced magnetic fields, currents and emfs.
The direction of an induced emf always opposes the change in magnetic flux which causes the emf.
It explains the negative sign in Faraday’s rule, ε = − dφB showing that the polarity of induced emf tends to
dt
produce a current that opposes the cause i.e., change in magnetic flux.
As per conservation of energy, induced emf opposes its cause, making mechanical work to continue with the
process which gets converted into electrical energy.
Slide wire containing induced cur rent, magnetic field and magnetic force:

Electric Generatorsand Back Emf

Electric generator rotates a coil in a magnetic field inducing an emf which is given as a function of time
e = NBAw sin (wt).
→
where, A = Area of N-turn coil rotated at constant angular velocity w in uniform magnetic field B .
The peak emf of a generator is,
e0 = NBAw
Any rotating coil produces an induced emf . In motors, it is known as back emf as it opposes the emf input to the
motor.

Key Words
Electric generator: Device for converting mechanical work into electrical energy that induces an emf by
rotating a coil in magnetic field.
Motional emf: Voltage produced by the movement of conducting wire or a conductor in a magnetic field.
Peak emf: The maximum emf produced by a generator.
Back emf: The emf generated by a running motor due to coil that turns in a magnetic field which opposes the
voltage that powers the motor.

Self and Mutual Induction

Topic-2 Concepts Covered Self Inductance Mutual Inductance.

Revision Notes
Mutual Induction
The production of induced emf in a circuit, when the cur rent in the neighbouring circuit changes is called mutual
induction.
When the circuit of the primary coil is closed or opened, deflection is produced in the galvanometer of the
secondary coil. This is due to the mutual induction.
The mutual induction between two coils depends on the following factors:
The number of turns of primary and secondary coils.
The shape, size or geometry of the two coils. i.e., the area of cross-section and the length of the coils.
Coefficient of mutual induction:
Suppose, the instantaneous current in the primary coil is I. Let the magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil
be f. It is found that the magnetic flux is proportional to the current. i.e.,
f µ I or f = MI ...(i)
where, M is the constant of proportionality . It is called coefficient of mutual induction .
The induced emf e in the secondary coil is given by
dφ dI
e=– = −M ...(ii)
dt dt
36 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

The negative sign is in accordance with the Lenz’s law i.e., the induced emf in the secondary coil opposes the
variation of current in the primary coil.
Taking magnitude of induced emf from the equation (ii), we find:
e
M =
(dI / dt )
V
Therefore, Unit of M = = VA –1s
As−1
If n1, n2 be the number of turns per unit length in primary and secondary coils per unit length and r be their
radius, then coefficient of mutual inductance is given as
2
M = mn0 1n2pr l

Key Word
Inductance: Inductance is the tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a change in electric current flowing
through it.
Inductance is defined as the ratio of the induced voltage to the rate of change of current causing it. .
The unit of inductance is the henry (H),
Self-Induction:
The production of induced emf in a circuit, when the current in the same circuit changes is known as self-
induction.
Suppose the instantaneous current in the circuit is I and if the magnetic flux linked with the solenoid is f, then it
is found that:
f µ I or f = LI ...(i)
where, L is the constant of proportionality . It is called coefficientof self-induction.
The induced emf e in the coil is given by
dφ dI
e=– = −L ...(ii)
dt dt
The negative sign is in accordance with the Lenz’s law i.e., the induced emf opposes the variation of current in
the coil.
Taking the magnitude of the induced emf from the equation (ii), we find:
L = e / (dI / dt) ...(iii)
Then, the coefficientof self-induction is the ratio of induced emf in the circuit to the rate of change of the current
in the circuit.
Unit of L: The unit of self-induction is called henry (symbol H).
From equation (ii), we find that if
dI/dt = 1 As–1 and e = 1 V,
then L = 1 H Þ 1 VA –1s
If a rod of length l moves perpendicular to a magnetic field B with a velocity v, then the induced emf produced
across it, is given by
e = vBl
In general, we have, e = Blv sin q
If a metallic rod of length l rotates about one of its ends in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field, then the
induced emf produced across its ends is given by
Bωl 2 B2 πfl 2
e= = = BAf
2 2
Here, w = angular velocity of rotation,
A = pl 2 = area of circle and f = frequency of rotation.
Inductance in the electrical circuit is equivalent to the inertia (mass) in mechanics.
When a bar magnet is dropped into a coil, the electromagnetic induction in the coil opposes its motion, so the
magnet falls with acceleration less than that due to gravity.
The inductance of a coil depends on the following factors:
• area of cross-section,
• number of turns

• permeability of the core.

 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 37

Wb Vs
Unit of induction, H= = = Ω.s
A A
The self inductance of a circular coil is given by:
µ0 2πNI
L=
φ BAN
I
=
I
µ ( 2πNI )
= 0.
4π rI
× AN [∵B = .
4π r
]
µ 0N 2 µ N2
L= A = 0 × πr 2
2r 2r
µ0N 2πr
or L=
2
The self inductance of a solenoid of length l is given by
φ BAN µ NI AN µ0NI
L= = = 0 ∵B =
I I l I l
µ 0 N 2A N
or L= = µ0n2 Al = µ0n 2V ∵n =
l ` l
Here, n = N / l = Number of turns per unit length and V = Al = Volume of the solenoid.
If two coils of inductance L 1 and L2 are coupled together, then their mutual inductance is given by
M = k L1L 2
where, k is called the coupling constant.
The value of k lies between 0 and 1.
For perfectly coupled coils, k = 1, it means that the magnetic flux of primary coil is completely linked with the
secondary coil.
If a current I is set up in a coil of inductance L, then the magnetic field energy stored in it is given by
1 2
Um = LI
2

Mnemonics
Concept:Induced emf in a conductor moving in a eat: emf
Plain: product of
magnetic field:
Loaf: Length of Conductor
Mnemonics:I eat Plain Loaf and Boiled Vegetables Boiled: B (magnetic field)
Interpretations: Vegetables: V (Velocity)
I: Induce Induced emf = Blv

Key Formulae
→ → The inductance in parallel is given by
Magnetic flux: fm= ∫ B . dA 1 1 1 1
= + + + ....
Faraday’s law: dφm Lp L1 L2 L3
e = −N
dt Mutual Inductance of two coils is given by
Motional induced emf: e = B lv n nN N A
Motional emf around a circuit: M= 0 r P S S
IP
dφ
e = E.dl = − m
∫ dt where, m0 is the permeability of free space
emf produced by an electric generator (4p × 10–7).
e = NBA sin wt mr is the relative permeability of the soft iron core.
For Self Induction N S is number of turns in secondary coil.
dφ dI N P is number of turns in primary coil.
e= – = −L
dt dt 2
AP is the cross-sectional area of primary coil in m.
For Mutual Induction AS is the cross-sectional area of secondary coil in
dφ dI m 2.
e= – = −M I is the coil current.
dt dt
For a.c. Generator e = e0 sin wt or e = e0 sin 2 pnt
The inductance in series is given by
Ls = L 1 + L 2 + L 3 +....
38 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

CHAPTER-7
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Alternating Current
Topic-1 Concepts Covered Alternating current, its peak and rms value, reactance and
impedance,

Revision Notes
Alternating current
Alter nating current changes continuously in magnitude and periodically in direction.
It is represented by sine curve or cosine curve as I = 0Isin ωt or I = I 0cos ωt where, I 0 is peak value of current and I
is instantaneous value of current.
Frequency of an alternating current supply f, is defined as the number of cycles completed per second. It is measured
in Hertz (Hz). In India, the frequency of ac current is 50 Hz.
The time period T, of an alternating supply, is time taken to complete one cycle.
The behaviour of ohmic resistance R in ac circuit is the same asni dc circuit.
Alter nating current can be produced by using a device called as an alternator.
AC waveforms are:

Peak and rms value of alternating current/voltage:

Root mean square orrms is the root mean square of voltage or current in an accircuit for one complete cycle denoted
by V rms or Irms.
rms value is the standard way of measuring alternating current and voltage as it gives the dc equivalent values.
rms value of ac is also called effective value or virtual value of ac represented as rms
I , I eff or I v shown as
I0
I rm s = = 0.707I0
2

rms voltage value is the square root of averages of the squares of instantaneous voltages in a time varying waveform.
V0
Vrms = = 0.707 V0
2

AC voltage applied to pure inductive circuits:

By: https://t.me/std_XII
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 39
V = Vmsin ωt
π p
I = I m ( sinω t − ) [which shows current lags the voltage by ]
2 2
I mVm
Average PL = [sin (2ωt)] = 0
2 [Since average of sin 2ωt over a complete cycle is zero]

Key Words
Inductive circuits: A Pure inductive circuit is one in which the only quantity in the circuit is inductance (L), with
no other components such as resistance or capacitance.
Capacitive circuit: A Pure capacitor circuit is a circuit that contains a pure capacitor with capacitance C farads.
Impedance: For A.C. circuits, Impedance is the measure of the total opposition that a circuit presents to electric
current. Impedance includes both resistance and reactance.

Thus the average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is zero.
AC applied to pure capacitive circuit:

V = V m sin ωt
p
I = I m sin ( ωt + )
2

p
[which shows cur rent leads the voltage by ]
2
I mV m
Average PC = sin( 2ωt ) = 0 [Since average of
2
sin 2ωt over a complete cycle is zero]

Thus, the average power supplied to a capacitor over one complete cycle is zero.
Phasor-diagram:A phasor diagram represents sinusoidal ac current and sinusoidal voltage in a circuit along with
the phase difference between current and voltage. The length of phasor is proportional to the instantaneous values
of V, I and the maximum length is proportional to V 0 and I0.

Phasordiagram of purely Inductive circuit

Graphical representationof V and i versus ωt.

40 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

Reactance andImpedance
When an ac current is passed through a resistor, a voltage drop is produced which is in phase with the current and
is measured in ohms (Ω).
Reactanceis the inertia against the motion of electrons where an alternating current after passing through it produces
a voltage drop which is 90° out of phase with the current.
Reactance is shown by “X” and is measured in ohms (Ω).
Reactance is oftwo types: inductive and capacitive.
Inductive reactance is linked with varying magnetic field that surrounds a wire or a coil carrying a current.
Inductive reactance (XL ) is the resistance offered by an inductor and is given by X = ωL = 2pfL
L
Through a pure inductor , alternating current lags behind the alternating emf by phase angle of 90o.
Capacitive reactance is linked with changing electric field between two conducting surfaces separated from each
other by an insulating medium.
Capacitive reactance (XC) is the resistance offered by a capacitor and is given by
1 1
XC = =
ωC 2 πfC
Through a pure capacitor, alternating current leads the alternating emf by a phase angle of 90o.
Impedance is the comprehensive expression of all forms of opposition to electron flow, including resistance and
reactance, where an alternating current after passing through it produces a voltage drop between 0o and 90o which
will be out of phase with current given as,
Z = R2 + X C 2
where, Z = Impedance of circuit, R = Resistance, X = Reactance
Impedance: In an ac, the impedance is analogous to resistance in a dccircuit that measures the combined effect of
resistance, capacitive reactance and inductive reactance.

Key Formulae
rms value for current In a purely capacitive circuit if,
I0 V = Vm sin ωt
I rms =
2 π
I = I m sin ( ωt+ ) where,
rms value for voltage 2
V0 Vm 1
Vrms = I m= and XC =
2 XC wC
Power P = VrmsI rms 1
Average Power = V0I 0 cosφ = VrmsI rms cos φ
In a purely inductive circuit if, 2
V = Vmsin ωt R
(where, cos f = is power factor)
π Z
I = I m sin (ω t− )
2
Z= R2 + ( XL − X C ) 2
Vm
where Im = and XL = ωL dI
XL Induced emf = e = −L
dt
(Pavg)L = 0

LCR Series Circuit

Topic-2 Concepts Covered LCR series circuit (phasors only), resonance, power in AC circuits,
power factor, wattless current.

Revision Notes
LCR series circuit
In an LCR series circuit with resistor, inductor and capacitor, the expression for the instantaneous potential
difference between the terminals a and b is given as
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 41

The potential difference in this will be equal to the sum of the magnitudes of potential differences across R, L and
C elements as
dI 1
V = Vm sinω t = RI + L + q
dt C
where, q is the charge on capacitor.
The steady state situation will be
Vm
i= sin( ωt − φ) and
2
2 1
R + (ωL − )
ωC
Vm
im =
2 1
R + (ωL − )
ωC

1
ωL −
where, φ = tan −1 ωC
R
From the equation, steady-state current varies sinusoidal with time, so steady-state current can be written as
I m= I sin (ωt – f)
In an LCR circuit:
X L = ωL
1
XC =
ωC
1
X = X L − X C = ωL −
ωC
Z = R2 + X 2
Vm Vm Vm
Im = = =
2
R + ( XL − X C ) 2 2
R +X 2 Z

Here, Z = Impedance of the circuit, X = Reactance of the circuit, XL and XC = Inductive and Capacitive reactance.
For steady-state currents, maximum current Im is related to maximum potential difference V m by
V
Im = m
Z
Total effective resistance of LCR circuit is called Impedance (Z) of the circuit given as
Z = R2 + ( X L − X C )2

Key Word
Steady state: As in the case of forced oscillations of a spring-mass system with damping, we call Qp the steady
state charge on the capacitor of the RLC circuit. Since I=Q'=Q'c + Q'p and Q'c also tends to zero exponentially as
t'→ ∞, we say that Ic = Q'c is the transient current and Ip = Q'p is the steady state current.

The angle by which alternating voltage leads the alternating current in LCR circuit is given by
XL − XC
tan φ =
R
42 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

In an LCR circuit, impedance triangle is a right-angled triangle in which base is ohmic resistance R, perpendicular
is reactance (XL – XC) and hypotenuse is impedance (Z)

X L –X C
Z

When a condenser of capacity C charged to certain potential is connected to inductor L, energy stored in C
oscillates between L and C where frequency of energy oscillations is given by
1
X L = X C or f =
2π LC
In LCR circuit, if there is no loss of energy, then total energy in L and C at every instant will remain constant.
Sign for phase difference (f) between I and V for a series LCR circuit:
f is positive, when XL > X C.
f is negative, when XL < X C.
f is zero, when XL = X C.
f = p/2, when ω = f.
f = –p/2, when ω = 0.
Resonance
Circuit in which inductance L, capacitance C and resistance R are connected in series and the circuit admits
maximum current, such circuit is called as series resonant circuit.
The necessary condition for resonance in LCR series circuit is:VC = V L
2 1 1
X L = XC which gives ω = or f =
LC 2π LC
In this, frequency of ac fed to circuit will be equal to natural frequency of energy oscillations in the circuit under
conditions,
Z =R
E0 E0
I0 = =
Z R
The sharpness of tuning at resonance is measured by Q factor or quality factor of the circuit given as
1 L
Q=
R C
At series LCR resonance or acceptor circuit, current is maximum.
V
I max =
R
Power in AC circuits
When the current is out of phase with the voltage, the power indicated by the product of the applied voltage and
the total current gives apparent power.
If the instantaneous values of the voltage and current in an ac circuit are given by
V = V0sin ωt
i = i 0sin (ωt – f)
where f is the phase difference between voltage and the current. Then, the instantaneous power
Pin = V × i = V 0i 0sin ωt.sin (ωt – f)
1
or average power Pavg = V0i 0 cosf
2
V0 i0
= × cosφ
2 2
= Vrms × I rms × cos f
where, cos f is known as power factor.
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 43

Power factor (cos f) is important in power systems as it shows how closely the effective power equals the apparent
power which is given as:
Effective power
cos φ =
Apparent power

The value of power factor varies from 0 to 1.

The instantaneous rate at which energy is supplied to an electrical device by ac circuit isP = VI
Average power in LCR where, X L = XC over a complete cycle in a non-inductive circuit or pure resistive circuit is
given as P = V0I 0 or I02R
The current in an AC circuit is said to be Wattless Current when the average power consumed in such circuit
corresponds to Zero. This happens in case of pure inductive and capacitive circuits.

Key Word
Instantaneous power:The amount of power in a circuit at any instant of time is called the instantaneous power
and is given by the well-known relationship of power equals volts times amps (P = V × I)

Key Formulae
Impedance for a series LCR circuit,

Z= R2 + X 2

E0 I 0
P = cos f = V rms Irms cos f
Average power, 2

1 L
Q =
Quality factor R C

Mnemonics
Concept:Current leads in pure capacitive circuit, C: Current leads
voltage leads in pure inductive circuit. C: Capacitive circuit
Mnemonics:Chocolate Cookies are Very Interesting ! V: Voltage leads
Interpretations: I: Inductive circuit

AC Generator and Transformer

Topic-3 Concepts Covered AC generator and transformer.

Revision Notes
AC generator
An AC generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into alternating electrical energy.
AC generator or a synchronous generator has a stator and rotor.
It is similar to the basic working principle of a dc generator.
It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction where a coil gets rotated in uniform magnetic field, sets an
induced emf given as:
e = e0 sin ωt = NBA ω sin ωt
44 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII

Transformer
Transformer is an electrical device used for changing the alternating voltages. It is based on the phenomenon of
mutual induction.
The main use of transformer is in transmission of ac over long distances at extremely high voltages which reduces
the energy losses in transmission.
It comprises of two sets of coils which are insulated from each other and are wound on soft-iron core.
In this, one of the coil is called as primary (input coil) having N p turns while other coil is secondary (output coil)
having N s turns, so we have
Es I p N s
= = =k
Ep I s N p

Transformation Ratio:
Ns Np
Es = Ep and I s = Ip
Np Ns

N s Vs
= is defined as the transformation ratio.
N p Vp

The value of tur ns ratio of a transformer

N p Vp
= =n
N s Vs
Step-up transformer: If secondary coil has more number of turns than primary (N s > N p ), voltage gets stepped up
(V s > V p ).
N
In this, there is less current in secondary as compared to primary ( s > and I s < I p).
Np 1

The value of transformation ratio k > 1

Step-down transformer: In this, the secondary coil has less number of turns than primary (N s < N p ). In this, V s <
V p and Is > I p as voltage gets stepped down or reduced with increase in current.
In this, value of transformation ratio k<1
The main use of transformers is in stepping up voltage for power transmission.

Key Words
Transformation Ratio: The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of output voltage to the input voltage of
a transformer. This gives the information about the change in voltage level by the transformer.
VS NS IP
Transformation ratio = k = = =
VP NP IS
If k >1, then it is a step-up transformer.
If k < 1, then it is a step-down transformer.

Soft iron: Iron that has a low carbon content and is easily magnetized and demagnetized, used to make the cores
of solenoids and other electrical equipment.
Electrical power: Electric power is the rate, per unit time, at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric
circuit.

Electric power can be transmitted efficiently at high voltages than at low voltages due to less (I2R) heat loss in
a high voltage / low current transmission.
Efficiency of transformer:
Output power
h =
Input power

EsI s
h=
Ep I p
 @std_XII Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, PHYSICS, Class-XII 45
Soft iron-core

Secondary

Secondary
Primary

Primary
The efficiency in a transformer is usually above 90%.
An ideal transformer is 100% efficient as it delivers all energy it receives.
Real transformer is not 100% efficient and at full load, its efficiency lies between 94% to 96%.
A transformer operating with constant voltage and frequency with very high capacity, efficiency results as 98%.
Energy losses in transformers:
1. Flux Leakage 2. Resistance of windings 3. Eddy currents 4. Hysteresis

Key Word
Hysteresis loss:The hysteresis loss instead is the energy entrapped in magnetic materials exposed to a magnetic
field in the form of residual magnetization—a typical behavior of FM materials—which is then lost as heat during
the demagnetization step.

Key Formulae
For transformer: Output power
× 100%
Es I p N s Input power
= = =k %Efficiency =
Ep I s N p
Input power − Losses
× 100%
Ns Np Input power
Vs = Vp and I s = Ip =
Np Ns
For generator:
The value of transformer ratio is greater than 1 for e = e0sin ωt = NBA ω sin ωt
step up transformer and less than 1 for step-down
transformer. e = NBAω sin ωt
I=
EI r R
η= s s
Ep I p

rr