Sanitation

The information presented here is practical as well as theoretical. It should not merely be

learned but also put to use systematically. One effective system food-service establishments

can use to ensure food safety is the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. This

practical program identifies possible danger points and sets up procedures for corrective

action. HACCP is introduced later in this chapter.

Food Hazards
Preventing food-borne illness is one of the most important challenges facing every food

service worker. In order to prevent illness, a food worker must understand the sources of

food-borne disease.

Most food-borne illness is the result of eating food that has been contaminated. To say

a food is contaminated means it contains harmful substances not originally present in it. In

other words, contaminated food is food that is not pure. Afterward, we consider how

these substances get into food to contaminate it and how food workers can prevent contamination and
avoid serving contaminated food.

Any substance in food that can cause illness or injury is called a hazard. Food hazards

are of four types:

1. Biological hazards

2. Chemical hazards

3. Physical hazards

4. Allergens

Some illness is caused not by contaminants but by substances that occur

naturally in foods. These include plant toxins (toxin means “poison”), such as the chemicals

in poisonous mushrooms, and certain natural food components to which some people are

allergic.

Pathogens
The most important kind of biological hazards to consider are microorganisms. A microorganism
 is a tiny, usually single-celled organism that can be seen only with a microscope. A microorganism that
can cause disease is called a pathogen. just because food looks good doesn’t mean

it is safe.

Four kinds of microorganisms can contaminate food and cause illness:

1. Bacteria

2. Viruses

3. Fungi

4. Parasites

BACTERIA

Bacteria are everywhere—in the air, in the water, in the ground, on our food, on our skin, inside

our bodies. Scientists have various ways of classifying and describing these bacteria. As food

workers, we are interested in a way of classifying them that may be less scientific but is more

practical to our work

1. Harmless bacteria.

Most bacteria fall into this category. They are neither helpful nor harmful to us. We are

not concerned with them in food sanitation.

2. Beneficial bacteria.

These bacteria are helpful to us. For example, many live in the intestinal tract, where

they fight harmful bacteria, aid the digestion of food, and produce certain nutrients.

In food production, bacteria make possible the manufacture of many foods, including

cheese, yogurt, and sauerkraut

3. Undesirable bacteria.

These bacteria may or may not cause disease, but they offer

a built-in safety factor: They announce their presence by means of sour odors, sticky

or slimy surfaces, and discoloration. As long as we use common sense and follow the

rule that says “when in doubt, throw it out,” we are relatively safe from these bacteria.

We are concerned with these bacteria for two reasons:

• Food spoilage costs money.

• Food spoilage is a sign of improper food handling and storage. This means the next
kind of bacteria is probably present.

Disease-causing bacteria, or pathogens.

These are the bacteria that cause most food-borne illness, the bacteria we are most

concerned with.

Each kind of bacterial pathogen causes disease in one of three ways:

1. Intoxications are caused by poisons (toxins) the bacteria produce while they are growing in the food,
before it is eaten. It is these poisons, not the bacteria themselves, that

cause the diseases.

2. Infections are caused by bacteria (or other organisms) that get into the intestinal system

and attack the body. Disease is caused by the bacteria themselves as they multiply in

the body.

3. Toxin-mediated infections are also caused by bacteria that get into the body and grow.

Disease is caused by poisons the bacteria produce as they grow and multiply in the

body. Most food-borne diseases are toxin-mediated infections.

BACTERIAL GROWTH Bacteria multiply by splitting in half.

Under ideal conditions for growth, they can double in
number every 15 to 30 minutes. This means that one
single bacterium could multiply to one million in less than
6 hours!

Conditions for Growth

1. Food.
Foods with sufficient amounts of proteins are best
for bacterial growth. These include meats, poultry,
fish, dairy products, and eggs, as well as some
grains and vegetables.
2. Moisture.

Bacteria require water to absorb food. Foods with a very high salt or sugar content are also relatively
safe, because these

ingredients make the bacteria unable to use the moisture present.

The availability of water to bacteria is indicated by a measure called water activity,
abbreviated aw. The scale runs from 0 (meaning no water available) to 1.0. Most
pathogens grow best in an environment from 0.85 to 1.0 aw
BACTERIA AND PH In general, food-borne pathogens grow best in an environment with a pH of
4.6 to 10. Every type of bacteria is different, however, and some grow when there is a higher or
lower pH than this range. Salmonella bacteria, for example, can grow when there is a pH of 4.1-
9.0. In general, however, acidity is an enemy of bacterial growth.

BACTERIA AND TEMPERATURE The world is full of bacteria, and many kinds do not fit the food
safety guidelines outlined here. Some bacteria, for example, need cool or cold temperatures to
grow. These are called psychrophiles. Others thrive at high temperatures. These are called
thermophiles. Some extreme thermophiles even grow at temperatures above the boiling point
of water (212°F or 100°C). Nevertheless, most foodborne pathogens are mesophiles, bacteria
that grow fastest at moderate temperatures (77–113°F or 25–45°C)

Potentially Hazardous Foods or TCS Foods

Foods that provide a good environment for
the growth of disease-causing microorganisms
are called potentially hazardous foods

These foods are also called TCS foods. The

abbreviation stands for Time/Temperature
Control for Safety. In other words, our
guidelines for keeping foods out of the Food
Danger
Zone temperatures, except for limited times,
must be followed to keep these foods safe.

Potentially hazardous foods fall into two general categories, plus four specific items that do not
fit into these categories. All these foods, plus any foods prepared with any of them, are
potentially hazardous: 1. Any food derived from animals, or any food containing animal
products, including meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, eggs, and dairy products. 2. Any food derived
from plants that has been cooked, partially cooked, or otherwise heat-treated. This category
includes not only cooked vegetables but also such items as cooked pasta, cooked rice, and tofu
(soybean curd). 3. Raw seed sprouts. 4. Sliced melons (because the edible flesh can be
contaminated by organisms on the rind’s exterior, which was in contact with soil). 5. Cut
tomatoes (for the same reason as sliced melons). 6. Garlic and oil mixtures (because the oil seals
the garlic from the air, fostering the growth of anaerobic bacteria, as explained above).

LOCOMOTION
Bacteria can move from place to place in only one way: They must be carried. They can’t move
on their own.
Foods can become contaminated by any of the following means:
Hands Air
Coughs and sneezes Water
 Other foods Insects
Equipment and utensils Rats and mice

PROTECTION AGAINST BACTERIA Because we know how and why bacteria grow, we should be
able to keep them from growing. Because we know how bacteria get from place to place, we
should be able to keep them from getting into our food
There are three basic principles of food protection against bacteria. These principles are the
reasons behind nearly all the sanitation techniques we discuss in the rest of this chapter.
1. Keep bacteria from spreading. Don’t let food touch anything that may contain disease-
producing bacteria and protect food from bacteria in the air.
2. Stop bacteria from growing. Take away the conditions that encourage bacteria to grow. In the
kitchen, our best weapon is temperature. The most effective way to prevent bacterial growth is
to keep foods below 41°F (5°C) or above 135°F (57°C). These temperatures won’t necessarily kill
bacteria; they’ll just slow their growth greatly.
3. Kill bacteria. Most disease-causing bacteria are killed if they are subjected to a temperature
of 170°F (77°C) for 30 seconds, or higher temperatures for shorter times. This enables us to
make food safe by cooking and to sanitize dishes and equipment with heat. The term sanitize
means to kill disease-causing bacteria. Certain chemicals also kill bacteria. These may be used
for sanitizing equipment.
VIRUSES Viruses are even smaller than bacteria. They consist of genetic material surrounded by
a protein layer

Then they use that cell to make more viruses and release them into the organism. The new viruses can
then enter new cells and continue to multiply. Because viruses do not multiply in food like bacteria,
food-borne viral diseases are usually caused by contamination from people, food contact surfaces, or, in
the case of seafood, contaminated water.

PARASITES

Parasites are organisms that can survive only by living on or

inside another organism. The

organism a parasite lives in and takes nourishment from is

called the host. Parasites may

FUNGI Molds and yeasts are examples of fungi. These

organisms are associated primarily with food spoilage rather
than food-borne disease. Most molds and yeasts, even those
that cause spoilage, are not dangerous to most human
beings. Some, in fact, are beneficial—for example, those responsible for the veining in blue cheese and
the fermentation of bread dough. Some molds, however, produce toxins that can cause allergic
reactions and severe disease in those people who are susceptible. For example, certain molds produce a
toxin called aflatoxin in such foods as peanuts and other nuts, corn, cottonseed, and milk. This toxin can
cause serious liver disease in some people.

OTHER BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS

In addition to the biological hazards associated with bacteria and other organisms, some

hazards occur naturally in foods and are not the result of contamination. These hazards include

plant toxins, seafood toxins, and allergens.

Plant Toxins The best-known plant toxins are those found in certain wild mushrooms. There are
many

kinds of poisonous mushrooms, and eating them causes symptoms that range from mild

intestinal discomfort to painful death. Some mushroom toxins attack the nervous system,

some attack and destroy the digestive system, and some attack other internal organs.

Other toxic plants to avoid are rhubarb leaves, water hemlock, apricot kernels, and

nightshade. In some cases, the toxins can be transferred in milk from cows that have eaten the plant
(such

as jimsonweed and snakeroot) or in honey from bees that have gathered nectar from the

plants (such as mountain laurel)

Seafood Toxins

Some toxins occur in fish or shellfish that have eaten a kind of algae that contains the toxins.

Because these toxins are not destroyed by cooking, the only method of protection against

them is to purchase fish and shellfish from approved suppliers who can certify the seafood

comes from safe water.

Chemical and Physical Hazards

Some kinds of chemical poisoning are caused by the use of defective or improper equipment

or equipment that has been handled improperly. To prevent these diseases, do not use the materials
that cause them.

1. Antimony. Caused by storing or cooking acid foods in chipped gray enamelware.

2. Cadmium. Caused by cadmium-plated ice cube trays or containers.

3. Cyanide. Caused by silver polish containing cyanide.

4. Lead. Caused by lead water pipes, solder containing lead, or utensils containing lead.

5. Copper. Caused by unclean or corroded copper utensils, acid foods cooked in unlined copper

utensils, or carbonated beverages in contact with copper tubing.

6. Zinc. Caused by cooking foods in zinc-plated (galvanized) utensils.

Physical contamination is contamination of food with objects that may not be toxic but
may cause injury or discomfort. Examples include pieces of glass from a broken container,

metal shavings from an improperly opened can, stones from poorly sorted dried beans, soil

from poorly washed vegetables, insects or insect parts, and hair. Proper food handling is necessary to
avoid physical contamination.

ALLERGIES ANDINTOLERANCES

Health professionals make a distinction

between food allergies and intolerances. Allergies are reactions by the body’s immune system. The body
sees a food substance as a foreign invader and attacks it, harming the body in the process. A food
intolerance, on the other hand, is the inability of the body to process the food properly. For example,
some people can’t drink milk because of lactose intolerance. This means they can’t digest milk sugar, or
lactose. By contrast, a milk allergy is the reaction by the immune system to milk proteins.

Personal Hygiene
At the beginning of this chapter, we defined contamination as harmful substances not

present originally in the food. Some contamination occurs before we receive the food, which

means proper purchasing and receiving procedures are important parts of a sanitation program. But
most food contamination occurs as a result of cross-contamination, defined as the

transference of hazardous substances, mainly microorganisms, to a food from another food

or another surface, such as equipment, worktables, or hands. Examples of situations in which

cross-contamination can occur include the following:

• Mixing contaminated leftovers with a freshly cooked batch of food.

• Handling ready-to-eat foods with unclean hands.

• Handling several types of food without washing hands in between.

• Cutting raw chicken, then using the same cutting board, unsensitized, to cut vegetables.

• Placing ready-to-eat foods on a lower refrigerator shelf and allowing juices from raw

fish or meat to drip onto them from an upper shelf.

• Wiping down work surfaces with a soiled cloth.

For the food worker, the first step in preventing food-borne disease is good personal

hygiene. Even when we are healthy, we have bacteria all over our skin and in our nose and

mouth. Some of these bacteria, if given the chance to grow in food, will make people ill.

1. Do not work with food if yo u have any communicable disease or infection.

2. Bathe or shower daily.

3. Wear clean uniforms and aprons.

4. Keep hair neat and clean. Always wear a hat or hairnet. Hair longer than shoulder

length must first be tied back and then secured under a net or hat.

5. Keep mustaches and beards trimmed and clean. Better yet, be clean-shaven.

6. Remove all jewelry: rings, low-hanging earrings, watches, bracelets. Avoid facial

piercings; if you have them, don’t touch them.

7. Wash hands and exposed parts of arms before work and as often as necessary during

work, including:

• After eating, drinking, or smoking.

• After using the toilet.

• After touching or handling anything that may be contaminated with bacteria.

8. Cover coughs and sneezes, then wash your hands.

9. Keep your hands away from your face, eyes, hair, and arms.

10. Keep fingernails clean and short. Do not wear nail polish.

11. Do not smoke or chew gum while on duty.

12. Cover cuts or sores with clean bandages. If the sore is on the hands, you must wear

gloves.

13. Do not sit on worktables. Food Storage

Food Storage

The following rules of safe food storage have two purposes:

1. To prevent contamination of foods.

2. To prevent growth of bacteria that may already be in foods.

Temperature control is an important part of food storage. Perishable foods must be kept

out of the Food Danger Zone—41°F to 135°F (5°C to 57°C)—as much as possible, because these

The Four-Hour Rule

temperatures support bacterial growth. See Figure 2.1 for a chart of important temperatures. During

each stage, food might be allowed to remain in the Food Danger Zone for a time. To protect

food and keep it safe, follow the four-hour rule: Do not let food remain in the Food Danger

Zone for a cumulative total of more than 4 hours between receiving and serving.
For example, imagine a food that is left on the loading dock for 30 minutes before being

put into cold storage, removed from storage and left on the worktable for an hour before being

prepared, and finally cooked at a low temperature so that it takes 3 hours to reach a safe

internal temperature (see p. 29). This food has spent a total of 41

⁄2 hours in the danger zone

and should be considered unsafe

Receiving

1. Safe food handling begins the moment food is unloaded from

the delivery truck. In fact, it begins even earlier than this, with the

selection of good, reputable suppliers. Keep the receiving area

clean and well lit.

2. Inspect all deliveries. Try to schedule deliveries during off-peak

hours to allow proper time to inspect the items. For the same reason, try to schedule deliveries so they
arrive one at a time.

3. Reject shipments or parts of shipments that are damaged or not

at the proper temperature. Frozen foods should show no signs of

having been thawed and refrozen.

4. Label all items with the delivery date or a use-by date.

5. Transfer items immediately to proper storage.

Dry Food Storage

Dry food storage pertains to those foods not likely to support bacterial

growth in their normal state. These foods include

Flour

Sugar and salt

Cereals, rice, and other grains

Dried beans and peas

Ready-prepared cereals

Breads and crackers

Oils and shortenings

Canned and bottled foods (unopened)

1. Store dry foods in a cool, dry place, off the floor, away from the wall, and not under a

sewer line.

2. Keep all containers tightly closed to protect from insects,

rodents, and dust. Dry foods

can be contaminated, even if they don’t need refrigeration.

Freezer Storage

1. Keep frozen foods at 0°F (–18°C) or lower.

2. Keep all frozen foods tightly wrapped or packaged to

prevent freezer burn.

3. Label and date all items.

4. Thaw frozen foods properly. Do not thaw at room

temperature, because the surface

temperature will go above 41°F (5°C) before the inside is

thawed, resulting in bacterial

growth. These methods may be used:

• In a refrigerator

• Under cold running water

• In a microwave oven, but only if the item is to be cooked or

served immediately

Refrigerator Storage

1. Keep all perishable foods properly refrigerated. Note the lower limit of the Food Danger

Zone (41°F/5°C) is only the upper limit for refrigerator storage. Most foods keep even

better at lower temperatures. The major exception is fresh fruits and vegetables, which

are not considered potentially hazardous foods.

2. Do not crowd refrigerators. Leave space between items so cold

air can circulate.

3. Keep refrigerator doors shut except when removing or putting

in foods.

4. Keep shelves and interiors of refrigerators clean.

5. Store raw and cooked items separately, if possible.

6. If raw and cooked foods must be kept in the same refrigerator,

keep cooked foods above raw foods. If cooked foods are kept

below raw foods, they can become contaminated by drips and spills. Then, if they are

not to be cooked again before serving, they may be hazardous.

7. Keep refrigerated foods wrapped or covered and in sanitary containers.

8. Do not let any unsanitary surface, such as the bottoms of other containers, touch any food.

9. Chill foods as quickly as possible over ice or in a cold-water bath before placing in the

refrigerator. A gallon of stock placed in a refrigerator hot off the stove may take 10

hours to go below 41°F (5°C), giving bacteria plenty of time to grow.

10. When holding foods such as protein salads in a cold bain-marie or refrigerated table

for service, do not heap the food above the level of the container. The food above this

level will not stay cold enough

Hot Food Holding

1. To keep foods hot for service, use steam tables or other equipment that will keep all

parts of all foods above 135°F (57°C) at all times.

2. Keep foods covered.

3. Bring foods to holding temperature as quickly as possible by using ovens, steamers,

rangetop pots and pans, or other cooking equipment. Do not warm cold foods by placing them directly
in the steam table. They will take too long to heat, and bacteria will

have time to grow.

4. Do not let ready-to-eat foods come in contact with any contaminated surface