Sponsored by

Chapter sponsors

CHAPTER 5

Producing and
using biogas
5.1 Benefits of biogas 60 5.8 Combined heat and power (CHP) 66
5.8.1 Power generation 66
5.2 Biogas composition 60 5.8.2 Parasitic power 66
5.2.1 Methane 60 5.8.3 Heat use 67
5.2.2 Water 60 5.8.4 Jacket cooling water 68
5.2.3 Hydrogen sulphide 60 5.8.5 Flue gas heat recovery 68
5.2.4 Oxygen 61 5.8.6 Steam generation 68
5.2.5 Ammonia 61
5.9 Combined heat, power and cooling 68
5.3 Variations in biogas composition 61 5.9.1 Generating additional electricity from ‘waste heat’ 69
5.3.1 Factors affecting biogas yield 63 5.9.2 Gas engine availability 70
5.9.3 Maintenance contracts versus independent service 71
5.4 Biogas cleaning prior to use 63 5.9.4 Electricity connection 71
5.4.1 Hydrogen sulphide removal 64
5.4.2 Siloxane (silicon – oxygen – methane) removal 64 5.10 Biomethane 71
5.10.1 Upgrading biogas to biomethane 71
5.5 Biogas monitoring 65 5.10.2 Injecting biomethane to the grid 73
5.5.1 Which gases need to be monitored and why? 65 5.10.3 Gas quality monitoring and energy metering 74
5.5.2 How is biogas monitored? 65 5.10.4 Biomethane market 75

5.6 Introduction to using biogas 65 5.11 Biogas as a vehicle fuel 76

5.7 Combustion to generate heat only 66 5.12 Future trends 77

www.adbiogas.co.uk The practical guide to AD 59

 Producing and Sponsored by

using biogas
5.1 Benefits of biogas Table 1: Typical composition of biogas from
normally functioning digesters
All anaerobic digestion systems produce biogas, irrespective of the specific
process used, and this can be used in a number of ways. For example, biogas Compound Chemical Range %
can be used to generate electricity and heat, to produce hot water and steam, or Methane CH4 50 – 75
as an energy source to provide refrigeration. Carbon dioxide CO2 25 – 50
Nitrogen N2 0 – 10
By removing the carbon dioxide and other impurities, biogas can be upgraded Hydrogen H2 0.01 – 5
to biomethane and injected into the gas grid for use in our homes (heating Oxygen O2 0.1 – 2
and cooking) or in industry. Alternatively, in compressed or liquefied form, Water vapour H2O 0 – 10
biomethane can be used as a transport fuel. Hydrogen sulphide H2S 10 – 30,000 ppm
Ammonia 0.01 – 2.5 mg/m3
Energy generated from biogas is ultra-low carbon. Typically producing
significantly less than 50 g CO2/kWh, it easily meets the Committee on Climate
Change’s target for the carbon intensity of the electricity grid. Biomethane is one 5.2.1 Methane
of the few low-carbon alternatives to natural gas, and when used as a transport Methane is highly flammable and is the main constituent of domestic pipeline
fuel achieves significant environmental and cost savings compared to diesel gas from the North Sea. Non-toxic to mammals and insects, it is odourless and
in HGVs, buses and other vehicles, while also playing an important role in forms carbon dioxide and water on combustion.
improving air quality in towns and cities.
Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, around 25 times more damaging than
Anaerobic digestion produces biogas 24 hours a day throughout the year and carbon dioxide. Among other sources, methane is released from open slurry
so provides reliable and consistent baseload energy, which can help balance stores and the decomposition of organic matter in landfill, so the diversion from
the intermittency of other renewable energy sources. Furthermore, if the type of landfill and treatment of biodegradable waste via anaerobic digestion brings
energy required changes, only the biogas treatment technology of the plant (10% distinct environmental benefits.
to 20% of the capital investment) needs to be changed. Biogas generated from
AD is, therefore, not only flexible but is also future-proofed against changing 5.2.2 Water
legislation and need. When biogas is produced it is always super-saturated with water, which
condenses as the biogas moves through the pipeworks. The water needs to be
This chapter first discusses biogas production and some of the factors affecting removed via self-sealing water traps (see Chapter 4).
its constitution. It then reviews biogas conversion technologies and the various
applications of biogas. 5.2.3 Hydrogen sulphide
Elemental sulphur is readily converted into hydrogen sulphide (H2S) by bacterial
5.2 Biogas composition action during the acidogenesis phase of anaerobic digestion. The amount of H2S
produced depends on the amount of sulphur in the feedstock and the pH of the
Biogas is produced by the biological breakdown of organic matter in the absence digester.
of oxygen. The composition and quantity of the biogas are largely determined by
the feedstock and its loading rate (see Chapter 4 for further discussion). Unlike biogas, H2S is toxic and can occur at levels up to 1,000 times the safe
exposure level for humans. H2S poses a significant risk and its reduction is,
Biogas produced in an anaerobic digester is typically composed of 50-75% therefore, a major target for the AD operator.
methane (CH4) and 25-50% carbon dioxide (CO2). Depending on the feedstock,
biogas can also contain significant amounts of hydrogen sulphide (H2S), water H2S can also cause piping corrosion and other issues with the plant. This is
(H2O) and traces of other chemical products. discussed in greater detail in section 5.4.1.

Although pure methane is lighter than air, the specific gravity of biogas can
vary from 0.8 (lighter than air) to 1.2 (heavier than air), depending on the
concentrations of methane and carbon dioxide, which in turn depend on the
feedstock and the stability of the digester. Digestion of fats and proteins will
produce a biogas rich in methane while digestion of starches will produce a
biogas with more carbon dioxide. The CO2 concentration can also increase when
a digester is overloaded, making the biogas heavier than air.

60 The practical guide to AD www.adbiogas.co.uk

 Sponsored by
Producing and
using biogas

There is a particular risk of exposure to H2S in confined Occupational exposure limits

spaces such as digester tanks and manholes, or where Occupational exposure limits (OELs) in the UK are set by the
different feedstocks are first mixed together, such as pump and Health and Safety Commission and are legally enshrined in
equipment sumps. The high concentrations that can build up the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations
in such conditions (>1,000 parts per million) can lead to rapid (COSHH) 1988. OELs refer to the airborne concentration of a
(within seconds) unconsciousness and death. However, there substance. The two types of OEL are:
is also concern about adverse health effects caused by day-to- •M
 aximum exposure limit (MEL) – for substances with serious
day occupational exposures to low concentrations (<10 ppm); health concerns such as carcinogens and asthmagens, for
this is because H2S selectively binds to the enzymes involved which it is not always possible to identify a threshold level
in cellular respiration, thereby causing a shift towards anaerobic of exposure below which there would be no health risk.
respiration. The recently revised UK occupational exposure limits Alternatively, a threshold may be identifiable but industry is
for H2S are designed to protect against the development of such unable to control exposures below this threshold. For these
effects. (Source: Dr MG Costigan, Health and Safety Executive.) reasons, employers are required by law to reduce exposure
as much as reasonably practicable below the MEL.
A more detailed discussion of health and safety considerations •O
 ccupational exposure standard (OES) – for substances not
is provided in Chapter 12. known to harm health, the standards are set at reasonably
practicable levels.

OELs are measured over a 15 minute reference period – known

Table 2: Health effects of hydrogen sulphide as a short term exposure limit (STEL), and/or an 8 hour time
weighted average (TWA).
H2S is classified as a chemical asphyxiant, similar to carbon monoxide and
cyanide gases. It inhibits cellular respiration and uptake of oxygen, causing STEL is applied when a substance can cause immediate health
biochemical suffocation. effects following brief peaks of exposure, including irritation to
the eyes and throat, depression of the central nervous system or
Exposure Level Parts Per Million Effect death (such as with exposure to hydrogen cyanide or phosgene).
Low 0 – 10 ppm Conversely, TWA is used for the chronic, slowly developing
Moderate 10 – 50 ppm Headache, dizziness, effects of long-term repeated exposure.
nausea, vomiting, difficulty
breathing
High 50 – 200 ppm Severe respiratory tract
irritation, eye irritation, 5.3 Variations in biogas composition
acute conjunctivitis, shock,
convulsions, coma and death Since an anaerobic digester acts as a chemostat (maintaining temperature and
retention time close to constant), most visible variations in biogas composition
are due to variations in the chemistry and quantity of the feedstock.
5.2.4 Oxygen
Since a simple anaerobic digester has no contact with air, oxygen levels in biogas Certain feedstocks are more easily biodegradable than others. It is possible to
are close to zero. However, one method of removing hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is have the same amount of volatile solids (VS) entering the digester in a given day
to inject air into the biogas to stimulate the growth of sulphur-removing bacteria, but if the feedstock chemistry changes, the reaction of the digester can also change
which can introduce nitrogen and up to 2% oxygen. Great care must be taken significantly. For instance, waste from a pickling factory would add acetate to the
when injecting oxygen into a digestion system as methane is explosive when digester which may be consumed within 15 seconds, causing serious foaming,
mixed with air (at levels of 5% to 15% methane in air). Oxygen is also toxic to whereas other waste more resistant to bacterial decomposition could take several
anaerobic bacteria and may reduce the performance of the digestion process. weeks (or months) to decompose. On the other hand, if high protein food waste
was added to the digester there would be very rapid changes in biogas quality,
5.2.5 Ammonia particularly in increased ammonia production from the breakdown of protein.
Another (unwanted) constituent of biogas is ammonia, which in turn will be
converted to nitrogen oxide (NOx) in boilers and CHP units. The amount of
ammonia in the biogas will depend on the amount of nitrogen in the feed, the pH,
and the temperature of the digester.

www.adbiogas.co.uk The practical guide to AD 61

 Producing and Sponsored by

using biogas
Table 3: Degradability of substances (Fischer, 2001)

Material Chemical composition Appearance Degradability and organisms involved

Cellulose Highly polymerised glucose chain, high Cell walls of higher plants. Relatively good degradability, but difficult to
mechanical stability, insoluble in water. attack as insoluble in water.
Aerobe: several fungi, actino bacteria.
Anaerobe: Clostridium spp.
Hemicellulose Polymer compound of different hexoses, Supporting structure for Easy to degrade if free from lignin but it is normally bonded
pentoses and uronic acid. cell walls to lignin and very difficult to degrade under this circumstance.
Aerobe and anaerobe: actinomycetes, bacteria, fungi.
Lignin Phenyl-propane units with Important part of plant material, Very resistant to degradation, resulting in slow process.
3-dimensional connections. enhancing stability. Degraded by higher fungi (white root fungi) and
actinomycetes.
Starch Glucose chains with different Stored in seeds bulbs and roots. Easily degradable.
grade of polymerisation. Aerobe: fungi and bacteria.
Anaerobe: clostridium and related bacteria.
Proteins Macro molecules made from amino acids. Structural and functional part Easily degradable.
of many organisms. Aerobe and anaerobe: many different fungi and bacteria.
Fats and waxes Fats: mainly esters of alcohol glycerol. Energy storage in plant and Relatively good degradability aerobe and anaerobe.
Waxes: esters of fatty acids with long animal material. Fats: many bacterial and actinomycetes.
chain alcohols. Waxes: preferably by bacteria.

Source: Kepp, U., Arias-Garcia A. 2008. Organic Waste – Comparison of European testing methods for biological stability and their suitability for the
assessment of BMW diversion rates. Communications in Waste and Resource Management, Volume 9, Issue 1, March 2008, IWM Business Services Ltd.

Figure 1: Biogas production for different feedstocks

62 The practical guide to AD www.adbiogas.co.uk

 Sponsored by
Producing and
using biogas
5.3.1 Factors affecting biogas yield The objective of the design and operation strategy is to blend the feedstock
Figure 1 indicates the relative gas production from different feedstocks. However, sufficiently to produce biogas with consistent methane content. A well-run
there can be a significant variation in yields from fresh material so it is the digester treating a mixture of agricultural and commercial and industrial (C&I)
responsibility of the operator to assess each feedstock and load the digester, waste will operate comfortably to produce 55-65% methane most of the time.
paying heed to both the amount of volatile solids (VS) loaded and the type The first alarm bell for the operator is when the proportion of methane drops
of organic matter, and therefore its digestibility. A useful measurement for the below 50% or goes above 70%. If biogas contains less than 50% methane the
operator is the ‘half digestion time’ of the organic matter, that is, the time taken digester is most likely overloaded, while a biogas methane fraction above 70%
for half the potential biogas to be released from a particular feedstock. may indicate an under-loading problem or mechanical failure. For example,
failure of the feed pumps will reduce acidogenesis (due to a lack of fresh feed) in
Even if a digester was fed material from a single source with a single European the fermentation stage resulting in a reduction in CO2 production.
Waste Classification (EWC) code, such as a food factory or farm, there is still
likely to be a variation in gas production caused by natural variation in the Also crucial to the stability of anaerobic fermentation is the carbon to nitrogen
availability of VS. The reasons for this may include seasonal changes in plant ratio of the feedstock. High nitrogen feedstocks are generally associated with
cell wall structures, ageing of substrates, decomposition of cell walls making high gate fees; however they also contain protein which breaks down in the
the contents more or less available, or changes to the lignin content of feedstock. digester to form ammonia, which is toxic to methanogenic bacteria and other
Digestible cellulose may also be bonded to hemicellulose which can be extremely important bacteria groups in the digester. Ammonia can severely inhibit methane
resistant to decomposition, especially if it is bonded to lignin. production, depending on the pH and temperature of the digester contents, with
higher temperature systems being more sensitive.
Perhaps the most important characteristic of organic feedstocks is the water
content. This varies due to mechanical handling and storage, as well as inherent It should be noted that there might be 2,000 species of bacteria present in an
variations in the feedstock, and is most noticeable when emptying large storage anaerobic digester and the assemblage may become acclimatised to a particular
tanks. The selection of the top, centre or bottom layers of a tank of unmixed feedstock in time. This makes it possible to process a particular feedstock with
substrate over several days will provide variations in the concentration of VS great efficiency in one digester that might prove difficult in another. Biogas
from less than 1% to the limit of pumpability. production can be controlled by the mixing of feedstocks in a buffer tank and the
attentive management of the process by a competent operator.
Feed tanks should be well mixed to ensure a uniformly consistent feed to the
digester. Tanks can be mixed by impellers, pumps or gas injection but it is worth Broad targets for biogas production can be set for different types of wastes, but
noting that most mixing systems do not operate at low tank levels. Therefore if a for accurate prediction the energy value of the feedstock needs to be known; high
tank is almost empty the mixing process is unlikely to be effective. energy feedstocks will produce a lot of biogas whereas low energy feedstocks
will generate less.
A stable feed for the digester can usually be achieved by blending several
feedstocks from different tanks into one buffer feed tank that is always well mixed 5.4 Biogas cleaning prior to use
before feeding to the digester.
Some of the contaminants in biogas such as hydrogen sulphide and water can
Where food waste substrates are stored in large tanks, the anaerobic conditions cause maintenance issues with downstream equipment. When H2S is combusted
can create ‘septic’ odours, which can become a nuisance if allowed to escape. in a boiler or CHP it can result in chemical corrosion, reducing the operating life
One way to prevent such odours developing is to inject air into the tank to prevent of equipment. Some simple equipment such as boilers can burn raw biogas with
the contents from turning anaerobic. However, adding air allows the aerobic little pre-treatment; however if H2S is high (typically >500 ppm), it may need to
bacterial conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide (composting), reducing the be removed before use.
amount of carbon available for subsequent biogas production.
It is also important to remove the water before using the biogas. Slugs of water
Another factor affecting the rate of digestion is the number of bacteria present can damage gas compressors, for example, and can also reduce the efficiency
or inoculated into the waste and the time available for the bacteria to consume of CHP engines.
the organic matter. Temperature is also a factor, with warmer temperatures
accelerating bacterial decomposition.

www.adbiogas.co.uk The practical guide to AD 63

 Producing and Sponsored by

using biogas
In some cases, biogas contains siloxanes which are formed from the anaerobic This reaction does not require regeneration and destroys the H2S rather than
decomposition of materials commonly found in soaps and detergents. During just removing it. However, the process is highly dependent on the inhibitory
combustion of biogas containing siloxanes, silicon is released and can combine effects of other biogas components. This is the simplest method of removing H2S
with free oxygen or various other elements in the combustion gas. Deposits and the microorganisms can reduce the level by 95% to less than 50 ppm. The
are formed containing mostly silica (SiO2) or silicates (SixOy) but can also addition of 2-5% air into biogas allows the indigenous Thiobacilli to oxidise the
contain calcium, sulphur, zinc and phosphorous. Such white mineral deposits H2S to elementary sulphur which adheres to the digester surface or the digestate.
accumulate to a surface thickness of several millimetres and must be removed [IEA Bioenergy report, Task 24: Energy from biological conversion of organic
by chemical or mechanical means. waste. “Biogas upgrading and utilisation”.]

Quality requirements will vary depending on the desired use of the gas. For Dry oxidation
example, direct fire boilers will usually require no treatment; CHP may require Dry oxidation can be used for the removal of H2S from gas streams by converting
some treatment of heavily contaminated biogas; transport use requires upgrading it either into sulphur or oxides of sulphur. This process is used where the sulphur
to biomethane; and pipeline standards require upgrading to biomethane and a content of the gas is relatively low and high removal efficiency is required. Some
final stage of polishing. dry oxidation process methods are by absorption using iron oxide or hydroxide
bed (iron sponge process), whereas others use an activated carbon sieve
Cleaning biogas can be achieved in a number of ways and the main techniques (pressure swing adsorption). It is important to note that these processes often
are briefly described below. have a regeneration cycle where sulphur is removed from the media by air. This
process is strongly exothermic and will generate high temperatures. Care must
be taken to avoid explosive mixtures of methane and air in such systems under
Table 4: Requirements to remove components any conditions.
depending on biogas utilisation
Liquid phase oxidation
Application H2S CO2 H2O Siloxanes Liquid phase oxidation is primarily used for the treatment of gases with options
Boiler < 1000 ppm No No No available to suit all ranges of H2S concentrations, and may be either:
Cooker Yes No No No • Physical absorption using water; or
Stationary engine < 250 ppm No No Yes • Chemical absorption using iron salt solutions such as iron chloride or
Vehicle fuel Yes Recommended Yes No polyethylene glycol (selexol).
Natural gas grid Yes Yes Yes Eventually
All methods of H2S removal by liquid phase oxidation are suitable and
economically viable for large scale digesters. Although this offers one of the
lowest capital cost systems, iron chloride addition will have a prohibitively high
5.4.1 Hydrogen sulphide removal operating cost if H2S is consistently high.
Biogas contains H2S in concentrations from 0 to 6,000 ppm or more, depending
on the feedstock composition. The odour of H2S becomes offensive at parts per 5.4.2 Siloxane (silicon – oxygen – methane) removal
billion (ppb) levels, with physiological effects starting at 3-5 ppm and becoming Siloxanes are a group of chemicals based around a chain of oxygen and silicon
very noticeable above 10 ppm. H2S is a toxic air pollutant, which means that atoms which are widely used in products such as detergents, water repellents,
atmospheric concentrations of 200 ppm can be lethal. shampoos and soaps. Inside a digester they are excreted with the methane as a
component of the gas. Siloxanes convert into silicon dioxide during combustion,
Even in low concentrations, H2S can cause piping corrosion, gas engine pitting, which causes a build-up of matter on the engine surfaces.
and clogged piston rings. All biogas conversion and utilisation equipment can
be affected by H2S corrosion to a greater or lesser extent. Because of this, many Removal systems typically dry the gas and then absorb the silicon on a molecular
engine manufacturers require the H2S content of the feed biogas to be as low sieve, a gas-porous compound that has a surface area of typically 50 hectares
as 90 ppm, whilst others will accept levels as high as 1,100 ppm. The most per kg of media.
commonly used methods to remove H2S, namely biological desulphurisation,
dry oxidation and liquid phase oxidation, are described below. As the siloxanes are large molecules, they become trapped on the surface of the
molecular sieve. Normally there are two sieves: one is regenerated by heating
Biological desulphurisation to remove the siloxanes where they are captured as solid dust; and the other is
It is possible to remove H2S biologically using sulphur-oxidising bacteria (such used to clean the gas stream. The process can be relatively expensive to set up
as Thiobacillus denitrificans). The reaction equation is: and the best way of avoiding the siloxane problem is to avoid putting siloxane-
containing materials into the digester in the first place.
2n(H2S) + n(CO2) + light ➔ 2nS + n(CH2O) + n(H2O)

64 The practical guide to AD www.adbiogas.co.uk

 Sponsored by
Producing and
using biogas
5.5 Biogas monitoring As it is to be used in or near an explosive environment, all monitoring equipment
must be certified in accordance with the ATEX directive (see Chapter 12). Areas
Biogas is one of the key indicators of digester performance, and elevated carbon where hazardous explosive atmospheres may occur must be classified into
dioxide is often the first sign that a digester’s chemistry is moving towards zones, indicating the positions on the plant where the equipment can be used
process failure. In addition, many maintenance contracts for biogas conversion without the risk of explosion.
technologies such as CHP will set limits for hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and
methane concentrations. Therefore, monitoring can show when action needs to In summary, the general rules of biogas monitoring are as follows:
be taken to prevent out-of-specification gas supply. • DON’T assume biogas will just take care of itself – there is a strong
commercial case for monitoring it.
In addition to measuring the components of the biogas, it is good practice to • DO choose equipment that is appropriate for the operation, not just what is
measure the volume of biogas produced. This will give a clear picture of how being offered by a plant supplier.
well a digester is performing in terms of biogas yield per tonne of feedstock. • DO talk to biogas monitoring equipment suppliers early on in the project.
• DO think about the running costs of an analyser, as well as how monitoring
5.5.1 Which gases need to be monitored and why? can help to keep down other plant maintenance costs.
The key gas that the operator will need to monitor is methane (CH4). As well • DON’T buy cheap instruments if they are not fit for purpose.
as providing an indication of AD output, it should also be measured in order
to protect a CHP engine. CHP engines are usually configured to work within a 5.6 Introduction to using biogas
certain range, and with a maximum rate of change, of methane concentration.
By measuring the volume of biogas and methane concentration, the amount of Biogas can be used in a number of applications including the production of heat
energy and the efficiency of biogas conversion can be calculated. and power, injection into the gas grid and as a transport fuel. Prior to use it must
be treated to achieve the gas standards of each application.
As well as measuring and monitoring methane and hydrogen sulphide, it can
be useful to track the production of carbon dioxide and oxygen. The CH4/CO2 Currently biogas is most commonly used as a fuel in boilers and combined heat
balance can help confirm effective anaerobic digestion, while O2 levels (typically and power units, in part due to the financial incentives regime. Other applications
<0.1%) show that the process is anaerobic and that there are no inward gas such as transport fuel or injection into the gas grid require the biogas to be
leaks. upgraded to biomethane via the removal of CO2.

5.5.2 How is biogas monitored? Figure 2. Biogas uses

Two options exist for the monitoring of biogas:
Internal
combustion
1. Portable monitoring for occasional checking
engine
Portable biogas monitors delivering accurate levels in ppm or % Lower Explosion
Limit (%LE) vary in functionality and the gases they can measure, and vary in
Gas turbine Electricity
cost accordingly. Most charge for each gas measured, and units with sampling
pumps fitted are more expensive but more versatile in the field. Portable gas
analysers are also available for hire. Portable single gas detectors set at a fixed Boiler +
Biogas Clean up steam Heat
level with an alarm can be purchased relatively cheaply and worn to protect
turbine
operators from exposure to harmful gases (especially H2S).

2. Fixed, continuous monitoring systems for full-time CHP protection Fuel cell
Again, fixed monitoring systems vary in terms of their level of automation, how Vehicle fuel
they output information, and the alerts and alarms that can be set up. A very
basic fixed system will cost about £6,000 and the more sophisticated systems
Biogas
usually used on large scale AD plants can cost over £12,000 (2012 prices). Biomethane
upgrading

Fixed monitoring systems either sample frequently or monitor continuously

(H2S cannot be measured continuously as it ‘poisons’ the electrochemical cells It is normal practice for an AD plant to use some of the biogas generated to power
used, but frequent sampling with clean air purging between samples is highly and heat the plant. The amount of biogas used in this way could be up to one
effective). third of the total biogas produced, though this would be less in larger plants. As
a rule of thumb, an efficient plant should use less than 25% of the total biogas
energy generated.

www.adbiogas.co.uk The practical guide to AD 65

 Producing and Sponsored by

using biogas
If the biogas is being used in a combined heat and power (CHP) unit, the CHP Figure 3: Reciprocating gas engine showing
plant would normally be used to provide all the process energy for the AD site, key components (courtesy of Jenbacher)
with the excess being sold.
Generator

There are a number of different biogas conversion technologies, the most

common of which are outlined below.

5.7 Combustion to generate heat only

Biogas by itself usually has a calorific value (CV) between 21-23 MJ/m3 and can
be burned directly in a boiler to generate hot water or steam. Boilers tend to be
fairly simple and robust and hence very little gas cleaning is required, keeping
the capital costs and operating costs low. It is worth noting that if heat is being
exported, the cost of the infrastructure to transport the heat may be many times Control panel
Heat recovery - Engine
that of the boiler itself. heat exchanger

With the advent of the Renewable Heat Incentive, generating heat directly from 5.8.1 Power generation
biogas may have distinct economic advantages both for smaller sites and on a The power generating (electrical) efficiency of a CHP engine varies from supplier
larger scale. to supplier and with the type and size of unit. Typical electrical efficiencies for
CHP will range from 36% to 43% based upon the lower heating value of the gas,
Boilers tend to be cast iron or mild steel in construction, the former giving longer and are often calculated with an assumed biogas methane content of 65%.
operational life whilst the latter being more cost effective. Whilst boilers are
robust, the corrosive nature of biogas will require the boilers to run at >65°C 5.8.2 Parasitic power
(water return temperature) to minimise harmful condensate forming in the The term ‘parasitic electricity’ is often misused, with different meanings
flues. Boilers should be oversized compared to oil or natural gas applications depending on whether it is applied to Renewables Obligation Certificates or site-
to compensate for the relatively low quality of biogas fuel. In a well-sized and wide usage.
operated boiler, 85% of the energy in the biogas will be converted to heat within
the boiler. The electrical output quoted by suppliers of gas engines refers to the electricity
produced at the generator terminals. What is actually exported will depend upon
Steam boilers are slightly more complex than hot water boilers in that they must the local site demand.
be supplied with softened potable water. This water is pre-treated to drive off
dissolved oxygen and will usually have chemical additions to prevent foaming What is typically considered to be the parasitic load of the gas engine and
and corrosion. A steam boiler must be inspected by an independent insurance container includes dump radiators, pumps and other ancillary electrical items
body and have regular inspections. Steam boilers are covered by their own in the container package. Parasitic load varies depending upon the ambient
legislation and it is advisable to consult an experienced supplier when developing temperature. For example, fans and pumps may work harder in hot weather. In
a system. cold weather parasitic loads will be less and total electrical output greater.

5.8 Combined heat and power (CHP) In terms of the Renewables Obligation (RO) scheme, ‘parasitic’ means any
electricity used to transfer, store, condition, and convert the fuel into exportable
Combined heat and power (CHP), or co-generation, is the conversion of the electricity: essentially any electricity required on the fuel-gas line between the
energy within a fuel (in this case, biogas) into heat and electricity. final digester and the engine. This means that the electricity used for biogas
storage (gasholders), biogas cleanup, gas boosters to feed the CHP unit, as
The efficiency of a CHP unit is often quoted to be around 40%, but this only well as any electricity used to run the CHP unit (including heat dump radiators)
includes the electricity generated and does not account for the energy contained is all parasitic and must be deducted from the electricity generated at the CHP
in the heat. It must be noted though, that actually a CHP unit will generate as terminals prior to RO application.
much heat (if not more) as electricity. Hence the overall efficiency of CHP can
be around 85% (if all the heat is used) and the energy output can be used in a The Feed-in Tariff system is much simpler in that all power generated at the CHP
number of ways, as described below. terminals is eligible.

A CHP unit in a biogas plant usually comprises a reciprocating gas engine,

though small installations have utilised gas turbines.

66 The practical guide to AD www.adbiogas.co.uk

 Sponsored by
Producing and
using biogas
Figure 4: Typical schematic for a reciprocating gas engine

Hot water circuit

Recoverable thermal output = 1,451 kW
(± 8% tolerance + 10% reserve for cooling requirements)

Hot water flow rate = 62.3 m3/h

Engine jacket water flow rate = 40.7 m3/h

decoupling heat
74.0 ºC 158 kW 261 kW exchanger

Lube oil Intercooler 1st

stage
77.7 ºC max. 94 ºC

70.0 ºC
~82 ºC
427 kW
max. 85 ºC max. 88 ºC
605 kW
Engine Exhaust gas
90.0 ºC

G
180 ºC -424 ºC
76 kW
Low temperature circuit (calculated with Glykol 37%)
Intercooler 2nd
stage
Heat to be dissipated = 76 kW
(± 8% tolerance + 10% reserve for cooling requirements)
55.0 ºC 58.7 ºC
Cooling water flow rate = 20.0 m3/h
max. 60 ºC
5.8.3 Heat use
In addition to the electrical output, a reciprocating gas engine CHP produces heat Figure 5: Example Sankey diagram of CHP
from a number of sources (see Figure 4). Most systems will generate the majority energy flow
of heat from the engine cooling water (water circulated through the engine
to direct cool the prime mover) and from the hot exhaust flue gasses. Some
Gas supply 100%
additional heat is generated from the intercoolers on the biogas compression and
from the high pressure oil system.
Mechanical Thermal energy
energy 42% 58%
Figure 5 shows the energy balance for a reciprocating gas engine CHP plant. He1
The energy within the fuel gas is first converted into mechanical energy (to turn
the engine’s crank shaft) and thermal energy. The mechanical energy is used He2
to turn an alternator which provides electricity. A gas turbine will produce less
He3
electricity, but greater amounts of heat.
He4
Figure 5 illustrates the four key areas at which thermal energy occurs:
He1: Intercooler
He2: Oil exchange heater
He3: Engine jacket water heater
Loss 10%

He4: Engine exhaust gas Usable electrical Usable thermal

energy 40% energy 50%
Thermal energy generated at He1-He3 is typically recovered as hot water on a
70°C/90°C flow/return basis.

He4 is the engine exhaust and is at the high temperature of ~450°C. This ‘high • Into a waste heat boiler to raise steam, typically at 6-14 bar pressure; or
grade’ heat can be used for various purposes: • Into an absorption chiller to provide a cooling source – see trigeneration or
• Through a shell and tube exhaust gas heat exchanger to supplement the hot combined heat, power and cooling (CHPC).
water from He1-3;

www.adbiogas.co.uk The practical guide to AD 67

 Producing and Sponsored by

using biogas
The overall efficiency of a CHP plant will depend upon the electrical efficiency of
the engine, and the ability to recover usable heat. As a gas engine becomes more
electrically efficient, there is less thermal energy to recover therefore the total
efficiency of the CHP scheme may dip. For less electrically efficient gas engines
the total energy efficiency can be higher. Currently however, the economic value of
the electricity is higher than that of the heat and this is recognised in the calculation
for ‘Good Quality CHP’ with electricity being given greater weighting than heat (see
www.adbiogas.co.uk/links/ for more information on the CHP Quality Protocol).

5.8.4 Jacket cooling water

Approximately 20% of the total energy in the biogas will be transferred into the
Picture 1: Flue gas steam
jacket cooling water. If this heat is not used it must be ‘dumped’ to the atmosphere boiler (courtesy of Edina)
via air blast coolers to prevent the CHP engines overheating.

Recovering heat from the water jacket is relatively simple and inexpensive but must be It is possible to recover approximately 20% of the energy contained within
specified to the CHP supplier. In most AD applications hot water at 60°C to 85°C from biogas fed to a CHP as steam energy (slightly less than if producing hot water).
the water jacket is used to either direct heat to the digesters or to the pasteurisation It should be noted that approximately 20% of the energy used to raise steam
system. Depending on the efficiency of the system, the recoverable heat from the CHP is required to heat the water to 100°C before any steam is generated. Raising
water jacket should be enough to make an AD plant self-sufficient in heat. steam from CHP is complex and has a high capital cost attached; however steam
is a very useful and valuable heating product due to its high energy carrying
5.8.5 Flue gas heat recovery properties and its pressure. In industry it is used for space heating, process
In a reciprocating gas engine, approximately 30% of the biogas energy goes up heating and pressurisation. In the UK water industry, steam is becoming very
the flue as hot combustion gasses, whereas for a gas turbine this figure is closer common in Advanced Digestion systems. It is used in sewage treatment plants
to 70%. Typical flue gas exit temperatures are around 440°C to 500°C depending for processes such as Enzymic Hydrolysis and thermal hydrolysis, and can be
on electrical efficiency, and can be used to either generate hot water or to raise used to direct heat digesters and pasteurisation systems.
steam. It is important to note that if too much heat is recovered from flue gasses
such that the temperature drops below 180°C, highly corrosive condensates can 5.9 Combined heat, power and cooling
form that will rapidly corrode even high grade stainless steels. Therefore only two
thirds of the energy in the flue gasses can be recovered. Heat from the gas engine (or indeed a direct fire boiler) can be used to provide
cooling as well as heat. This approach is known as trigeneration or combined
The most common method to recover heat from flue gasses is by using an exhaust heat, power and cooling (CHPC).
gas heat exchanger (EGHE) to heat water. This is usually arranged such that the
water passes through the CHP jacket circuit first and then gains additional heat In order to understand trigeneration it is first useful to have a working
from the flue gasses. In this way, water can be heated from (typically) 70°C inlet understanding of the refrigeration cycle. This can be a very complicated subject,
temperature to 90°C for return to the AD process. but in simple terms works in the same way as a domestic refrigerator or freezer.
The refrigeration cycle allows a space (such as a fridge or a building) to be cooled
5.8.6 Steam generation to a temperature below that of the surrounding air.
If the hot flue gasses from the CHP engine are passed through a boiler then
steam can be generated directly. The flue gas enters the boiler at around 450- There are four basic stages to the refrigeration cycle which all use a refrigerant (a
500°C and is cooled to about 180°C, generating steam at about 6-12 bar liquid or a gas that is used as a carrier for heat/energy).
(absolute) although at 12 bar (absolute) the outlet flue gas temperature will be
higher, reducing thermal efficiency. 1. Compressor
The refrigerant is compressed using electricity, raising the temperature of the
Steam boilers are constructed such that the hot combustion gasses (in this case refrigerant to above ambient temperature. The efficiency of this process is
from the CHP) pass through multiple tubes submerged in water. The water fills all measured by the Co-efficient of Performance (COP). COP is the ratio of power
but the top of the cylindrical boiler whilst the top headspace contains pressurised input required to do an amount of cooling, for example a domestic fridge requires
steam. The system is kept under pressure by a pressure-regulating valve on the approximately 1 kW of electricity to carry out 4 kW of cooling and so would have
steam outlet. At 6 bar(g) (7 bar absolute) the water and steam will be at ~165°C a COP of 4.0 (the higher the number the better).
and 1 kg of steam will contain 2,700 kJ of energy. Steam boilers are often quoted
in tonnes of steam per hour, however the energy this equates to will depend on
the pressure. At 6 bar a 1 tonne/hr steam boiler would provide 750 kW.

68 The practical guide to AD www.adbiogas.co.uk

 Sponsored by
Producing and
using biogas
2. Condenser Figure 7: Combined heat, power and
The hot refrigerant is then cooled in the condenser which acts as a radiator to cooling cycle
allow the heat to pass from the refrigerant to the outside air. On a domestic fridge
this is the metal grid at the back that gets warm. As the refrigerant cools it will
often become liquid again (hence the name condenser).
Condenser
3. Expansion Valve
The liquid refrigerant then passes through the expansion valve which reduces
the pressure (created by the compressor). This reduction in pressure cools the
refrigerant to below ambient temperature. Expansion
Generator
Valve

4. Evaporator
The reduced pressure refrigerant then passes through the evaporator which
allows heat from the atmosphere to pass into the refrigerant through another
heat exchanger, as the refrigerant is cooler than the space being refrigerated. By
transferring heat (energy) from the cooled space into the refrigerant the refrigerant
is evaporated (boiled) turning back into a gas and the cycle is then repeated.
Absorber Evaporator

Figure 6: The refrigeration cycle

Condenser It is not necessary to understand the process; what is important is that vapour
refrigerant gas cools via adsorption can achieve a COP of about ~0.6 to 0.8 so for every 1 MW of heat
a radiator back to liquid
form; heat is passed to used approximately 600-800 kW of refrigeration can be achieved.
outside
In practice this means that a CHP can be configured to generate electricity and
then also generate heat, cooling or a combination of both. For example, this
can mean that a CHP engine can provide building heating in the winter and
Compressor Expansion Valve air conditioning (cooling) in the summer, significantly increasing the energy
electricity raises releases the pressure efficiency of the system.
the pressure (and created by the
temperature) of the compressor; refrigerant
refrigerant gas cools to below ambient 5.9.1 Generating additional electricity from ‘waste heat’
temperature In addition to heating and cooling the waste, heat flue gasses can be used to
generate additional electricity and on a site where electricity generation is at a
premium (as opposed to generating heat), approximately 10% more electricity
can be generated.
Evaporator
heat passes from the
There are a number of technologies starting to roll out to the market and two of
space being refrigerated
into the refrigerant, these are described below.
boiling it
Organic Rankin Cycles
A ‘Rankin Cycle’ is a thermodynamic system that transfers heat from a lower
temperature to a higher temperature. The organic part refers to the fluid used,
CHPC uses a technology called vapour absorption to replace the compressor in which is ‘chemically’ organic (a hydrocarbon based chemical).
the standard refrigeration cycle. In simple terms, the refrigerant (usually ammonia)
is absorbed into water after the evaporator at low pressure and then pumped to Essentially the system works as for refrigeration systems, but the heat from the
a generator which works at high pressure (saturated in the water). The heat from flue gasses is used to vaporise the organic fluid which then drives an electric
the CHP engine is then used to heat the water in the generator which causes the generator. The fluid is then condensed in a heat exchanger, compressed and
ammonia to boil and be released (generated) as a gas at high pressure. The then evaporated again.
ammonia gas then goes to the condenser as in a normal refrigeration cycle.

www.adbiogas.co.uk The practical guide to AD 69

 Producing and Sponsored by

using biogas
Figure 8: Organic Rankin Cycle 5.9.2 Gas engine availability
The availability of a gas engine relates to the number of operating hours of the
equipment per year. The production of biogas in a digester cannot be stopped
quickly, yet the biogas storage capacity of digesters is typically limited to 3-4
Condenser
hours. The availability of the equipment and ability to convert the biogas to
power is therefore an important consideration when designing a biogas plant
and selecting suppliers.

Generator Compressor The availability of a gas engine is dependent upon a number of factors
including:
• Quality and design of the gas engine
• Quality and availability of spare parts
• Quality and training of service technicians
• Ability of the service provider to react quickly to engine faults
Evaporator
• Ability of the service provider to quickly conduct scheduled maintenance
on the gas engine.

As a rule of thumb the Organic Rankin Cycle (ORC) can generate electricity As with all forms of rotating equipment, gas engines require scheduled
equivalent to 10-20% of the thermal input from the flue gasses. To illustrate this, maintenance at specific intervals in their operation. This must be considered
if we take a 30,000 tpa food waste facility, the digester should produce about when planning the operation of your biogas plant.
600 m3/hr biogas with a total energy value of 3.6 MW. If 20% of this were to be
converted to flue gasses (730 kWt) and 19% of this converted to electricity, then Gas engine availability is typically calculated based upon the total number of
the electrical output would be 138 kWe. There would be some parasitic electricity hours run per year (out of a possible total of 8,760), and excluding the intermediate
used in the compressor, and hence one commercially marketed system is based and major overhauls. This availability can vary significantly between technology
on 125 kWe output. In this example the biogas would generate approximately suppliers and service providers, from under 80% to more than 95%.
1,440 kWe with the ORC generating an additional 125 kWe, an additional 8.6%
electricity generation.
Table 5: Example of service maintenance
An ORC needs to release heat to the atmosphere and hence the ambient intervals
temperature will have a large effect on efficiency. In hot climates the unit will not
be able to dissipate heat as easily and will become less efficient. Interval Maintenance type Predicted
down-time (hrs)
Electricity generation from steam 10,000 hours Minor 2
Another technology starting to be adopted is the generation of additional 20,000 hours Intermediate 9
electricity using a steam turbine or twin piston. Essentially steam is generated 30,000 hours Minor 2
in a boiler or heat exchanger to super-heated temperatures (a temperature above 40,000 hours Intermediate 9
its boiling point at a given pressure). The steam is then passed through a multi- 50,000 hours Minor 2
stage steam turbine / piston which in turn drives an electrical generator. 60,000 hours Major overhaul 11

Steam turbine systems are configured as multi-stage to improve efficiency and

the steam will be cooled to atmospheric (or slightly lower), partial condensation The biogas plant operator must also consider unexpected trips of the equipment
temperatures upon exit. or breakdowns when considering equipment availability. Important factors to
consider are: how readily the CHP service provider can react to faults; and in
Twin piston systems have a single stage and use multiple steam expanders to the event of an equipment failure, whose responsibility it is to meet the warranty
generate approximately 40 kW electricity per expander. This system will also claims.
have a usable thermal heat output after the piston which can be used in the AD
process.

70 The practical guide to AD www.adbiogas.co.uk

 Sponsored by
Producing and
using biogas
5.9.3 Maintenance contracts versus independent service 5.10 Biomethane
When considering CHP availability one must consider whether the service of the
CHP engine will be conducted in-house, or under a maintenance contract. This Biogas can be upgraded to biomethane, a renewable natural gas equivalent, which
is an important decision but it is common practice amongst experienced AD can then be injected and stored in the grid or used as a transport fuel. However,
operators to contract maintenance with the engine supplier. high cost and regulatory complexity has to date made such applications difficult
for many plants in the UK. Although injection to the gas grid is one of the most
Maintenance is critical as it directly affects engine availability, which in turn efficient uses of biogas (with a conversion efficiency of +/- 95%), few plants are
directly affects the amount of power generated. Engine availability should be currently connected in the UK. This is due mainly to cost and regulatory reasons
viewed as being just as important as engine (electrical) efficiency. If a 1 MWe and also because the relevant financial incentive (RHI) has only recently become
engine has an availability of 85% then it will generate 7,446 MWh per annum, available.
whereas at 86% availability it will generate an additional 87.6 MWh (+1.1%)
which represents (approximately) £10,000 of additional revenue every year. A number of working groups and initiatives are, however, now helping to streamline
the process of grid injection and conversion to transport fuel. In response to the
5.9.4 Electricity connection AD Strategy and Action Plan, Ofgem established a group to consider energy market
If an AD plant is constructed on a new site, it will require an electricity connection issues for biomethane. In June 2012, the group provided recommendations to
to the local electricity distribution network. This is needed both to provide energy break down barriers to grid connections for biomethane plants. To access a copy
to operate ancillary equipment and other site loads, and to export the power of the report, visit www.adbiogas.co.uk/ad-guide-links/.
generated by the plant. Several potential purchasers of electricity may be found
for any one site with different contractual terms. The risks and benefits of each Amendments to the gas regulations, such as increasing the volume of oxygen
option will need to be appraised and understood by the prospective developer that biomethane may contain and relaxing requirements on the measurement of
to maximise the value of the energy generated and to ensure that the appropriate calorific value, would make a major difference, as would introducing functional
agreements, contracts and licenses are entered into by the developer. specifications for grid connections to standardise connection requirements and
open them up to competition. Putting the Renewable Transport Fuels Obligation
The Distribution Network Operator (DNO) has statutory obligations under the (RTFO) on parity with the Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) would also incentivise
Electricity Act 1989 in respect of the safety and quality of electricity supply to its biomethane producers to make transport fuel (where viable) rather than choosing
customers. The DNO will determine the method and the point at which connection grid injection.
can be made to the distribution network, depending upon the export capacity of
the AD plant and the relative parameters of the immediate distribution network. The Environment Agency (EA) is considering end-of-waste criteria for
biomethane upgraded from landfill biogas and anaerobic digestion, so that it
The cost of connection could vary considerably depending on the export capacity can be treated as a product rather than a waste. A recent quality protocol (QP)
required by the AD plant and where it is located within the DNO’s distribution has been issued for consultation that would serve this purpose, and encourage
network. regulatory clarity on the point at which biomethane is no longer regarded as
a waste. It will also help to establish a consistent set of standards to facilitate
The cost of connection will in part reflect the distances involved. However, direct injection to the gas grid and use in other applications such as vehicles,
because the DNO, for operational and economic reasons, needs to use standard which should reduce costs for operators. Once available it will be added to
component sizes for its own assets, the connection cost will not tend to rise www.adbiogas.co.uk/ad-guide-links/.
smoothly with increasing plant capacities, but rather increase in steps as the
thresholds for requiring particular assets and voltage levels are crossed. If the 5.10.1 Upgrading biogas to biomethane
developer has some flexibility as to where the plant can be located within a In contrast to biogas, natural gas is primarily methane, with most of the rest
particular area, they should first discuss with the DNO the respective connection being other hydrocarbons and small amounts of carbon dioxide and other
costs for different generator sizes and potential locations. contaminants. While raw biogas can be used for heating, cooling and electricity
generation, it needs to be upgraded before injection into the gas grid. Upgrading
In some cases, benefits may also accrue to the local DNO and/or the licensed biogas removes all contaminants including carbon dioxide and increases the
second tier supplier who contracts to sell the electricity. It may be possible to methane content to over 95%. The upgraded biogas is referred to as biomethane.
negotiate agreements to optimise the costs to the developer and maximise the Removing carbon dioxide increases the heating value of the biomethane to a
value of the energy generated. similar level to natural gas, and also leads to consistency of supply from different
biomethane plants. Figure 9 illustrates how both raw biogas and biomethane can
be used, with the bold line representing the more efficient pathways.

www.adbiogas.co.uk The practical guide to AD 71

 Producing and Sponsored by

using biogas
Figure 9: Versatility of biogas and biomethane
(Source: The European Biomass Association (2009))

Raw biogas

High tech Injection into Electricity and Electricity and

Fuel for cars Heat only
process energy the grid high heat use little heat use

Upgrade biogas (biomethane)

Various technologies can be applied for upgrading biogas to biomethane. The

four main technologies for removing carbon dioxide are adsorption, absorption,
permeation and cryogenic upgrading.

Figure 10: Biogas upgrading technologies

Source: Biogasmax (2009)

Adsorption Absorption Permeation Cryogenic upgrading

High pressure
Pressure swing
Water scrubber membrane
adsorption
separation

Low pressure
Physical absorption
membrane
(organic solvents)
separation

Chemical absorption

Pressure swing adsorption Physical absorption

Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) separates some gas species from a mixture This technology is similar to water scrubbing, where carbon dioxide is absorbed
of gases under pressure. Operating at near-ambient temperatures, gases in an organic solvent such as polyethylene glycol (SEAI, 2012).
are adsorbed according to their molecular characteristics and affinity for an
adsorbent material. Carbon monoxide is adsorbed by molecular sieves, whereas Chemical absorption
carbon dioxide is adsorbed by activated carbon, activated alumina or silica gel Compared to physical absorption, chemical absorption processes use different
(Kolb, 2008). absorption agents, such as organic amines. Carbon dioxide binds chemically to
liquid but also reacts chemically with the amine (SEAI, 2012).
Water scrubbing
Water scrubbing is used to remove carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide from Permeation
biogas since these gases are more soluble in water than methane. The absorption There are two basic systems of gas purification with membranes: a high pressure
process is purely physical. Usually the biogas is pressurised and fed to the gas separation with gas phases on both sides of the membrane; and a low
bottom of a packed column where water is fed from the top and so the absorption pressure gas liquid absorption separation where a liquid absorbs the molecules
process operates counter-currently (IEA Bioenergy, 2003). diffusing through the membrane (IEA Bioenergy, 2003).

72 The practical guide to AD www.adbiogas.co.uk

 Sponsored by
Producing and
using biogas
Figure 11: Schematic diagram of biomethane production
(Source: CALSTART White Paper (2010))

Biogas usage

Burner Heat

Heat
Gen-set
Electricity

Biogas engine Mechanical work

Biomass Raw
feedstocks biogas
Anaerobic Biomethane production
digestion
Biomethane

H2S removal CO2 removal H2O removal A

Cryogenic upgrading
The biogas is first compressed and then cooled, followed by expansion. The The GDN should be contacted at the early stages of any AD project intending to
process condenses carbon dioxide, followed by methane at an even lower inject into the gas grid. At this point, the GDN will require the location of the gas
temperature (Lichtfouse et al., 2012). The components can then be selectively production facility, the anticipated volumes and hourly flow profile, anticipated
distilled at their various boiling temperatures. The process can produce high gas composition and the target connection date. Subsequently, the GDN will be
purity gases but is energy-intensive. able to advise on the steps needed to physically connect to the network.

5.10.2 Injecting biomethane to the grid Figure 12: Gas Distribution Networks of
The UK gas industry used to be a single company providing every element of Great Britain
the gas supply chain. Now a multitude of companies operates across different
sectors of the chain.
Scotia Gas
Networks
Producers deliver the gas to reception terminals around the coast of Great Britain.
Gas shippers buy the gas and have contracts with transporters to move it through
the pipeline network to supply points, where the shippers then sell the gas to
Northern Gas
suppliers, who sell it to consumers. Networks

The gas supply network nationally is 278,000 km in length. It consists of the

National
high pressure National Transmission System (NTS) owned by National Grid, and Wales
Grid
eight separate Gas Distribution Networks (GDN) owned by National Grid, Scotia & West
Gas Networks, Northern Gas Networks and Wales & West Utilities (Figure 12). Utilities
Scotia Gas
Networks

www.adbiogas.co.uk The practical guide to AD 73

 Producing and Sponsored by

using biogas
In addition to cleaning the gas to obtain biomethane, there are extra quality In some locations it may be possible to avoid propane injection by blending
specifications that the gas has to meet for it to be injected into the UK gas biomethane with sufficient volumes of natural gas in the grid to bring the average
distribution network. These are outlined in the Gas Safety (Management) CV up to a high enough level by the measuring point.
Regulations (GS(M)R) which specify the calorific value (CV) range for grid-
injected gas. In addition, in May 2012 a functional specification was created on Odorant storage and injection
behalf of and approved by some of the GDNs to set out the broad requirements All pipeline gas has a specific smell added to impart the characteristic smell as
that must be complied with by any party seeking to inject biomethane into a gas required by GS(M)R, ensuring everyone in the population can detect a leak. This
distribution system. is achieved by the addition of an odorant after the fiscal metering (metering for
payment). Routine monitoring carried out by an odour specialist would confirm
For more information on the subject, visit www.adbiogas.co.uk/ad-guide-links/. that acceptable odour intensity was being maintained.

After the biogas is produced, cleaned and upgraded to biomethane, it requires a The odorisation stage is hugely important from a gas safety point of view as too
final stage of processing in the biomethane to grid plant (network entry facility), much smell would lead to more incorrect reporting of gas escapes, while too
where the following processes take place: little odour would lead to unreported gas escapes, which could potentially lead
to gas explosions.
Propane storage and injection
Biogas generally does not naturally have the CV required for the gas grid so it 5.10.3 Gas quality monitoring and energy metering
needs to be mixed with a higher CV gas, such as propane, to meet the specified In the UK, the key components of gas quality such as calorific value, Wobbe
CV levels. The gross calorific value (GCV) in Great Britain’s gas grid is around 39 number (indicating the interchangeability of different gases in an appliance),
MJ/m3, whereas the GCV of biomethane is typically 38 MJ/m3. The gas quality water dewpoint and oxygen are monitored for compliance with the GS(M)R.
is then monitored downstream of the propane injection point and a signal is fed
back to the supervisory system to control the CV of the biomethane. Unless a specific exemption can be obtained, the biomethane must comply with
these regulations in order for it to be accepted into the network by the National
Grid for transportation to customers.

Figure 13: Biomethane injection process

Biogas clean-up and conditioning Entry facility owned by grid operator

LPG
Recirculation tank

Pressurisation H P
Raw
gas Carbon ROV
Biomethane
Desulphurisation dioxide Dewatering
conditioning FV Odorisation
removal
180 mm PE
Q Q1 H Pressurisation Q2 CV 7 barg
CV
Distribution
Control network
Control unit
unit

Data communication to biogas production Data communication Telemetry

gas network
Data communication operator

Power Transformer Power

Legend station

P Pressure measurement

H Gas humidity measurement

Power cable
Q1 Gas quality measurement (CH4, CO2, O2, H2, H2S)
Gas pipe
Q2 Process gas chromatograph (C4, C3, etc.)
Data cable
CV Calorific Value and Wobbe Index measurement
ROV Remotely operated valve
V Volume flow measurement
Limit of ownership, operating
FV Fiscal volume flow metering

74 The practical guide to AD www.adbiogas.co.uk

 Sponsored by
Producing and
using biogas
Figure 14: Schematic diagram of biomethane distribution and usage
(Source: CALSTART White Paper (2010))
Biomethane usage

Distr. via ‘tube Special

trailers’ applications

Compressed biomethane path

Local storage
Compression CNG station CNG vehicles
(high P)

(Optional)

Distribution via dedicated gas pipelines

Commercial/
Local storage Dist. via biogas
industrial NG
(low P) pipelines
equip.

Distribution via natural gas pipeline network

Biomethane Addition of
A Injection into All NG equip.
Odorisation propane LPG
NG pipelines vehicles etc.
(optional)

Liquefied biomethane path

Distr. via
Liquefaction Local storage LNG station LNG vehicles
tanker trucks

5.10.4 Biomethane market great potential for the decades that follow. Biomethane injection to the grid is
Additional demand for biomethane may come from niche areas such as the Zero included within the eight core technologies, a positive indicator of political
Carbon Homes Obligation (inclusion of biomethane as an allowable solution) support. As an indigenous gas supply, biomethane also offsets fossil gas, which
which is due to start in 2016; CHP/Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) reduces the need for imported gas and contributes to security of supply.
operators demanding biomethane to avoid the EU Emission Trading System
(ETS) and CPS (Carbon Price Support); residential customers wishing to use Another advantage is that biomethane injected into the grid does not require any
green gas and willing to pay a premium price; and other future measures to changes to be made to existing appliances, enabling consumers to benefit from
encourage the use of low carbon energy sources. this renewable energy supply without any cost or disruption. Moreover, instead
of limiting the use of biogas to the site of production, injecting biomethane into
In addition to the benefits for investors, injecting biomethane to the grid has the grid enables it to be used far away from the injection point by potentially
various benefits to the UK. The country has set an ambitious aim to have 15% numerous consumers, creating benefits for both the biomethane producer and
renewable energy by 2020 (this includes electricity, heat and transport) to help the energy supplier.
achieve its greenhouse gas reduction commitments. The UK Renewable Energy
Roadmap is designed to give direction as to how the UK will accomplish this aim
and focuses in particular on the eight technologies that have either the greatest
potential to help the UK meet it in a cost effective and sustainable way, or offer

www.adbiogas.co.uk The practical guide to AD 75

 Producing and Sponsored by

using biogas
5.11 Biogas as a vehicle fuel Today’s natural gas and biomethane vehicles offer performances fully equivalent
to petrol or diesel engines and with very clean exhaust emissions – advances in
Biomethane can be used as a vehicle fuel as a compressed natural gas (CNG) technology allow natural gas engines with minor modifications to reach EURO 6/
alternative. For this application, biomethane is compressed to over 200 bar(g) VI emission level values. A 2012 trial of biomethane HGVs by Cenex for Coca-
(sometimes higher) to reduce the storage volume and increase the energy Cola found that compared to diesel, biomethane ‘reduced NOx and PM emissions
density to useful levels. The equipment and power required for this compression by 85.6% and 97.1% respectively’ (for more information on this study visit
is significant and therefore such installations tend to be larger scale. Liquefaction www.adbiogas.co.uk/ad-guide-links/).
of biomethane is usually carried out by cooling the methane to well below zero
(methane has a boiling point of -164°C). Methane can also be used in diesel/gas mix compression ignition engines, while
methane/biomethane in the form of liquefied natural gas (LNG) can be used to
Liquefying biomethane is useful to allow large amounts of the fuel to be fuel combustion engines in ships and heavy duty road transport vehicles. Vehicle
transported around the world in shipping tankers; however it is only used in manufacturers offer both dedicated methane and dual fuel vehicles that can
transport in its compressed gas form as the costs of storing liquid biomethane operate with compressed natural gas (CNG), compressed biomethane (CBM),
(high pressures and low temperatures) make it prohibitive at small scale. LNG and liquid biomethane (LBM) fuels.

Biomethane works as a vehicle fuel in the same way as natural gas or fossil Gas engines with balanced fuel/air/load systems (stoichiometric gas engines)
methane and must therefore be able to be used in conventional natural gas provide:
vehicles. There are many natural gas vehicles operating around the world, with • Very low pollutant emission levels (mainly particulate matter and NOx),
the largest fleets in Argentina, Pakistan and Italy. There is currently a very low allowing for low-cost aftercare;
availability of biomethane vehicles and refuelling infrastructure in the UK, despite • Very low CO2 emissions, up to 65% less than an equivalent Euro 5/V diesel;
a history of incentives through fuel tax. This is starting to change however, for and
example with Audi’s announcement of the production of its A3 model to run on • Low noise engines – significantly lower than an equivalent Euro 5/V
biomethane and the Department for Transport’s Low Emission HGV Task Force. diesel.

Table 1. Natural gas vehicles around the world

Country Total Light Duty Buses HGVs Stations

Argentina 1,663,340 1,663,340 1,713
Pakistan 1,600,000 1,599,960 40 1,847
Brazil 1,476,219 1,476,219 1,561
Iran 611,516 608,863 2,641 12 347
Italy 432,900 430,000 2,100 800 609
India 327,915 315,200 12,000 715 198
China 118,353 81,257 36,996 100 486
Russia 61,000 18,000 8,000 35,000 219
Germany 59,500 58,000 1,500 720
USA 50,000 36,000 11,000 3,000 1,600
Sweden 14,536 13,407 760 369 115
France 10,150 7,500 2,000 650 125
Canada 9,740 9,500 240 0 101
Switzerland 5,830 5,638 138 54 97
Spain 1,493 122 760 611 35
Australia 1,370 10 1,258 102 146
Austria 1,022 1,020 2 98
United Kingdom 448 101 14 333 19

Sub total 6,445,332 6,324,137 79,447 41,748 10,036

Rest of the world 851,263 672,827 85,533 92,903 2,247
Total 7,296,595 6,996,964 164,980 134,651 12,283

76 The practical guide to AD www.adbiogas.co.uk

 Sponsored by
Producing and
using biogas
The range and payload of dedicated compressed methane fuelled vehicles are 5.12 Future trends
somewhat constrained by on-board fuel storage and infrastructure compared to
normal diesel fuelled vehicles, and so the best application of this technology is There are a number of interesting research and development lines currently
in urban and inter-urban use. However, when liquefied fuels are used then both being pursued by institutions and private businesses for biogas which may come
vehicle range and payload are significantly improved. to fruition in the next few years.

Dual-fuel technology in converted diesel engines can have several benefits: One by-product of biomethane upgrade is carbon dioxide and this offers an
• It allows for a large substitution rate of diesel fuel by natural gas/biomethane. additional stream of revenue by selling it for use in industry and agriculture.
Research has shown that a replacement of 75-85% of diesel with natural
gas /biomethane is feasible in some working conditions. Considerable research is also being carried out into the production of hydrogen
• It maintains the engine configuration and similar power and torque from anaerobic digesters. Hydrogen is produced in very low concentrations
performance of a compression ignition engine. The CO2 reduction is (<0.001%) by some of the acidogenic bacteria under normal anaerobic conditions.
particularly noticeable when diesel engine efficiency is still maintained in Work to try and increase this by selective bacteria growth or inoculation may lead
dual fuel operation, because of the high degree of replacement of diesel oil to economic production of this useful gas.
by gas.
• The dual fuel system affords the same level of vehicle autonomy as with Fuel cells offer the potential for even greater electrical generation efficiencies
diesel, subject to the availability of LNG filling stations. directly from the biogas and some demonstration facilities are now operating in
• The dual fuel system can be run on 100% diesel fuel if no LNG is Europe and in North America.
available.
The continued development of biogas conversion technologies is a reminder
Biomethane as a vehicle fuel uses the same engine and vehicle configuration of how versatile biogas is as a fuel source and adds considerable weight to the
as natural gas. In total there are more than one million natural gas vehicles all argument that AD and biogas are future-proofed.
over the world, clearly demonstrating that vehicle configuration is not a problem.
However, the gas quality demands are strict, making it essential for raw biogas
to be upgraded.

Upgrading biogas to biomethane delivers a vehicle fuel which:

• Has a higher calorific value in order to reach longer driving distances;
• Has a regular/constant gas quality to deliver a safe driving experience;
• Does not have high levels of H2S, NH3 and water which enhance corrosion;
• Does not contain mechanically damaging particles;
• Does not result in ice-clogging due to a high water content; and
• Has a declared and assured quality.

Picture 2. Engine inside a ‘Biobug’, a biogas-powered VW Beetle (© Les Gornal, PROjEN)

www.adbiogas.co.uk The practical guide to AD 77

 Europes Leading Supplier of Efficient Gas
EngineTechnology for AD

The Total Energy Solution Provider: Proven Track Record :

- Feasibility Consultancy - Over 1000MWe installed capacity
- Design & Construction - Constructed for long life
- Full Turnkey Contracts - Low maintenance costs
- Project Management - Complies fully with all UK/ROI laws
- Commissioning - Packaged in the UK by Edina
- No Risk Maintenance - Designed from experience

Highest Efficiency - Proven Relability - Dependable Service

Sole Distributor in the UK & Ireland for

Edina UK
Unit 13 Rugby Park, Bletchley Road, Stockport SK4 3EJ
T: +44 (0) 161 432 8833 F: +44 (0) 161 975 1499
E: [email protected]

78 The practical guide to AD www.adbiogas.co.uk

Anaerobic digestion –
everything from a single source
The Viessmann Group biogas competence brands are
among the leading suppliers of biogas technologies
with the experience that comes from building over
310 plants. We offer dry and wet anaerobic digestion
solutions ranging from 50 kWel to 20 MWgas and provide
professional support of all biogas related issues.

Our scope of service:

 Plant design, construction and commissioning
 Key biogas plant components
 Gas-upgrading technology (Carbotech) for
bio-methane production
 Energy from waste via dry digestion (BIOFerm)
or IVC (In-Vessel-Composting)
 Technical services and biological support

Our competence brands:

Schmack Biogas: comprehensive supplier and one
of the leading providers of wet AD systems
www.schmack-biogas.com

BIOFerm: the specialist for dry AD plants and IVC

www.bioferm-energy.com

Schmack Carbotech: the pioneer for highly efficient

upgrading of biogas to biomethane
www.carbotech.info

Direct contact:
Schmack Biogas GmbH
Bayernwerk 8
92421 Schwandorf
Germany
Phone: +49 9431 751-0
E-mail: [email protected]

www.adbiogas.co.uk The practical guide to AD 79

 Sponsored by
Notes

80 The practical guide to AD www.adbiogas.co.uk