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[ Table of Contents
Contents and Introduction
Table of Contents
Legal Information
How to Use This Book
Acknowledgements
1 What's in a Name?
1.1 Why Names and Symbols?
1.2 Points, Lines, and Planes
1.3 Round and Round
1.4 Construction: Copy a Segment
1.5 The Burden of Proof
1.6 Summary
2 Angles
2.1 What is an Angle?
2.2Measuring Angles
2.3 Straight and Vertical Angles
2.4Parallel Lines
2.5 Angles in a Triangle
2.6 Exterior Angles
2.7 Parallel Lines Revisited
2.8.Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
3 Congruent Triangles
3.1 Introduetion
3.2.S8S Congruence
3.3. SAS Congruence
3.4,ASA and AAS Congruence
3.5 SSA NotNecessarily Congruence
3.6 lsosoeles and Equilateral Triangles
3.7 Construction: Equilateral Triangle and Perpendicular Bisector
3.8 Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
4 Perimeter and Area
4.1 Perimeter
42Area
4.3. Same Base/Same Altitude
4.4Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
5 Similar Triangles
5.1 What is Similarty?
5.2 AA Similarity
5.3 SAS Similarity
5.4888 Similarity
5.5 Using Similarity in Problems
5.6 Construction: Angles and Parallels
5.7 Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
6 Right Triangles
6.1 Pythagorean Theorem
6.2 Two Special Right Triangles
6.3 Pythagorean Triples
6.4 Congruence and Similarity Revisited
6.5% Heron's Formula
6.6 Construction: Perpendicular Lines
6.7 Summary
Review Problems
‘Challenge Problems
7 Special Parts of a Triangle
7.1 Bisectors
7.2 Perpendicular Bisectors of a Triangle.
7.3 Angle Bisectors of a Triangle
7.4 Medians
7.5 Altitudes:
7.6k Challenging Problems
7.7 Construction: Bisectors
7.8 Summary
Review Problems
‘Challenge Problems
8 Quadrilaterals
8.1 Quadiilateral Basics
8.2 Trapezoids
8.3 Parallelograms
8.4 Rhombi
8.5 Rectangles
8.6 Squares
87 If and Only If
8.8% Quadrilateral Problems
8.9 Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
9 Polygons
9.1 Introduction to Polygons
9.2 Angles in a Polygon
9.3 Polygon Area
9.4 Polygon Problems
9.5 Construction: Regular Polygons
9.6 Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
10 Geometric Inequalities
10.1 Sides and Angles of a Triangle
10.2 Pythagoras ~ Not Just For Right Triangles?
10.3 The Triangle Inequality
10.4 Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
11 Circles
11.1 Arc Measure, Arc Length, end Circumference
11.2 Area
11.3 Funky Areas
11.4 Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
12 Circles and Angles
12.1 Inscribed Angles
12.2 Angles Inside and Outside Circles
12.3 Tangent
12.4 Problems
12.5 Construction: Tangents
12.6 Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
13 Power of a Point
13.1 What is Power of a Point?
13.2 Power of a Point Problems
13.3. Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
14 Three-Dimensional Geometry
14.1 Planes.
142 Prisms
14.3 Pyramids
14.4 Regular Polyhedra
14.5 Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
15 Curved Surfaces
15.1 Cylinders
15.2 Cones
15.3 Spheres
154 Problems
15.5 Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
16 The More Things Change...
16.1 Translations:
16.2 Rotations
16.3 Reflections
16.4 Dilatior
16.5 Changing the Question
16.6 Construction: Transformations
16.7 Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
17 Analytic Geometry
17.1 Lines
17.2 Circles
17.3 Basic Analytic Geometry Problems.
174 Proofs with Analytic Geometry
17.8 Distance Between a Point and a Line
17.6 Advanced Analytic Geometry Problems.
17.7 Summary
Review Problems
‘Challenge Problems
18 Introduction to Trigonometry
18.1 Trigonometry and Right Triangles
18.2 Not Just For Right Triangles
18.3 Law of Sines and Law of Cosines.
184 Summary
Review Problems
Challenge Problems
19 Problem Solving Strategies in Geometry
19.1 The Extra Line
19.2 Assigning Variables
19.3 Proofs:
19.4 Summary
Challenge Problems ‘Copyright © 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012, 2014, 2015 AoPS Incorporated. All Rights Reserved.
Roprocuction of any portion of thi book without te wrtton permission of AoPS Inccrporated is etictlypronbita,excopt for “fr use" or other noncommercial
‘uses a8 defined in Sections 107 and 108 of tha US. Copyright Act
‘This onine Dock may be used soley under the tems ct AoPS Incoporated's Online Book License Agreement, avalable HERE,
Published by
DPS Incorporates
10865 Rancho Bernatca Ra Ste 100
‘San Diego, cA 92127-2102
(e52) 675.0555,
booksgartofpraslensolving.com
Print Version ISBN: 078-7.034124.06-6 tent), 978-1-934124-00-3 (solitons)
Gover image cesigned by Vanessa Ruscyk using KeleoTie software Cover includes = satelite image of the Mississippi River Delta fiom NASA Earth
Onservatory and a photo of protractor and compasses by Vanessa Rusczvk How to Use This Book
This book is probably very different from most of the math books that you have read before. We believe that the best way to learn
mathematics is by solving problems. Lots and lots of problems. In fact, we believe that the best way to learn mathematics is to
‘ry to solve problems that you don't know how to do, When you discover something on your own, you'll understand it much better
‘than If eomeone just tells Ito you.
Most of the sections of this book begin with several problems. The solutions to these problems will be covered in the text, but try
to solve the problems before reading the section. If you can't solve some of the problems, that's OK, because they will all be fully
solved as you read the section. Even if you solve al of the problems, It's stil portant to read the section, both to make sure that
your solution is correct, and also because you may find that the book's solution is simpler or easier to understand then your own,
If you find that the problems are too easy, this means that you should try harder problems. Nobody leams very much by solving
probleme that are too easy for them.
Navigating This Book
From any page in the book, you can click on the image of the book's cover in the top-left comer to view the table of contents. On
large-sereen devices, you can also click anywhere on the left-side navigation bar to jump to the corresponding section of the
book. You can use the left and right arrows at the top of the page to move to the previous or next chapter or section of the book.
Most sections begin with all of the problems thet appear in the section, as explained in the “Learn by Solving Problems”
subsection above. Clicking on the 4 Jump to Solution link will jump forward in the section to where that problem and its solution
appear in the text
Hovering over a paragraph will create a small j icon in the left margin. Clicking on that icon will pop up @ window with a
permanent link to that paragraph. You can cut-and-paste this link into an email message or community post.
Interactive Features
‘There are several interactive features built into the book. All online books are linked to the AoP'S community, so that students
using the online book can discuss the book with other students. Click on the t Community icon next to a section or problem to
view" all of the discussions about that section or problem. Click the V New Topic icon to start a new discussion topic about the
section of problem,
This book is also linked to Alcumus, Art of Problem Solving’s innovative online learning system. Clicking on the 9 Alournus link at
‘the top of a section takes you to Alcumus. This gives you the opportunity to work on additional practice problems that reinforce
‘the material in your current section of the book. (Not al sections are linked to Aleumus, so the icon may not appear at the top of
some sections ) To leat more about Alcumus, click here.
Explanat
‘Throughout the book, you will see various shaded boxes and icons.
n of Icons
Concept: This will be @ general problem-solving technique or strategy. These are the "keys" to
| becoming a better problem solver!
Important: This will be something important that you should lear. It might be a formule, a
Zs solution technique, or a caution.
Beware if you see this box! This will point out a common mistake or pitfall.
oO
Game: Remember, math s fun! This box will contain @ game to think about.
Sidenote: This box will contain material which, although interesting, is not part of the main
. material of the text. I's OK to skip over these boxes, but if you read them, you might
eam something interesting!
Bogus Solution: Just like the impossible cube shown to the left, there's something wrong with any
y “solution” that appears in this box.
Extrat This is an “Extra!” and might be a quote, some biographical or historical background, or
v perhaps an interesting idea to think about.
Exercises, Review Problems, and Challenge Problems
‘Most sections end with several Exereises. These will test your understanding of the material that was covered in the section that
you just finished. You should try to solve all of the exercises. Exercises marked with e * are more difficult.
Most chapters have a section containing Review Problems. These are problems which test your understanding of the material
covered in the chapter. Your goal should be to solve most or all of the Review Problems for every chapter — if you're unable to do
‘this, it means that you haver't yet mastered the material, and you should probably go back and read the chapter again.
All of the chapters end with a section containing Challenge Problems. These problems are generally more difficult than the other
problems in the book, and will really test your mastery of the material. Some of them are very, very hard — the hardest ones are
marked with 2 %. Don't necessarily expect to be able to solve all of the Challenge Problems on your first try ~ these are difficult
problems even for experienced problem solvers. If you are able to solve a large number of Challenge Problems, then
congratulations, you are on your way to becoming an expert problem solver!
You can type your solution or notes for any Exercise, Review Problem, or Challenge Problem directly into the book. Your work will
automatically be saved. You wort be able to view the solution to a problem until you type something in the solution box.
Many problems come with one or more hints. You can view any available hint by clicking on the Hint link after the problem
statement. You can then hide the hint by again clicking on the Hint link. Itis very important that you first try to solve the problem
without peeking at the hints. Only after you've seriously thought about a problem and are stuck should you look at a hint, Also, for
problems which have multiple hints, use the hints one at a time; don't go to the second hint until you've thought about the first
The solutions to all of the Exercises, Review Problems, and Challenge Problems are built into the book. Clicking the Show
Solution button will display the solution, but you won't be able to view the solution until you've made an attempt to solve the
problem and typed something into the solution box. Once you've viewed the solution, you can add notes to the solution in a
‘separate box. You can also click the Reset button to clear your solution and notes and start fresh.
Here are some very important things to keep in mind about the solutions:
1. Make sure that you make a serious attempt at the problem before looking at the solution. You should think herd about a
problem before deciding to give up and look at the solution. Remember, once you view a solution, you car‘t change what
‘you typed for your solution.
2. After you solve 2 problem, it's usually a good idea to read the solution, even if you think you know how to solve the problem.
Our solution might show you a quicker or more concise way to solve the problem, or it might have a completely different
solution method that you might not have thought of.
4, If you have to look atthe solution in order to solve @ problem, make sure that you make a note of that problem, You can
‘then come back to the problem in a week or two to make sure that you are able to solve it on your own without resorting to
‘he solution
Resources
Here are some other good resources for you to further pursue your study of mathematics:
11 Art of Problem Solving has @ complete library of books (both print and online) specifically designed for avid math students:
= The Introduction series: Prealgebra, Introduction to Algebra, Introduction to Counting & Probability, and Introduction to
Number Theory, designed for students in grades 6-10.
= The Intermediate series: Intermediate Algebra, Intermediate Counting & Probability, Precalculus, and Calculus,
designed for students in grades 9-12.
= The Problem Solving series: designed for students preparing for math competitions. In addition to our classics the
Art of Problem Solving, Volume 1° the Basics (for students in grades 7-10 preparing for MATHCOUNTS and the AMC
8/10/12 contests) and the Art of Problem Solving, Volume 2: and Beyond (for students in grades 9-12 preparing for
advanced contests such as the AIME), we also have Competition Math for Micidle School
= Beast Academy: a full, rigorous, entertaining curriculum for aspiring math beasts in grades 2-5.
= The Art of Problem Solving website contains many other resources for students.
= The AoP'S Community has tens of thousands of members (if you ere reading this online book, you're a member too!)
and millions of posts on a variety of math, problem solving, and other fun topics.
= Alcumus, our free adaptive online learning system containing over 13,000 practice problems.
‘= Forthe Winl, our free interactive online game inspired by the MATHCOUNTS Countdown Round.
= Our vast video library contains hundreds of videos featuring AoPS founder Richard Rusczyk.
= Leatn LaTeX, the mathematical typesetting system used by most professional mathematicians and scientists, from
our widely-used LaTeX guice, and practice your LaTeX skills with the TeXeR
= AoPS Community members collaborate to build the AoPSWiki
+ We have a collection of articles on a variety of problem-solving topics.
= You can hone your problem solving skills (and perhaps win prizes!) by participating in various math contests. Please see
‘the Acknowledgements section of this book for more information.
A Note to Teachers
We believe that students learn best when they are challenged with hard problems that at first they may not know how to do. This
is the motivating philosophy behind this book.
Rather than first introducing new material and then giving students exercises, we present problems at the start of each section
‘that students should try o solve before the new material is presented. The goal isto get students to discover the nev material on
‘their ov. Often, complicated problems are broken into smaller parte, co that students can discover new techniques one piece at
a time. Then the new material is formally presented in the text, and full solutions to each problem are explained, along with
problem-solving strategies.
We hope that teachers will find that many students will discover most of the material in this book on their own by working
through the problems. Other students may leam better from a more traditional approach of first seeing the new material, then
‘working the problems. Teachers have the fiexibilty to use either approach when teaching from this book.
The book is linear in coverage. Generally, students and teachers should progress straight through the book in order, without
ping chapters. Sections denoted with @ % contain supplementary material that may be safely skipped. In general, chapters
are not equal in length, so different chapters may take different amounts of classroom time. Acknowledgements
Contests
We would like to thank the following contests for allowing us to use a selection of their problems in this book:
1 The American Mathematics Competitions, = series of contests for U.S. middle and high school students. The AMC 8, AMC
10, and AMC 12 contests are multiple-choice tests that are taken by over 350,000 students every year. Top scorers on the
AMC 10 and AMC 12 ate invited to take the American Invitational Mathematics Examination (AIME), which is a more
difficult, shortanswer contest. Approximately 10,000 students every year participate in the AIME. Then, based on the
results of the AMC and AIME contests, about 500 students are invited to participate in the USA Junior Mathematical
Olympiad (USAJMO) and USA Mathematical Olympiad (USAMO), 2-day, S-hour examinations in which each student must
show all of his or her work. Results from the USA)MO are used to invite students to the Math Olympiad Summer
Program, at which the U.S. team for the International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) Is trained. More information about the
AMC contests can be found on the AMC website at http: //smis.maa.org/math-compet it ions.
+ MATHCOUNTS®, the premier contest for U.S. middle school students. MATHCOUNTS is @ national enrichment, coaching,
and competition program that promotes middle school mathematics achievement through grassroots involvement in every
US. state and territory, with over 160,000 students participating in 2013-14. President Barack Obama, and former
Presidents Bush, Clinton, Bush and Reagan have all recognized MATHCOUNTS in White House ceremonies. The
MATHCOUNTS program has also received two White House citations as an outstanding private sector initiative. More
information is available at hi tp: //inau.mathcounts.org
= The Mandelbrot Competition, which was founded in 1990 by Sandor Lehoczky, Richard Rusczyk. and Sam Vandervelde.
The aim of the Mandelbrot Competition Is to provide a challenging, engaging mathematical experience which is both
competitive and educational. Students compete both as individuals and in teams. The Mandelbrot Competition is offered
at the national level for more advanced students and the regional level for less experienced problem solvers. The
Mandelbrot Competition is currently on hiatus until 2017, More information can be found at ntcp://
www mandelbrot.org.
= The Harvard-MIT Mathematics Tournament (HMMT), which is a twice-annual math tournament for high school students,
held at MIT and Harvard. itis run exclusively by MIT and Harvard students, most of whom themselves participated in math
contests in high school. More information is available at hc tp: //hwnt it ed
+ The USA Mathematical Talent Search (USAMTS), which vas founded in 1989 by Professor George Berzsenyi. The
USAMTS is a free mathematics competition open to all United States middle and high school students. As opposed to
most mathematics competitions, the USAMTS allows students a full month to work out their solutions. Carefully written
justifications are required for each problem, More information is available at http: / wu. usants.ore,
+ The American Regions Math League (ARML), which was founded in 1976, The annual ARMIL competition brings together
neatly 2,000 of the nation’s finest students. They meet, compete against, and socialize with one another, forming
friendships and sharpening their methematical skills. The contest is written for high school students, although some
‘exceptional junior high students attend each year. The competition consists of several events, which include a team round,
a power question (in which a team solves proof-oriented questions), an individual round, and two relay rounds. More:
information is available at http: //arml com
How We Wrote This Book
This book is a collaborative effort of the staff of the Art of Problem Solving, Richard Ruscryk was the lead author for this book,
‘and wrote most of the text. Some of the Sidebar and Extra sections were prepared by Ashley Reiter Anlin. Vanessa Rusczyk, and
Naoki Sato. The solutions were written by Ruozhou Jia, Brian Rice, Richard Rusczyk, and Naoki Sato. Extensive proofreading of
the manuscript was done by Mathew Crawford, Lisa Davis, Amanda Jones, David Patrick, Tim Lambert, Naoki Sato, and Jake
Wildstrom. Vanessa Rusczyk designed the cover and also contributed greatly to the interior design of the book. David Patrick,
Naoki Sato, Revi Boppana, Meena Boppana, Velentin Vomnicu, Greg Brockman, Larry Evans, and Joseph Laurendi contributed
problems and proofreading to the second edition.
The author would also like to thank Josh Zucker, whose comments about how he learned mathematics inspired the questions-
before-the-lessons approach of the text
‘The print version of this book was written using the LaTeX document processing system, and the diagrams were prepared using
‘Metapost and Asymptote. We thank the authors of the various LaTeX packages that we used while preparing this book, and also
the brilliant authors of The LaTeX Companion for writing a reference book that is not only thorough but also very readable.
The source files for the print book were intially converted to this online book using a script written in the Python programming
language. Palmer Mebane managed the conversion of this book from print to online, and Paul Salemo also wrote tools used in
the conversion. Jason Batterson and the Jacob Tyler Creative Group designed the look and feel of this online book. James Fung,
Shelley Garg, Kyle Guillet, Tasha Moyer, David Patrick, Shannon Rogers, Amy Szezepanski, Deven Ware, Phyllis Xu, and Laura
Zehender all helped to review and edit the online book content.
Dedication
For Professor Harold Reiter, who brought me back to education, and for Vanessa Rusezyk, whose confidence in me and love of
the desert has kept me here ever since. A
‘The Golden Ratio Spiral
‘Do not laugh at notations; net em, Pay are powern infact, metnematos I, 02 large extent, vention of better notations. — ichate Feynman
CHAPTER 1
What's in a Name?
Each of these images helps tell a story. Throughout this book we'll share these stories with you, but before we tell these stories,
‘we have to name our characters,
1.1 Why Names and Symbols?
To convince you that names and symbols are useful, welll start at the end of the book instead of the beginning, Here's the final
‘example problem in this book, written without any special symbols or names.
Draw three points and connect each to the other two with straight paths. Also, draw the circle that passes through all
three of these points. Then, draw a line through one of those three points such that the line goes inside the region you
just formed and is equally close to the two other straight paths you formed initially through this point. Draw the circle
that goes through the one of your three first points you Just drew a line through, through the point where this line hits
the straight path that connects the other two of your frst three points, and through the point that is half-way between
these two other points.
Consider the two paths from the point we drew the extra line through to the other two of our first three points. These
paths hit our second circle before they hit these other two points. Show that the distance from where the circle hits
‘these paths to the points where these paths end Is the same for both paths.
if you can make much sense of this problem, youre a much more careful reader than J am! We need some special names and
symbols $0 we can communicate mathematical ideas more simply. 1.2 Points, Lines, and Planes
»
Figure 1.1: 4 Point
Adot. A speck. In geometry, it's a point. If you lived on a point, you'd be awfully bored. There would be no up and down, no right
and left. You couldr’t move any amount in any direction. Since you can't move on your point in any direction, we say a point has O
dimensions. In order to tell one point from another, ve usually label them with capital letiers, such as point P above.
A
b
Figure 1.2: 4 Segment
Now, say you got so bored on one point thet you just hed to go to another point. If there were a straight path from ane paint to
another, that path would be called 2 line segment, or just a segment. The two points at the ends of a segment are cleverly called
‘the endpoints of the segment. We use these endpoints to label the segment. For example, AB Is the segment from Ato B. To
denote the length of the segment, we omit the bar. For example, AB equals 1.5 inches in Figure 1.2.
a
\
Figure 1.3: A Midpoint and Marking Segments of Equal Length
The endpoints aren't the only points on a segment. There are infinitely many points, since between any two points on the
‘segment, we can find another point. One special point on a segment is the seament’s midpoint, which Is the point halfway
between the endpoints. Because the midpoint is the same distance from both endpoints, we say it is equidistant from the
endpoints. In Figure 1.3, M] is the midpoint of XY. We show that XM = MY in the diagrem with the little tick marks along
XM and TTY. If we have multiple sets of equally long segments, we use a different number of tick marks for each. For
example, our diagram above indicates that ZX = W'Y, and that these lenaths need not be the same as X Mand MY.
Figure 1.4: 4 Ray
If you're not nappy just going from A to B, you can keep going past point BB. If you keep going forever, you will make a ray. We
refer to the ray in Figure 1.4 a3 AB where the starting point. or erigin, of the ray comes first. In the diagram, the litle arrow
indicates thatthe ray continues forever in tht crection.
Figure 1.5: Line
[As you might guess, we could continue forever in both directions. The result is a line. Line 1B} is shown in Figure 1.5. We
sometimes use a lowercase letter 1o deseribe a line, such ac line in the figure. We often leave off the little arrows in the
diagrams.
Figure 7.6: Three Collinear Points Figure 1.7: Three Concurrent Lines
If three or more points ere all on the same line, we sey the points are collinear, and if three or more
‘same point, we say the lines are concurrent.
es all pass through the
Segments, rays, and lines are all one-dimensional figures, since you have only one way you can move along them. Roughly
speaking, eny path you cen draw with @ pencil is one-dimensional, meaning you can either move ‘forward’ on the path or
‘packward’ on the path. Once we have the freedom to go off our path and move around on a surface, we're up to two dimensions.
On a surface like this page, we might call our dimensions leftsight and up-down. if the page extended forever in every direction,
weld call ita plane, Most of this book discusses planar figures, which are figures that exist in planes.
However, in Chapter 14, we wander off the page and add a third dimension you might think of as ‘above-below’ The physical
space we live inis effectively three-dimensional, and most of what we experience is three-dimensional
Although it’s much harder to think about, there's @ great deal of math in higher dimensions. But that's story for another day.
Exer
es
gs wv
Alice is thinking of a line. How many points on that line does she need to show Bob in order for Bob to know exactly which line
she is thinking about?
Type your solution, notes and/or work here
1.2.2: By
Mis the midpoint of AB and Nis the midpoint of BNT. if BN = 4, then what is AB?
Type your solution, notes and/or work here
a ia
P,Q, R, S,and T are on line k such that Q is the midpoint of PT, Ris the midpoint of QT, and S is the midpoint of RT. if
PS = 9,then what is PT?
Type your solution, notes and/or work here.
ae ss Rea oi a
Points A, B,C, D, and Fare five points on a line segment with endpoints A and . The points are in the order listed above
from left to right euch that CD = AB/2, BC = CD/2, AB = AE/2,and AE = 12. Wnatis the length of AD?
Hint
‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. 1.3 Round and Round
Problems
Problem 1.1 4-Jump to Solution
‘Mark 2 point on a piece of a paper and label it O. Use a ruler to find points on your paper that are 7 inch away from the point O.
IF you draw all of these points, what figure would you create?
Problem 1.2, Jump to Solution
The figure shown at right is called a eile,
(@)_Isitpossible to draw a line that does not hit the circle in any points?
(©) Isitpossible to draw a line that hits the circle in exactly one point?
(©) Two points?
(@)_ Three or more points?
We have many fancy names for things in mathematics. The fancy name we have for a group of points that satisfy certain
conditions is a locus, While you may never have heard of that word, you've certainly heard of the first locus we'll investigate. (And
it's no big deal if you forget the word ‘locus’ until Intermediate Geometry!)
mre tv
Mark a point on a piece of a paper and label it O. Use a ruler to find points o
Ifyou draw all of these points, what figure would yo
Solution for Problem 1.1: When we draw all the points thet are 1 inch away from O, we form
a figure called a circle. The point ( is called the center of the circle. We often refer to a
circle by its center, writing ‘circle O' or 'O, where the © symbol tells us that weve dealing
with a circle. We say that OA is a radius of the circle because it is a segment connecting
‘the center to a point on the circle, We know that all points on the circle must be 1 inch from
‘the center, so OA = Linch. The term ‘radius’ is also used to mean the length of a radius,
‘so we could write: ‘The radius of ®Qis 1 inch’
You'll notice that we dict use a big dot to mark point A. When there's a label near where
‘two figures meet, the label refers to the point where they meet. Therefore, A Is the point
where our radius hits the circle. >
‘Much of our work in this book involves both lines and circles,
ecu my
Corry
Solution for Problem 1.2: Given ©X, we can clearly find ¢ line that doesn't hit X anywhere. Line k shown below is such a line
Imagine sliding line closer and closer to ©.X until it touches the circle at exactly one point, such as line £ touches ©.X at point
P. We say that line fis a tangent line to the circle. We can also use ‘tangent’ as an adjective, and write, ‘Line €is tangent to @X."
v
en
es
La
Lines even closer to the center intersect the elrle at two pointe, uch ao NTN does. A line that hite @ o'rele at two points Is a
secant line. A segment that connects two points on a circle is a chord. ZIV is a chord, while MN is a secant line. A chord that
passes through the center of a circle is @ diameter.
Finally, the portion of a circle that connects two points on a citcle is called an are of that circle. Of course, we have @ symbol for
—~
‘that too: [MN is the shorter of the two arcs that connect IM and V. We call the shorter of the two arcs that connect two points
ona citcle a minor are of the circle. The longer arc that connects the two points is ¢ major are of the circle. We usually use three
~
points to denote a major arc: PN IM is the longer arc connecting P to M, while PM is the smaller arc connecting them. &
Exercises
a)
Inthe figure at right. identify whether each ofthe following is @ secant line, a chord, @radius,@ pp -—~C
diameter, or a tangent line of @O. (if multiple terms are accurate, list all of the accurate terms.) ~ /
@ co B oO A
i 7
‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here.
© be
Type your solution, notes and/or work here.
(© CD
Type your solution, notes and/or work here
( AB
‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here.
© &
Type your solution, notes and/or work here.
1.3.2: a
Suppose point P is outside a given circle. Is it always possible to draw a ine through P that is tangent to the circle? (No proof
isnecessary now; you'll have the tools to prove your answer later in the text.)
Type your solution, notes and/or work here
1.3.3: re on a a
What is the maximum number of possible points of intersection of a circle and a triangle? (A triangle is formed by connecting
three points with line segments.)
Type your solution, notes and/or work here
BPs Rae a
Two circles and three straight lines lie in the same plane. If neither the circles nor the lines are coincident (meaning the two
circles are different and the three lines are all different lines), what is the maximum possible number of points at which at
least two of the five figures intersect?
Aint
Type your solution, notes and/or work here 1.4 Construction: Copy a Segment
Classical construction problems are sprinkled throughout the book because a deep understanding of constructions usually leads
to a deep understanding of geometry. Construction problems ask us to create precise geometric diagrams with two simple tools,
These tools are a compass, to make circles, and a straightedge, to make straight line segments. Notice that we dor't say ‘ruler’ to
make line segments. You don't get to use your straightedge to measure lengths of seaments — you can only draw lines. Similarly,
you aren't allowed to use your protractor to measure or create angles
So, what can you do?
That's the goal of these construction sections: to start learning what you can do with only compacs and straightedge. The only
operations you can perform with your compass and straightedge are the following:
1. Given a point, you can draw any line through the point.
2. Given two points, you can draw the line that passes through them both.
3. Given a point, you can draw any circle centered at that point.
4, Given a point and a segment, you can draw the circle with its center at that point and with radius equal in length to the length
of the segment.
5. Given two points, you can draw the circle through one point such that the other point is the center of the circle.
That's not much, but with these simple operations we can construct an enormous range of diagrams.
Problems
Problem 1.3, 4 Jump to Solution
Use your compass to find a point Y on k such that AB = XY. You cannot sit
‘measurement to find 1
ply use a ruler to measure 173, then use that
Problem 1.4 4 Jump to Solution
‘Shown below are segments AB and MN.
(a) Use straightedge and compass to construct a line segment that has length AB + MN. (Reminder: You can't just
measure with a ruler!!)
(b) Construct a line segment that has length AB — MN. (Even though we don't say ‘with a straightedge and compass’ you
still can’t measure with a ruler! ‘Construct’ implies ‘straightedge and compass’ construction.)
We start our exploration of construction by learning how to copy a segment
ecu a
ee neem Le Lee
ruler to measure 4/3, then use that measurement to find Y'1
Solution for Problem 1.3: All we can do with a compass is draw circles or parts of circles. To
‘ind 2 point that is AB from X, we first open our compass to a width of AB by putting the ae
point of the compass at A and the compass pencil at 2 (or vice versa). Then we make a
circle with center X and this opening as the radius. Since this ©X has a radius equalto AB, ~—~_x
‘the two points where it hits k are AB away from X. We can take either one of these as our \ LY
point Yc
Concept: In nearly all construction problems in which we must make a point, we find that point
| by constructing two figures that the point must be on. The point we seek is then at the
intersection of these two figures. For example, in Problem 1.3, we have line k and
construct ©X that ¥ must be on. Their intersection gives us the point ¥ we seek.
Let's try slightly more challenging construction.
Eee a
Solution for Problem 1.4: We start by drawing a line k and choosing a point P on line k. We find a point that is AB + MN from
P in two steps, First, we find a point a distance of AB from P using our construction technique in Problem 1.3. We do so by
‘opening our compass to width AB and using this radius to draw a circle centered at P. We take one of the points where this
circle hits k to be point Q
‘Then we find a point that is A/V from (by opening our compass to width MN’ and using this radius to dravr a circle centered
at. As shown, this circle hits i ot two points, H and R’. To get to point H from P., we go 2 distonce of AB to get to @ then
MN more to reach R. Therefore, PR = AB + MN. Similarly, to getto R’ from P, we first go a distance equal to AB 10 cet
10 Q,then head back towards P a distance of MN to get to R'.So, PR! = AB — MN.o
You might have noticed that we did't need the entire circles we drew in our
constructions. We only needed enough of the circle to tell where the circle would hit
‘the line. Typically, these ite arcs are all we draw in our constructions. Therefore, our
paper wen constructing AI2 — MN in Problem 1.4 might look as shown at right.
Exercises
Given the segments shown, construct segments with the following lengths: f
() AB+CD~EF.
te
Type your solution, notes and/or work here.
(e) 2AB.
‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here.
(© AB-2EF +3CD.
‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. 1.5 The Burden of Proof
Ecrller we defined a line segment as the direct path that connects two points. it seems obvious that any two points can be
connected by a segment. In fact, it seems so obvious that it should be easy to prove. However, it isnt just hard to prove — it's
impossiole. The statement that any two points can be connected by a straight line segment must be simply accepted as a fact,
We call such a statement that must be regarded as fact without proof an axiom, Axioms are also sometimes called postulates,
When the world’s most famous geometer, Euclid, wrote his famous Elements, he stated five axioms:
|. Any two points can be connected by a straight line segment.
2. Any line segment can be extended forever in both directions, forming a lin.
3. Given any line segment, we can draw a circle with the segment as a radius and one of the segment’s endpoints as center.
4. Allright angles are congruent. (Well talk about right angles and what we mean by ‘congruent’ shortly!)
5. Given any straight line and a point not on the line, there is exactly one straight line that passes through the point and never
meats the first line,
In Euclid’s Elements, he combined these axioms to prove ever more complicated mathematical statements, We call such proven
mathematical stetements theorems. A mathematical statement that is not an axiom but hasrit been proved false or true is called
a conjecture.
In this book, we dor't start from Euclid’s axioms and prove everything that follows step-by-step. I's a good thing, too! It turns out
that even Euclid missed a few axioms. Mathematicians since have shown that Euclia’s arguments, in order to be completely valid
‘would need many more axioms added to these five. In other words, there are some things that even the great Euclid didn't realize
are so ‘obvious’ that they could not be proved. Often when we reach these items in this text we give a ‘common sense!
‘explanation of why we accent these statements as facts. We note when these really are axioms, a3 opposed to statements that
\we can prove using previous axioms or theorems. You can use the proofs we present both as guides for writing your own proofs
and as stepping stones to prove interesting theorems of your own 1.6 Summary
Definitions:
= Appoint je, well, a point. Euclid called a point ‘that which has no part! We can't do
much better than that vague description. We typically denote points with capital
letters.
= A straight path connecting two points is called 2 segment, and our original two
points are the endpoints of the segment. We refer to a segment by Its endpoints,
such as AB. We remove the bar to denote the length of the segment: AB.
Definitions:
1 The point on a segment that is halfway between the endpoints is the midpoint of
the segment. We also say that this point is equidistant from the endpoints.
= If we start at a point, then head in one direction forever, we form a ray. Our starting
ere reeeeer rant teeter et en ite at ee eter
the vertex of he ry.
+ If we continue a line segment pastts endpoints forever in both crection, we form
a line, which we write as ‘1B.
1 If this page were continued forever in every direction, the result would be a plane.
Since we can move in two general ditections, such as rightleft and up-down, on a
plane, we say the plane has two dimensions.
= If we adda third dimension, we are in three-dimensional space.
‘The set of all points th
iat satisfy specific conditions is called a locus,
Definitions:
1 The set of all points that are the same distance from a given point is @ circle. The
given point is the center of the circle, and the fixed distance is the radius. We often
refer to a circle by its center using the symbol ©, 60 OO refers to a circle centered
ato.
1 Aline that touches @ circle at a single pointis tangent to the circle, while a line that
hits a circle ot two points is a secant line. A segment connecting two points on a
circle is @ chord, and 2 chord thet passes through the center of its circle is a
diameter. The portion of a circle that connects two points on the circle is an are,
—~
which we denote with the endpoints of the arc: MN Is the shorter are that
connects M and N.
When performing constructions with a straightedge and compass, you can only draw line segments and circular ares. You cannot
use a ruler to measure
‘segments. The operations you can perform are:
1. Given a point, you can draw any line through the point
2. Given two points, you can draw the line that passes through them both.
3. Given a point, you can draw any circle centered at that point.
4, Given a point and a segment, you can craw the circle with its center at that point and with radius equal in length to the length
of the segment.
5. Given two points, you can draw the circle through one point such that the other point is the center of the circle.
Extral
Vv
‘At the top of the first page of each chapter in this book is an image illustrating an interesting geometric
fact. The image at the start of this chapter is of the Golden Ratio Spiral. A Golden Ratio Spiral is inside @
golden reetangle, which is a rectangle that can be divided into a square and another rectangle such that
the ratio between the dimensions of the new rectangle equals that of the original rectangle.
a 1 as
a 1 1
7 care
Shown above is gokien rectangle ABCD with dimensions 1 and «. PG divides the reetangle into 2
square of side 1 and a rectangle with dimensions « — 1 and 1. Since the ratio of the dimensions of
ABCD equals the ratio of the dimensions of BCQP, we have
The positive value of x: that satisfies this equation is
&
L+V8 1.618034.
‘This number is the golden ratio (also sometimes called the golden mean), and is often referred to by the
Greek letier @ (phi).
When we divide @ golden rectangle into a square and a rectangle, the ratio of the dimensions of the
‘smaller rectangle Is the same as that of the original rectangle. Therefore, the smaller rectangle is. @
golden rectangle too, so we can spit it into 2 square and another smaller golden rectangle We can do
this over and over indefinitely forming the figure shown below.
LA
All of the squares in the diagram together make up our largest golden rectangle. When we omit the
largest square, we get our next golden rectangle. Then we omit the next largest square to find the next
golden rectangle, and so on. If we then draw @ quarter-circle in each of the squares, as shown above, we
get the Golden Ratio Spiral The Lighthouse Theorem,
Ware going totum ts team arouna 360 degrees. — Jason Kise
CHAPTER 2 1
Popes
2.1 What is an Angle?
When two rays share an origin, they form an angle.
In the diagram at left, rays OX and OY chare origin O. We can refer to the angle they form ae
ZXOY. The Z symbol tells us wee refering to an angle. The common origin is called the vertex of
<> the angle, and the rays OX and OF are called the sides of the angle. Notice that when we write the
tangle as ZX OY, we put the vertex in the middle, We could elso refer tothe angle as ZY'O X, but not
ae ZXYO. When Its very clear what angle we'e talking about, we can just name it withthe vertex:
£0.
Of course, two intersecting lines also make angles.
Lines 4B and OD at right intersect at P. Here, we car't just write ZP, since there are many &
different possible angles this could mean, such as “APC, ZAPD, ZDPB, or ZBPC. We
might even be referring to ZAPB.
Now that we know whet angles are, we need a way to measure them so we can compare one <
angle to another. 2.2 Measuring Angles
Figure 2.1: A Protractor
Just as we use 2 ruler to measure the lengths of segments, we can use a protractor to measure angles. Roughly specking, an
angle's measure is how ‘open’ the angle is. Our protractor above shows half a circle (which we call a semicircle) divided into 180,
equal pieces. Each of these little pieces is considered one degree of the semicircle, so that an entire circle is 360 degrees. We
use the symbol °to denote degrees, so that @ whole circle is 360°
We use a protractor to measure the number of degrees of a circle between the two sides of an angle whose vertex is the center
of the circle, For example, in Figure 2.1, the vertex of ZYOZ is placed at the center of the semicircle. There are 62 degrees
between sides OZ and OF of Z¥OZ, s0 we say that ZYOZ = 62°. Sometimes angles are written with an m before Z to
indicate measure: mZYOZ = 62°.
Problems
Problem 2.1 4 Jump to Solution
Use your protractor to find 2VOZ, ZOX D, DX Band ZOX E
Problem 2.2 4.Jump to Solution
The diagram below shows four common angles. In each case, point O is the center of the circle. ZAOB cuts off 1/4 of a
circle, COD cuts off 1/3 of a circle, ZEOF cuts off 1/12 of a circle, and ZGOH cuts off 1/8 of a circle.
(a) What is the measure in degrees of ZAOB?
(b) What is the measure in degrees of COD?
(©) What is the measure in degrees of EOF?
(d)_ What is the measure in degrees of “GOH?
(@) What's so special about 360; why do we use 360 for the number of degrees in a whole circle?
Do not use a protractor; use what you are told about the angles in the text.
Problem 2.3 4.Jump to Solution
Given that ZWOY = 60" and ZWOX = 20° below, find ZXOY
Problem 2.4 4.Jump to Solution
‘Suppose instead of measuring an angle the ‘regular’ way, we go the ‘long’ way around, as shown in the
diagram. The ‘regular’ angle PQR. has measure 40°. What is the measure of the ‘long’ way around
angle?
Problem 2.5 4 Jump to Solution
Use your protractor to create a 37° angle and a 143° angle.
Eeues U
Pes
Solution for Problem 2.1: The protractor itsetf is half a circle (which we call a semicitele): we use it to measure the number of
degrees of a circle the angle cuts off. Here are the steps we follow to use our protractor to measure angles:
1. Place the protractor on the angle so that the vertex of the angle is exactly where the center of the circle would be if the
protractor were @ whole circle. Your protractor should clearly show this center point: i's near the middle of the straight side.
2. Turn the protractor so that one side of the angle is along the ‘zero lin’; ie, the line through the center point along the
straight edge of the protractor.
3. Find where the other side ofthe angle meets the curved side of the protractor. The number there tells you the measure of
the angle
For ZYOZ, we put our protractor on the page as shown below. We line up side OZ of the angle with the zero line of the
protractor placing the center point of the protractor over O. We find that side OY hits the curved edge at 90°
When we follow this procedure with ZC.X D, we find that there are two numbers where XD meets the curved edge in the
a
following diagram, We know to take the smaller of these numbers ~ clearly there are 40 degrees, not 140 degrees, between
and XD. We can also note that ZX Dis less than half the entire semicircle, so its measure must be the smaller of the two
numbers where XD meets the curved edge of the protractor.
We can also use the above diagram to find the measure of ZC-X E. Once again, our angle hits a point on the curved edge with
‘two numbers, but this time we know the angle is oteater than 90° (since the angle is more than half the semicircle). Thus, we
know that 2CXE = 115°.
Finally, we can place the protractor as in the diagram below to find that DX B= 75°.
Notice that CCXD + ZDXE = £CXE. this isn't an accident! Since CX D and ZDX E share a side and a vertex,
putting them together gives ZCOX E.
We sau in Problem 2.1 that knowing whether an angle is greater then or less than 90 is necessary for
finding its measure using a protractor. This 90° is such an important measure that angles that are 90°
have a special name, right angles. We usually mark right angles with a little box as shown in ZJKL at
right. Tw lines, rays, or line segments that form a right angle are seid to be perpendicular. JK and KL.
are perpendicular; we can use the symbol to write this briefly TR | KT.
An , yey
Angles that are less than 90° ate called acute, and those that are greater than 90° but less than 180° are called obtuse
‘Sometimes we write the measure of an angle inside the angle as shown above.
Beuees
Mu Co Potenn
Cre eae SISO RET ToT b Beer Peeks
Rt
Petar
Deen paced
Rt GOW
Why in the world do we use such a weird number, 360, for the number of di
Dec TE sd
Solution for Problem 2.2: Since a whole circle Is 360°, and ZAO Bis 1/4 of a clcle, we have
ZAOB = (4) (360°) = 90°.
We can tackle the other three angles in exactly the same way:
COD = (5) (360°) = 120°
1 ) = 30°
in the diagram below.
Type your solution, notes and/or work here.
Find the measure of an angle that is supplementary to each of the following angles:
(a) ZAOB = 120°
Type your solution, notes and/or work here.
(b) ZCOD
Type your solution, notes and/or work here.
(co) ZEOF = 90°
Type your solution, notes and/or work here.
Find the measure of an angle that is complementary to each of the following angles:
(a) ZGOM =30°
Type your solution, notes and/or work here.
(b) IOS = 45
Type your solution, notes and/or work here.
() ZKOL =
Type your solution, notes and/or work here. 2.4 Parallel Lines
Having dissected what happens when two lines meet, we should wonder about what happens if they dont. If two lines do not
meet, we say that they are parallel. f lines “1B and &D are parallel, we write AB || GD.
Figure 2.2: Two Sets of Parallel Lines
Just as we use little ares to mark angles that are equal, we can use litle arrows to mark lines that are parallel, In the diagram
above, lines j,k, and & are marked parallel, as ere lines m and n. You won't see us use this notation all the time, though. Those
litle arrows can really clutter up a diagram,
Problems
Problem 2.10 4 Jump to Solution
Draw a pair of parallel lines like those shown below. Then draw a line that crosses both of the parallel ines. Measure all the
angles formed between your line and both of the parallel ines. Write the angle measures in the angles you form. Try it again
with 2 different crossing line.
Do you notice anything interesting?
Problem 2.11 4 Jump to Solution
Lines m and n are parallel, and we are given the measure of one angle in the diagram as
shown. Find the values of a,b, ¢,w, ty, and z
Problem 2.12 4 Jump to Solution
Inthe figue, we have AB {| OD ana AB || BC. we are aleo given the measures of four angles as shown in terme of and
Find x and y
4 Jump to Solution
7 in the diagram, find 2:
Problem 2.14
Inthe diagram, £ || mand the angles are as marked. Find 2.
Back in Section 1.5 here, we noted that one of our axioms (statements we must accept without proof) is
Given any straight line and point not on the line, there Is exactly one straight line that passes through the point and
never meets the frst line,
‘This common-sense statement is sometimes called the Parallel Postulate. We'll start our exploration of parallel lines by taking a
look at the angles formed when a line intersects a pair of parallel lines.
Peneerer)
See)
Cee
Dee eRe ee ee Ly
Solution for Problem 2.10: In the diagram to the right, we have parallel lines & and mm, and
we have added line n, which meets € and m at A and B, respectively. We call a line that
cuts across parallel lines a transversal. We measure ZAG and find that it equals 40°,
Since ZH AG and ZC AB are vertical angles, we don't even have to measure ZC AB.
We know that ZCAB = ZHAG = 40°.
Since ZHAG and ZBAG together make up a straight angle, we dorit have to
measure BAG. We know that
ZBAG = 180° — LHAG = 180° — 40° = 140°.
Similarly, ZAC = 140°.
We might wonder if we need our protractor at all, but then we think about those angles around 3. They sure look equal to those
around A and common sense tells us that they are, but we measure to make sure. We find that indeed ZABF = 40°, from
which we deduce that DBE = 40° as well. We can also quickly determine that,
ZABD = 180° — ZABF = 140°
and ZEBF = 140°,
Seeing that ZHAG = ZABF, we wonder if its always true that a transversal will cut parallel lines at equal angles like
ZHAG and Z ABP. Like the Parallel Postulate, this turns out to be one of those ‘obvious’ facts that cannot be proved. It must
be assumed. As we have seen while finding the angles above, once we know that these two are equal, we can quickly use lines
and vertical angles to find the rest of the angles.
N
a 6
ae
es -
=
\
Figure 2.3: Angles Between a Transversal and Two Parallel Lines
‘Thus, we see that when two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, we have two groups of four equal angles. Specifically, in Figure
2.8, we have
Furthermore, the angles in the frst group are supplementary to those in the second.
Pairs of these angles have special names to describe their relationships. These names are not terribly important, but you'll see
‘them elsewhere,
and € are corresponding angles.
dand f te alternate interior angles
and g are alternate exterior angles.
cand f ate same-side interior angles.
band g are same-side exterior angles.
Again, the names are not such a big deal. After doing enough geometry, youll probably know them anyway Don't bother
‘memorizing them now. Just understand which angles are equal and which are supplementary. =
eee)
‘Solution for Problem 2.11: We know that when a transversal cuts parallel lines, equal angles come in aroups of four as we saw In
Problem 2.10. Therefore, we know that w = y = c = 113°. We also know that each angle in the other ‘group of four’ has a
‘measure that is supplementary to 113°
a= b= 180° ~ 113° = 67°
Now that we understand the relationships between angles when a parallel line is cut by a transversal, let's try a more challenging
problem.
Problem 2.12
[repr een Pear ery
ees
Solution for Problem 2.12: There's no obvious way to make an equation for x or y, so we start off by using our parallel lines and
vertical angles to write the measures of all the angles we know in terms of z and y.
fe feo
“4 G
By+18 ay-15 3yt 18 LY
NR ERE SS SE ps
(ae Z YP
After labeling the angles we know in terms of «and y, we look for ways to bulld equations. We can use angles that togetner form
straight angles at A and B
ZBAN + ZBAB = (3y + 15°) + (3x — 15°) = 180°
ZLFBA+ZFBG + ZGBH = (8y + 15°) ++ y = 180°
Rearranging these gives
arty = 60°
c+dy = 165°
‘Subtracting the first from the second gives us 3y = 105°, co. = 35°. We can then use substitution to find ar = 25°, Of course,
wwe didnt have to label every angle above ~ we could have stopped when we had enough information to set up @ pair of
equations to solve for arand y.
Note that we could have used parallel line relationships to set up the equations, too Since AB || OD, we have
ZDAN=ZKDM, 90 32—15°=c+y Also, ZHBC and ZBCI are supplementary, 60
(3y + 15°) + (Bx — 15°) = 180" solving these two equations gives us the same answer as before. (itbetter) c
Concept: Solving a problem with two different methods is an excellent way to check your
| answer.
Well finish with two more challenging problems that illustrate how useful parallel lines can be when seeking angle measures.
uae
COAL
Solution for Problem 2.13: We start by using what we know about parallel lines to find as many angles as we can. We find
ZV = 180° — 140° = 40° since WZ || VY. Similarly, 2Z = 40°, and ZZYV = 180° — 27 = 140
Since ZPYV = 32, we have
LPYZ = LVYZ ~ LPYV = 140" ~ 80.
Since this angle, the 90° angle, and the angle with mecsure « together give us straight line PP. we have
ZPYE + 90 + 2 = 180".
We then substitute ZPY Z = 140° — 3: into this equation, and we have 140° — 3x +.90° + x = 180°. We solve this
equation for ato find that ar = 25°. 0
Using information about angles to find information about other angles is often called angle-ehasing. We've already learned three
important tools in angle-chasing: straight angles, vertical angles, and parallel ines. Stay tuned, Welll see plenty more!
Concept: Often when we're angle-chasing, our goal is to build an equation to solve for one of
| the variables in our problem
ee
Sc Lea
Solution for Problem 2.14: We need to relate our desired angle to angles we know, but neither
for A
AB nor BC cuts both parallel lines. However, if we add a line k'through B parallel to€ and, <——
