COAST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

5. Fundamentals of Robots
a) Definition of a robot
DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING b) Types of robots
(POWER OPTION) c) Elements of robotic system
d) Need for using robots
MICROCONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY e) Functions of control systems in robots

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COURSE OUTLINE f) Robot’s Performance, capabilities and specifications

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g) Key features of robots
1. Introduction to Microcontroller Technology

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h) Programming methods
a) Elements of Microcontroller Architecture

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b) Microcontroller Series 6. Robots Programming

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c) Microcontroller Family Members a) Programming methods
b) Robot programming functions

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2. Process Control System c) Robot programming environment

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a) Need for Process Control d) Programming activities
b) Process Control Terms e) Basic types of robot programming languages

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c) Block Diagram of Process Control f) On-line and off-line programming languages
d) Control Modes
e) Implementation of Controllers ww Books
f) Functions of Actuators 1. Practical process control: tuning and troubleshooting by Cecil
g) Types of Actuators L. Smith.
2. Practical Process Control: Fundamentals of Instrumentation
3. Sequential Control Systems and Process Control by Control Station, Inc
a) Sequential Control 3. Programmable Logic Controllers: Programming Methods and
b) Time Delay Unit Applications by John R. Hackworth and Frederick D. Hackworth,
c) Application of Decoder/Encoder Jr.
d) Practical Interlock System 4. Programmable Logic Controllers by W. Bolton 4th Edition
e) Internal Architecture of PLC 5. Programmable Controllers: Theory and Implementation by L.A.
f) Applications of Flow Chart and Ladder Diagram Programming Bryan and E.A. Bryan. 2nd Ed.
Methods 6. Industrial Automation by Srinivas Medida Vol. 6
g) Application of PLCs in functional and practical systems 7. Practical SCADA for Industry by David Bailey, Edwin Wright
8. Micro-processors and Micro-controllers by Stefan Hollenthoner
4. Digital Control Systems 9. Introduction to Microcontrollers by Aaron Striegel & Diane Rover
a) Basic digital methods 10. Controllers and Controlled Systems by Samson AG
b) Computer data logging 11. Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation and Process
c) Human Machine Interface (HMI) Control by William C. Dunn
d) Application of Digital Computer
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 TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
- It is such capable of performing basic computer functions, and can be
Introduction incorporated into system designs where such functions are required.
- Microcomputer is a complete computer system comprising at least - A microprocessor can accept input data’s in binary forms, read binary
three major components, the microprocessor (CPU), Memory and IO instructions, perform data processing and provide desired output.
peripheral components. - A microprocessor is basically classified by its word length (word length
- A microcomputer could be a general purpose computer (like a PC) or a represented by the number of bits, that is, 4bit, 8bit, 16bit, 32bit, 64bits
system designed to fulfill a special task (for example a controller system are normally used for micro processors). For example, Intel 8085 is 8-bit

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inside an instrument, microcontroller). microprocessor and Intel 8086/8088 is 16-bit microprocessor.

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- Microcontroller (µC) is a highly integrated chip, which includes on

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single chip, all or most of the parts needed for a controller. It
is a specialized form of microprocessor that is designed to be self-

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sufficient and cost-effective which is part of an embedded system,

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that is essentially the whole circuit board. The embedding is part of
a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts i.e.

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the microcontroller and its support circuits are often built into, or

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embedded in, the devices they control.
Embedded system is a computer system designed to perform

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one or a few dedicated functions often with real-time computing
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constraints.
The microcontroller typically includes: CPU (Central Processing Unit),
RAM (Random Access Memory), EPROM/PROM/ROM (Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory), I/O (input/output) – serial and
- Microprocessor is a programmable multipurpose-multitasking logic parallel, timers, interrupt controller.
chip that fabricated by LSI, VLSI or other higher manufacturing - Microcontroller is available in different word lengths like
techniques. In a modern computer system, the microprocessor is microprocessors (4bit, 8bit, 16bit, 32bit, 64bit and 128 bit
usually referred to as CPU (central processing unit). microcontrollers are available today). For example, Intel 8051 is 8-bit
- Microprocessor by definition means that this is only the central microcontroller and Intel 8096 is 16-bit microcontroller.
processing unit, with instruction decoder, registers and Arithmetic Logic - Microcontrollers which are frequently found in automobiles, office, toys,
processing Unit. A CPU does not include any memory or I/O machine and appliances are devices which integrate a number of
components. components of a microprocessor system onto a single microchip.

Elements of Microcontroller Architecture

- A typical example of a microcontroller application is the monitoring of a
house. As the temperature rises, the controller causes the windows to
open. If the temperature goes above a certain threshold, the air
conditioner is activated.

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- A Microcontroller is a Microcomputer in a single Chip. That means that
a microcontroller chip includes a microprocessor (CPU) as well as some
often used peripherals. A controller is used to control some process or
aspect of the environment.
- As the process of miniaturization continued, all of the components
needed for a controller were built right onto one chip. 1. CPU: This is the brain of a microcontroller. The central processor
- Microcontroller is a highly integrated chip which includes, on one chip, unit is responsible for executing stored program (in ROM) and
all or most of the parts needed for a controller. managing the peripherals.

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- The microcontroller sees the integration of a number of useful - It is responsible for fetching the instruction, decodes it, and then

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functions into a single IC package. These functions are: finally executed. CPU connects every part of a microcontroller into a
o The ability to execute a stored set of instructions to carry out

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single system.
user defined tasks. - The primary function of CPU is fetching and decoding instructions. It

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o The ability to be able to access external memory chips fetches numeric instructions from memory (opcodes) one by one,

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to both read and write data from and to the memory. interprets them and carries out some operation as a result.
- It typically includes: Programs consist of a collection of these opcodes mixed with

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 CPU (central processing unit or the microprocessor) (numeric) data.

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 EPROM/PROM/ROM (Read Only Memory for the program code) - The CPU works its way sequentially through these instructions,
 RAM (Random Access Memory for the data) sometimes jumping from place to place as a result of program

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 I/O (input/output) devices (serial, parallel, ADC, DAC etc.) design or as a result of operating conditions.
 Timers
 Interrupt controller
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- Registers are a little like internal memory storage areas. These are
useful for interim calculation results (this reduces the number of
reads/writes to external memory which is usually slower). Some
registers have special functions such keeping track of where the
next instruction is supposed to come from in memory.

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- The arithmetic logic unit is responsible for carrying out - Data Bus carries information between the CPU and memory or
calculations. In some CPU's this can be quite simple; perhaps only between the CPU and I/O devices. The data bus width depends on
supporting add, subtract and basic logical operations. the microprocessor (8, 16 or 32 bits).
- In more sophisticated CPU's, there may be several arithmetic units, - Control Bus carries control signals supplied by the CPU to
some/all capable performing advanced floating point operations. synchronize the movement of information on the address and data
The instruction decoder's job is to translate numeric opcodes into bus. Thus the control lines of the system bus controls what kind of
sequences of actions. data transfer is in progress.
- Control unit is another important part of a microprocessor. The

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CPU’s control unit coordinates and times the CPU’s functions, and it

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uses the program counter to locate and retrieve the next instruction 2. Memory: The function of memory in a microcontroller is same as

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from memory. Another purpose of control unit is, controlling the data microprocessor. It is used to store data and program. A
flow between microprocessor and peripheral devices/peripheral microcontroller usually has a certain amount of RAM and ROM

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chips. (EEPROM, EPROM, etc) or flash memories for storing program

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- System bus is the connection between the several components of source codes.
a microprocessor system. It is a collection of wires carrying - Memory can be external memory build by extra chips or the on chip

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information with a common purpose. It is used for every data memory of a microcontroller. In general there are two types of

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transfer between the Memory and the CPU for operation code memory:
fetches, for data transfer to and from the RAM for dynamic data - Program memory: is used to hold the application program. In

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fetch and also for data to and from the I/O devices. most microcomputer applications the program memory is a
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groups:
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The transaction over the system bus can be grouped into two Read Only Memory (ROM).
- Data memory is used for the dynamic data which is generated
a. Read cycle: data from the Memory or I/O device into the by the application program and for the STACK. The stack is a
CPU portion of memory where the CPU saves its own internal register
b. Write cycle: data from the CPU to the Memory or I/O device data for calling a subroutine. Data memory must be able to
- For each read or write operation, the CPU specifies the location of read and write from the CPU, hence Random Access Memory
the data or instruction by placing an address on the address bus, (RAM).
then activates a signal on the control bus indicating whether the - Stack is a part of RAM used for storing the current state of the
operation is read or write. program counter (address) when an interrupt occurs.
a. READ OPERATIONS retrieve a byte of data from memory at - RAM is used for storing values that are liable to change during the
the location specified and place it on the data bus. CPU course of the execution of a program. RAM contents are (usually)
reads the data and places it in one of its internal registers. lost each time systems are turned off/on. As a result of this, RAM is
b. WRITE OPERATIONS put data from CPU on the data bus not very useful for long term program storage.
and store it in the location specified. - ROM does not lose its contents when power is removed. Thus it is
- Address Bus carries the address of a specified location. For n generally used for storing programs (but not variables). There are
address lines, 2n locations can be accessed. E.g., A 16-bit address different technologies used to implement ROM program memory
bus can access 216= 65,536 locations or 64K locations (210 = 1024 = such as EPROM, EEPROM and Flash memory.
1K, 26 = 64). The address bus is at least 16 bit wide. - EPROM chip could be programmed with a special programmer and
could be erased by applying ultra-violet light. During the normal use

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 of this chip inside of the microcomputer system this memory can not o The sender and receiver each have very accurate clocks
be written, only read. that are periodically re-aligned – this is called
- EEPROM are much like EPROM’s except that they are electrically Asynchronous transmission.
erasable—no ultraviolet source is required. EEPROM is a special o The other method requires both parties to share a single
type of memory not contained in all microcontrollers. clock source – Synchronous transmission.
- Its contents may be changed during program execution (similar to - Transmitting serial data is cheaper than parallel transmission as
RAM ), but remains permanently saved even after the loss of power there are fewer conductors involved. Serial I/O is used to send
(similar to ROM). data over longer distances to another computer system, display

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- Limitations of EEPROM’s include slow speed, high cost, and a systems (terminal) or to a printer. Mice, keyboard, USB and

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limited number of times that they can be reprogrammed. Ethernet are all examples of serial transmission.

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3. Input/output (I/O) ports: Microprocessors and microcontrollers
send and receive information to the outside world using ports. 4. Timers/counters: This is the one of the useful function of a

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There are two main types of port; parallel and serial. microcontroller. A microcontroller may have more than one timer

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a) Parallel input/output ports: Parallel I/O is the most used I/O and counters.
device in small microcomputer applications. - The timers and counters provide all timing and counting functions

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- These ports can be thought of as memory cells or registers that inside the microcontroller. The major operations of this section are

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are connected to the CPU core using the data bus and also to to perform clock functions, modulations, pulse generations,
frequency measuring, making oscillations, etc.

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the outside world via pins on the side of the micro.
- In the case of parallel ports, each bit in the port register is - Counters can also be used as event counters allowing the
connected to a pin on the chip.
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- They are mainly used to drive/interface various devices such as
microprocessor to perform other tasks.
- Timers are typically constructed using a clock source and a counter.
LCD’S, LED’S, printers, memories, etc to a microcontroller. Counters count clock periods that are input to them.
- A parallel I/O means that there are a number of static inputs or - Some counters count up, some down. Counters have a limited
output bits. These outputs can be used to drive some lights, to “width” or number of bits and as a result can only count up or down
switch some relays, to drive a display and so on. The input bits so far without “rolling over”.
can be used to read information from switches etc. - An 8 bit up counter for example can only count up to 255 decimal;
b) Serial ports: Serial ports provide various serial interfaces one more period input will cause it to overflow and revert to zero. A
between microcontroller and other peripherals like parallel ports. 16 bit down-counter will decrement down to zero, and given one
- Serial communications requires the sender to send data 1 bit at more input it will roll around to 65535. When this roll over takes
a time a rate agreed with the intended receiver. Each bit is place, most counters emit some kind of signal
given a “time slot”, the sets the transmit wire/track to the correct
logic level for each bit's time slot. 5. Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)/ Digital to Analog Converter
- The receiver measures the voltage arriving from the sender at (DAC): ADC converters are used for converting the analog signal to
the middle of each bit's time slot. Reliable operation requires digital form. This device accepts an analogue input and translates
precise timing. The receiver must look at the correct times for this to a digital number whose size is proportional to the magnitude
each bit. of the analogue signal. Each Analogue to Digital Converter has an
- There are two common ways in which this is achieved: associated input voltage range and an output numeric range.
- The microcontroller instructs the ADC to “convert” the analogue
input (e.g. sensor output) to a digital signal. Internally the ADC
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 takes a snapshot (sample and hold) of the analogue input and, in - Usage of microcontroller is simple, easy for troubleshoot and
this case uses a successive approximation to map this signal to a system maintaining.
proportional digital number. - Most of the pins are programmable by the user for performing
- While this is going on, the microcontroller must wait. It monitors the different functions.
status of the “conversion finished” (sometimes called “End of - Easily interface additional RAM, ROM,I/O ports.
conversion”) signal. When the conversion is done, the converted - Low time required for performing operations.
result can be read using input port bits.
- DAC perform reversal operation of ADC conversion. DAC convert Disadvantages of Microcontrollers

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the digital signal into analog format. It usually used for controlling - Microcontrollers have got more complex architecture than that of

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analog devices like DC motors, various drives, etc. microprocessors.

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- Only perform limited number of executions simultaneously.
- Mostly used in micro-equipments.

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6. Interrupt control: The interrupt control used for providing interrupt - Cannot interface high power devices directly.

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(delay) for a working program. Interrupts are signals that cause the Applications
CPU to suspend its current activity and perform some other task. Microcontrollers are widely used in modern electronics equipments. Some

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- The interrupt may be external (activated by using interrupt pin) or basic applications of microcontroller are given below.

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internal (by using interrupt instruction during programming). - Used in biomedical instruments.
- CPU's are commonly designed to handle interrupts from various - Widely used in communication systems.

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sources. Each interrupt signal is associated with a particular - Used as peripheral controller in PC.
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memory location which contains the address of the subroutine that
should be executed on receipt of this interrupt. System
- Used in robotics.
- Used in automobile fields.
programmers can populate these special memory locations with the
addresses of interrupt handling code. Comparison between Microprocessor and Microcontroller
- Interrupt vector: A (special) memory location which contains the Microprocessors Microcontrollers
address of an interrupt service routine. 1 - It is only a general purpose- It is a micro computer itself
- Interrupt service routine: A piece of code that is executed on computer CPU
receipt of an interrupt signal. 2 - Memory, I/O ports, timers,- All are integrated inside the
- Interrupt vector table: A collection of interrupt vectors. interrupts are not available microcontroller chip
inside the chip
7. Special functioning block: Some microcontrollers used only for 3 - This must have many additional- Can function as a micro
some special applications (e.g. space systems and robotics) these digital components to perform its computer without any
controllers containing additional ports to perform such special operation additional components.
operations. This considered as special functioning block. 4 - Systems become bulkier and- Make the system simple,
expensive. economic and compact
Advantages of Microcontrollers 5 - Not capable for handling- Handling Boolean functions
The main advantages of microcontrollers are given. Boolean functions
- Microcontrollers act as a microcomputer without any digital parts. 6 - Higher accessing time required - Low accessing time
- As the higher integration inside microcontroller reduce cost and size 7 - Very few pins are programmable - Most of the pins are
of the system.
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 programmable 1. Classified on the Basis of Internal Bus Width
8 - Very few number of bit handling- Many bit handling instructions
instructions a) The 8-Bit Microcontroller
9 - Widely Used in modern PC and- widely in small control systems - When the ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on a byte (8-bits)
laptops at an instruction, the microcontroller is an 8-bit microcontroller. The internal
E.g. - INTEL 8086,INTEL Pentium- INTEL8051,89960,PIC16F877 bus width of 8-bit microcontroller is of 8-bit.
series - Examples of 8-bit microcontrollers are Intel 8051 family and Motorola
MC68HC11 family.

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b) The 16-Bit Microcontroller

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- When the ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on a word (16-
bits) at an instruction, the microcontroller is a 16-bit microcontroller. The

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internal bus width of 16-bit microcontroller is of 16-bit.

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- Examples of 16-bit microcontrollers are Intel 8096 family and Motorola
MC68HC12 and MC68332 families. The performance and computing

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Classification of Microcontrollers capability of 16 bit microcontrollers are enhanced with greater precision as

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- Microcontrollers can be classified on the basis of internal bus width, compared to the 8-bit microcontrollers.
architecture, memory and instruction set. c) The 32-Bit Microcontroller

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- When the ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on a double word
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internal bus width of 32-bit microcontroller is of 32-bit.
- Examples of 32-bit microcontrollers are Intel 80960 family and Motorola
M683xx and Intel/Atmel 251 family. The performance and computing
capability of 32 bit microcontrollers are enhanced with greater precision as
compared to the 16-bit microcontrollers

2. Classified on the Basis of Memory/ devices

a) Embedded Microcontrollers
- When an embedded system has a microcontroller unit that has all the
functional blocks (including program as well as data memory) available on a
chip is called an embedded microcontroller.
- For example, 8051 having Program & Data Memory, I/O Ports, Serial
Communication, Counters and Timers and Interrupt Control logic on the
chip is an embedded microcontroller.
b) External Memory Microcontrollers
- When an embedded system has a microcontroller unit that has not all the
functional blocks available on a chip is called an external memory
microcontroller.
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- In external memory microcontroller, all or part of the memory units are
externally interfaced using an interfacing circuit called the glue circuit.
- For example, 8031 has no program memory on the chip is an external
memory microcontroller b) Harvard Architecture
- Microcontrollers based on the Harvard Architecture have separate data bus
3. Classified on the Basis of Architecture and an instruction bus. This allows execution to occur in parallel.
- There are mainly two categories of processors, namely, Von-Neuman (or - As an instruction is being “pre-fetched”, the current instruction is executing
Princeton) architecture and Harvard Architecture. These two architectures on the data bus. Once the current instruction is complete, the next

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differ in the way data and programs are stored and accessed. instruction is ready to go.

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- This pre-fetch theoretically allows for much faster execution than Von-

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a) Von-Neuman Architecture Neuman architecture, on the expense of complexity.
- Microcontrollers based on the Von-Neuman architecture have a single - The Harvard Architecture executes instructions in fewer instruction cycles

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‘data’ bus that is used to fetch both instructions and data. Program than the Von-Neuman architecture.

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instructions and data are stored in a common main memory. - For example, the Intel MCS-51 family of microcontrollers and PIC
- When such a controller addresses main memory, it first fetches an microcontrollers uses Harvard Architecture.

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instruction, and then it fetches the data to support the instruction. The two - The same instruction (as shown under Von-Newman architecture) would be

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separate fetches slows up the controller’s operation. executed as follows:
The Von-Neuman architecture’s main advantage is that it simplifies the Cycle 1: - Complete previous instruction

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microcontroller design because only one memory is accessed. - Read the “Move Data to Accumulator” instruction
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program instruction storage.
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In microcontrollers, the contents of RAM can be used for data storage and Cycle 2: - Execute “Move Data to Accumulator” instruction
- Read next instruction
- For example, the Motorola 68HC11 microcontroller is Von-Neuman - Hence each instruction is effectively executed in one instruction cycle.
architecture.
- Example : An Instruction “Read a byte from memory and store it in the
accumulator” as follows:
Cycle 1:- Read instruction
Cycle 2 - Read data out of RAM and put into Accumulator

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4. Classified on the Basis of Instruction set c) Specific Instruction Set Computer (SISC)
a) Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) Architecture - Actually, a microcontroller is by definition a Reduced Instruction Set
Microcontrollers Computer. It could really be called a Specific Instruction Set Computer
- Almost all of today’s microcontrollers are based on the CISC (Complex (SISC).
Instruction Set Computer) concept. - The basic idea behind the microcontroller was to limit the capabilities of the
- When a microcontroller has an instruction set that supports many CPU itself, allowing a complete computer (memory, I/O, interrupts, etc) to fit
addressing modes for the arithmetic and logical instructions, data transfer on the single chip.
and memory accesses instructions, the microcontroller is said to be of CISC - At the expense of the more general purpose instructions that make the

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architecture. standard microprocessors (8088, 68000, 32032) so easy to use, the

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- The typical CISC microcontroller has well over 80 instructions, many of instruction set was designed for the specific purpose of control (powerful bit

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them very powerful and very specialized for specific control tasks. It is quite manipulation, easy and efficient I/O, and so on).
common for the instructions to all behave quite differently. Some might only

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operate on certain address spaces or registers, and others might only Commercial Microcontroller Devices

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recognize certain addressing modes. - Microcontrollers come in many varieties. Depending on the power and
- The advantages of the CISC architecture are that many of the instructions features that are needed, one might choose a 4 bit, 8 bit, 16 bit, or 32 bit

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are macro-like, allowing the programmer to use one instruction in place of microcontroller.

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many simpler instructions. - In addition, some specialized versions are available which include features
- An example of CISC architecture microcontroller is Intel 8096 family.

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specific for communications, keyboard handling, signal processing, video
processing, and other tasks.

Microcontrollers
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b) Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) Architecture
4-Bit Microcontrollers
- The industry trend for microprocessor design is for Reduced Instruction Set
Computers (RISC) designs.
- When a microcontroller has an instruction set that supports fewer
addressing modes for the arithmetic and logical instructions and for data
transfer instructions, the microcontroller is said to be of RISC architecture.
- The benefits of RISC design simplicity are a smaller chip, smaller pin count,
and very low power consumption.
- Some of the typical features of a RISC processor- Harvard architecture are:
- Allows simultaneous access of program and data.
- Overlapping of some operations for increased processing performance.
- Instruction pipelining increases execution speed.
- Orthogonal (symmetrical) instruction set for programming simplicity.
- Allows each instruction to operate on any register or use any
addressing mode

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 8-Bit Microcontroller - The 8049 has 2 KB of masked ROM (the 8748 and 8749 had EPROM) that
can be replaced with a 4 KB external ROM, as well as 128 bytes of RAM
and 27 I/O ports. The µC's oscillator block divides the incoming clock into
15 internal phases, thus with its 11 MHz maximum crystal one gets 0.73
MIPS (of one-clock instructions). Some 70% of instructions are single
byte/cycle ones, but 30% need two cycles and/or two bytes, so the raw
performance would be closer to 0.5 MIPS.
- The Intel 8748 has on-chip clock oscillator, 2× 8-bit timers, 27× I/O ports,

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64 bytes of RAM and 1 KB of EPROM. A version with 2 KB EPROM and

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128 bytes RAM was also available under the 8749 number.

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Device Internal Memory Remarks

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Subset of 8048, 20 pins,
8020 1K × 8 ROM 64 × 8 RAM
only 13 I/O lines

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8035 none 64 × 8 RAM

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8039 none 128 × 8 RAM

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8040 none 256 × 8 RAM

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8048 1K × 8 ROM 64 × 8 RAM
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8748 1K × 8 EPROM 64 × 8 RAM
8749 2K × 8 EPROM 128 × 8 RAM
16-Bit Microcontrollers
Device Internal Memory Remarks
Universal Peripheral
8041 1K × 8 ROM 64 × 8 RAM
Interface (UPI)
8041AH 1K × 8 ROM 128 × 8 RAM UPI
1K × 8 OTP UPI, OTP EPROM version of
8741AH 128 × 8 RAM
EPROM 8041AH
8042AH 2K × 8 ROM 256 × 8 RAM UPI
Intel 8048 Microcontroller and their variant 2K × 8 OTP UPI, OTP EPROM version of
- The 8048 was used in the Magnavox Odyssey video game console, and 8742AH 256 × 8 RAM
EPROM 8042AH
Roland ProMars analog synthesizers. The original IBM PC keyboard used
an 8048 as its internal microcontroller.

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 The AVR Microcontrollers Popular AT89C51, PIC18fXX8, Atmega8, 16, LPC2148,
- This type of AVR Advanced Virtual RISC controller belongs to the cheapest Microcontroll P89v51, etc PIC16f88X, 32, Arduino ARM Cortex-
but most versatile micro-controllers. ers PIC32MXX Community M0 to ARM
- The AVR’s are a family of RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) Cortex-M7,
microcontrollers from Atmel. etc.
- The AVR is a Harvard architecture machine where programs and data are Bus width 8-bit for 8/16/32-bit 8/32-bit 32-bit mostly
stored separately. Program instructions are stored in semi-permanent Flash
standard core also available
memory which loads and manipulates data in the volatile SRAM. The

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in 64-bit
AVR’s have 32 single-byte registers.

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- The registers input/output ports and static RAM make up the data address ISA CISC Some feature RISC RISC
of RISC

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space. The working registers are mapped in as the first 32 memory spaces
followed by the I/O ports, which means that the actual usable RAM starts at Memory Von Neumann Harvard Modified Modified

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memory location 100H. Architecture architecture architecture Harvard

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- Atmel's AVR’s have a two-stage pipeline design. The next machine architecture
instruction is fetched as the current one is executing. Most instructions take Speed 12 4 1 clock/ 1 clock/

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just one or two clock cycles, making AVR’s relatively fast among the eight- Clock/instructi Clock/instructi instruction instruction

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bit microcontrollers. The AVR’s were designed for the efficient execution of on cycle on cycle cycle cycle

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compiled code Memory ROM, SRAM, SRAM, FLASH Flash, SRAM, Flash,
- By combining an 8-bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-Programmable Flash
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FLASH EEPROM SDRAM,
on a monolithic chip, the ATMega8 is a powerful micro-controller that
EEPROM
provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to man embedded
control applications Communicati UART, PIC, UART, UART, USART, UART, USART,
on Protocols USART,SPI,I2C USART, LIN, SPI, I2C, LIN, I2C, SPI,
CAN, (special CAN, USB,
Ethernet, SPI, purpose AVR Ethernet, I2S,
8051 PIC AVR ARM I2S support CAN, DSP, SAI
Microcontroll Microcontroll Microcontroll Microcontroll USB, (serial audio
er: er: er: er: Ethernet) interface),
(Peripheral (Advanced (Advanced IrDA
Interface Virtual RISC) RISC Power Average Low Low Low
Controller) Machine) Consumption
Manufacturer Intel Microchip Atmel ARM Holdings
Technology
Families: 8051 variants PIC16,PIC17, Tiny, Atmega, ARM v4,5,6,7
PIC18, PIC24, Xmega, and series
PIC32 special
purpose AVR

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 Intel 8051 Microcontroller input/output pins enabling the microcontroller to be connected to peripheral
- Intel 8051 and 80C51 are 8-bit microcontrollers and members of Intel MCS- devices are available for use.
51 family (commonly referred to as 8051). 8051 is a Harvard architecture, - Memory Organization: The 8051 has two types of memory and these are
CISC instruction set, single chip microcontroller (µC) series which was Program Memory and Data Memory. Program Memory (ROM) is used to
developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. permanently save the program being executed, while Data Memory (RAM)
- In addition to on-chip clock oscillator, 2 16-bit timers, 4 I/O ports and a is used for temporarily storing data and intermediate results created and
serial port, all 8051 and 80C51 chips have 128 bytes of RAM and 4 KB used during the operation of the microcontroller.
masked ROM. If necessary, 8051 memory can be expanded up to 128 KB - All 8051 microcontrollers have a 16-bit addressing bus and are capable of

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by adding up to 64 KB of external program and data memory. addressing 64 kb memory.

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- Intel's original MCS-51 family was developed using NMOS technology, but - Counters and Timers: The 8051 microcontroller has 2 timers/counters

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later versions, identified by a letter C in their name (e.g., 80C51) used called T0 and T1. As their names suggest, their main purpose is to
CMOS technology and consume less power than their NMOS measure time and count external events. Besides, they can be used for

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predecessors. This made them more suitable for battery-powered devices generating clock pulses to be used in serial communication, so called Baud

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Rate.

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Physical Addressing

pd
w.
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A typical 8051 contains:

⇒ CPU with Boolean processor
⇒ 5 or 6 interrupts: 2 are external, 2 priority levels
⇒ 2 or 3 16-bit timer/counters
⇒ Programmable full-duplex serial port (baud rate provided by one of the
timers)
⇒ 32 I/O lines (four 8-bit ports)
⇒ RAM
⇒ ROM/EPROM in some models

- I/O Ports: All 8051 microcontrollers have 4 I/O ports each comprising 8 -
bits which can be configured as inputs or outputs. Accordingly, in total of 32
12
 -
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16
 8051 variant Microcontrollers

- The 8051 has the widest range of variants of any embedded controller on
the market.
- The smallest device is the Atmel 89c1051, a 20 Pin FLASH variant with 2

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timers, UART, 20mA.
- The fastest parts are from Dallas, with performance close to 10 MIPS.

o.
- The most powerful chip is the Siemens 80C517A, with 32 Bit ALU, 2

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UARTS, 2K RAM, PLCC84 package, 8 x16 Bit PWM’s, and other features.
- Among the major manufacturers are:

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• AMD Enhanced 8051 parts (no longer producing 80x51 parts)

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• Atmel FLASH and semi-custom parts
• Dallas Battery backed, program download, and fastest variants

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• Intel 8051 through 80C51gb / 80C51sl

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• Matra 80C154, low voltage static variants

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• OKI 80c154, mask parts
• Philips 87C748 through 89Cc588 - more variants than anyone else
• Siemens 80C501 through 80C517a, and SIECO coresww
• SMC COM20051 with ARCNET token bus network engine
• SSI 80x52, 2 x HDLC variant for MODEM use

- Intel 8751 and 87C51 belong to MCS-51 family of 8-bit microcontrollers.

The MCUs include 128 bytes of RAM and 4 KB programmable ROM, and
can be expanded with 128 KB of external memory (64 KB of external
program memory and 64 KB of data memory). The chips also have 2 16-bit
timers, 32 I/O lines, a serial port, and on-chip oscillator.
- First generations of 8751 devices were manufactured using HMOS/NMOS
technology. 87C51 microcontrollers switched to CMOS process, which
helped to reduce power consumption considerably.
- 8751/87C51 microcontrollers were manufactured in several packages,
including plastic and ceramic DIP, plastic leaded chip carrier, and quad flat-
pack.
- Some packages contained a quartz window, which allowed the contents of
EPROM to be erased, and then re-programmed. 8751/87C51 MCUs
without the quartz window could be programmed only once.

17
 transferred, measured, mixed, heated or cooled, filtered, stored, or handled
in some other way to produce the end product.
- Refining, combining, handling, and otherwise manipulating fluids to
profitably produce end products can be a precise, demanding, and
potentially hazardous process.
TOPIC 2 PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM - Small changes in a process can have a large impact on the end result.
Variations in proportions, temperature, flow, turbulence, and many other
Introduction factors must be carefully and consistently controlled to produce the desired

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- Industrial process control (PC) is a fascinating and challenging area of end product with a minimum of raw materials and energy.

o.
electronics technology and nothing has revolutionized this area like the

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microcontroller. Process Control
- The microcontroller has added a level of intelligence to the evaluation of - Process control technology is the tool that enables manufacturers to keep

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data and a level of sophistication in the response to process disturbances. their operations running within specified limits and to set more precise limits

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- In this respect, you may hear that microcontrollers are embedded as the to maximize profitability, ensure quality and safety.
“brains” in much of our manufacturing equipment and consumer electronic - Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process

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devices. variables when manufacturing a product.

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- It consists of monitoring the state of a critical parameter, detecting when it

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Process and Control varies from desired state, and taking action to restore it. It involves the
- Process as used in the terms process control and process industry, refers process variable, set points and manipulated variable.
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to the methods of changing or refining raw materials to create end products
i.e. an operation that uses resources to transform inputs into outputs. It is
- Thus the definition of process control is a controllable process that must
behave in a predictable manner. For a given change in the manipulated
the resource that provides the energy into the process for the variable the process variable must respond in a predictable and consistent
transformation to occur. manner.
- Most basic process control systems consist of a control loop. Control loops
in the process control industry work in the same way, requiring three tasks
to occur: Measurement, Comparison and Adjustment. This has four
main components which are:
 A measurement of the state or condition of a process
 A controller calculating an action based on this measured value against
a pre-set or desired value (set point)
- Process industries include the chemical industry, the oil and gas industry,  An output signal resulting from the controller calculation which is used
the food and beverage industry, the pharmaceutical industry, the water to manipulate the process action through some form of actuator
treatment industry, and the power industry etc.  The process itself reacting to this signal, and changing its state or
- Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the condition
process. Precise control of level, temperature, pressure and flow is
important in many process applications.
- The raw materials, which either pass through or remain in a liquid, gaseous,
or slurry (a mix of solids and liquids) state during the process, are

18
 - With accurate, dependable process control, the set-point (desired or
optimal point) can be moved closer to the actual product specification and
thus save the manufacturer money.

2. Increase efficiency
- Controlling a process requires knowledge of four basic elements, the - Some processes need to be maintained at a specific point to maximize
process itself, the sensor that measures the process value, the final efficiency.
control element that changes the manipulated variable, and the - For example, a control point might be the temperature at which a chemical

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controller. reaction takes place. Accurate control of temperature ensures process

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- In industrial process control, the Process Variable (PV) is measured by an efficiency. Manufacturers save money by minimizing the resources required

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instrument in the field and acts as an input to an automatic controller which to produce the end product.
takes action based on the value of it.

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- Devices that measure PV are transducers or sensors. In many cases, the 3. Ensure safety

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PV sensor consists of a direct measurement device called an element and - Safety, environmental, and economic considerations are all very important.
a separate signal processor called a transmitter. Precise process control may also be required to ensure safety.

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- The controller is the device that processes the error signal, determines the - In a sense, economics is the ultimate driving force—an unsafe or

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required control action and provides a control output Manipulated Variable environmentally hazardous process will ultimately cost more to operate,
(MV) to the process. The device that converts the control output into control through fines paid, insurance costs, and so forth.

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action is the actuator. - In many industries (petroleum refining, for example), it is important to

Need for Process Control

ww minimize energy costs while producing products that meet certain
specifications.
- Manufacturers control the production process for the following reasons: - Better process automation and control allows processes to operate closer
o Reduce variability to “optimum” conditions and to produce products where variability
o Increase efficiency specifications are satisfied.
o Ensure safety - The concept of fail-safe is always important in the selection of
o Quality instrumentation. Fail-safes allow a system to return to a safe state after a
breakdown of the control. This fail-safe allows the process to avoid
1. Reduce Variability hazardous conditions that may otherwise occur.
- Process control can reduce variability in the end product, which ensures a
consistently high-quality product. Manufacturers can also save money by 4. Quality
reducing variability. - In addition to safety, process control systems are central to maintaining
- Reducing variability can also save money by reducing the need for product product quality.
padding to meet required product specifications. - In blending and batching operations, control systems maintain the proper
- Padding refers to the process of making a product of higher-quality than it ratio of ingredients to deliver a consistent product. They tightly regulate
needs to be to meet specifications. temperatures to deliver consistent solids in cooking systems. Without this
- When there is variability in the end product (i.e., when process control is type of control, products would vary and undermine quality.
poor), manufacturers are forced to pad the product to ensure that
specifications are met, which adds to the cost. Process Control Terminologies

19
i) Process Variable (PV) is a measure of the process output that changes process fluid at 100.5 °C consistently, even though the setpoint is 100 °C,
in response to changes in the manipulated variable. In the temperature then an offset of 0.5 °C exists.
control loop example, the measured variable is temperature, which must vii) Load disturbance is an undesired change in one of the factors that can
be held close to 100 °C. In this example and in most instances, the affect the process variable. They represent input variables that can cause
measured variable is also the process variable. The measured the controlled variables to deviate from their respective set points. In the
variable is the condition of the process fluid that must be kept at the temperature control loop example, adding cold process fluid to the vessel
designated setpoint. would be a load disturbance because it would lower the temperature of
ii) Set Point (SP) is the value at which the operator wishes to maintain the the process fluid

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process variable at. For example, if a process temperature needs to be viii) Final Control Element (FCE) is the device that changes the value of the

o.
kept within 5 °C of 100 °C, then the setpoint is 100 °C. A temperature manipulated variable.

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sensor can be used to help maintain the temperature at setpoint. The ix) Controller Output/variable (CO) is the signal from the controller to the
sensor is inserted into the process, and a controller compares the final control element.

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temperature reading from the sensor to the setpoint. x) Deadband is the value that must be traversed before the controller output

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iii) Manipulated variables - these input variables are adjusted dynamically will change its direction again. For example, on the heat exchanger, if the
to keep the controlled variables at their set-points. thermostat is configured with a 110°C Set Point and a 20°C deadband,

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the steam valve will open at 100°C and close at 120°C. If such a large

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fluctuation from the Set Point is acceptable, then the process is under
control.

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xi) Process Dead Time is the period of time that passes between a change
ww in the controller output and a change in the process variable being
measured. Dead time is often the result of transportation delays (material
on a belt, compressible material in a pipe) although sensors and final
control elements may add to process dead time. Dead time is the enemy
of loop tuning, the amount of dead time in a process will determine how
"tightly" the process can be tuned and remain stable.
xii) Process Time Constant is the amount of time for the process variable to
reach 63.2 percent of its final value in response to a step change in a first
order process.
iv) Controlled variables - these are the variables which quantify the xiii) Process lag is the delay time it takes the controlled variable to respond
performance or quality of the final product, which are also called output to a change in the controller output signal. In such a case, the error
variables. signal persists for some time before the process can return to the set
v) Error signal/actuating signals is the deviation of the process variable point and this may cause the control valve to open too wide.
from the Set Point and is defined as E = SP - PV. In the temperature Consequently, the process variable may overshoot the set point. In such
control loop example, the error is the difference between the 110°C cases, process control will be improved by the addition of a derivative
measured variable and the 100 °C setpoint—that is, the error is +10°C. controller.
The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or eliminate error. xiv) Process gain is the response of the process variable to a change in the
vi) Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the setpoint. controller output, or the change in the process variable divided by the
In the temperature control loop example, if the control system held the change in the controller output.

20
xv) Control stability is the ability of a measured variable to return to its set
point after a disturbance.
xvi) Linear process is one that has non-varying process characteristics over
the range of the process variable.
xvii) Nonlinear process is one that has varying process characteristics over
the range of the process variable.

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- When the process water temperature is less than the set point of 80 ºC,

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the steam valve opens fully and when the process water reaches or

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exceeds 80 ºC, the controller signals the control valve to close fully.
- This type of control requires the least expensive equipment and is

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Control Modes
suitable when there is a large process “capacity”, e.g., when there is
- In control, there are control systems which can be discrete or analog,

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a large volume of water so that too much or too little steam has
manual or automated, periodic or continuous.
minimal effect on the overall temperature; or where a modest

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- Control operations that involve human action to make an adjustment are
amount of temperature cycling is acceptable.
called manual control systems. Conversely, control operations in which no

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2. Modulating control: If the output of a controller can move through
human intervention is required, such as an automatic valve actuator that
a range of values, this is modulating control. Modulation Control

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responds to a level controller, are called automatic control systems.
takes place within a defined operating range only. That is, it must
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- There are five basic forms of control available in Process Control:
have upper and lower limits. Modulating control is a smoother form
1. On-Off or ‘bang-bang’ control: The oldest strategy for control is to use
of control than step control. It can be used in both open loop and
a switch giving simple on-off control. This is a discontinuous form of
closed loop control systems.
control action, and is also referred to as two-position control.
3. Open loop control: Open loop control is thus called because the
- On-Off Control allows only 2 control valve positions; fully opened or fully
control action (Controller Output Signal) is not a function of the PV
closed.
(Process Variable) or load changes. The open loop control does not
- A perfect on-off controller is 'on' when the measurement is below the
self-correct, when these PV’s drift.
set-point (SP) and the manipulated variable (MV) is at its maximum
4. Feed forward control: Feed forward control is a form of control
value. Above the SP, the controller is 'off' and the MV is at a minimum.
based on anticipating the correct manipulated variables required to
- A thermostat on a heater is an example of control that is on or off. A
deliver the required output variable. It is seen as a form of open loop
temperature sensor turns the heat source on if the temperature falls
control as the PV is not used directly in the control action.
below the set point and turns the heat source off when the set point is
5. Closed loop or feedback control: If the PV, the objective of
reached. There is no measurement of the difference between the set
control, is used to determine the control action it is called closed
point and the measured temperature (e.g. no error measurement) and
loop control system. In closed loop control the controller output is
no adjustment to the rate at which heat is added other than all or none.
determined by difference between the process variable and the Set
On/Off Control Point.
controller turned on over-peaking
80ºC
T (ºC) Set Point
21
70ºC
 - The traditional PID control equation is based entirely on the control error
E, which is the difference between the set point SP and the process
variable PV.
- The sign of the control error depends on the controller action:
E = SP - PV for a reverse acting controller
E = PV - SP for a direct acting controller
- Direct action means that, when the controller sees an increasing signal
from the transmitter, its output will increase (e.g. increased coolant flow

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when process fluid is too hot).

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- For reverse action, increasing measurement signals cause the

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controller output to decrease (decreased steam flow when process fluid
is too hot).

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- Many digital systems permit the proportional mode and/or the derivative

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mode to be based on the process variable instead of on the control
Control Modes in closed loop/feedback control

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error.
- Most Closed loop Controllers are capable of controlling with three

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control modes which can be used separately or together
Proportional control (P)
o Proportional Control (P): Determines the speed of response

w.
- This is the principal means of control. The controller produces action
of the loop.
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that is proportional to the error E. That is, the proportional component
o Integral or Reset Control (I): Forces the controller to line out
Mp of the controller output M is equal to a coefficient times the current
at its set point.
value of the control error E
o Derivative, or Rate Control (D): Enhances stability margin,
which permits the gain to be increased

Mode Characteristics
- The controller output M can be seen as the sum of the outputs of the
individual modes:

- Proportional Control opens and closes a control valve by an amount

which is proportional to the error in the measured variable, i.e., the
Control Error.
magnitude of the deviation from the set point.

22
- The automatic controller needs to correct the controllers output, with an - When the controller contains only the proportional mode, the controlled
action proportional to E. The correction starts from an output value at variable is not necessarily equal to the set point when the loop lines out.
the beginning of automatic control action. - This behavior, known as droop or offset. When the integral or reset
- Proportional Band is another term for controller sensitivity. It is the mode is present, the controlled variable must equal the set point when
reciprocal of gain but proportional band is usually stated in percent. It is the loop lines out.
usually defined, in percentage terms, as the ratio of the input value, or - This type of behavior is desirable in most loops, so the integral or reset
PV to a full or 100% change in the controller output value or MV. mode is usually present.
- The tuning coefficients KC and Kp have exactly the same effect on the - Integral action is used to control towards no offset in the output signal.

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proportional action. This means that it controls towards no error (E = 0). Integral control is

o.
- Consequently, there is really no distinction between these two normally used to assist proportional control. The combination of both is

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coefficients in the equation for the proportional mode. called as PI-control.
- But as we shall see, their overall effect is very different when other

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modes are added to the controller. The controller gain Kc multiplies all

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modes in the controller, whereas the proportional gain KP is applied to
the proportional mode only.

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pd
w.
Integral control (I)
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- The integral component MI is equal to a coefficient times the integral of
the control error E. That is, it produces a control action that is
proportional to the integral of the error E with time. Derivative control (D)
- The derivative component MD of the controller output M is equal to a
coefficient times the rate of change of the control error E. The control
action is proportional to the rate at which the error is changing dE/dt

Where

- The derivative mode enhances the stability margin for the control loop,
which reduces the overshoot and degree of oscillations.

23
- When used effectively, the derivative mode permits the controller gain - Proportional controller can stabilize only 1st order unstable process.
to be increased, thereby providing a faster response to set - point Changing controller gain KP can change closed loop dynamics.
changes and disturbances. - A large controller gain will result in control system with:
- Since the rate of change of noise can be large, using D-Control as a o smaller steady state error, i.e. better reference following,
means of enhancing the stability of a control loop is done at the o Faster dynamics, i.e. broader signal frequency band of
expense of amplifying noise. the closed loop system and larger sensitivity with respect
- But this is achieved only when proper tuning procedures are followed. to measuring noise,
- As D-Control on its own has no purpose, it is always used in o smaller amplitude and phase margin

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combination with P-Control or PI-Control. This results in a PD-Control or - When P controller is used, large gain is needed to improve

o.
PID-Control. PID Control is mostly used if D-Control is required. steady state error.

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- Stable systems do not have problems when large gain is used. Such
systems are systems with one energy storage (1st order capacitive

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systems).

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- If constant steady state error can be accepted with such processes,
than P controller can be used.

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- Small steady state errors can be accepted if sensor will give

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measured value with error or if importance of measured value is not
too great anyway.

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Controller Types
- PID controllers use a 3 basic behavior types or modes: P -
proportional, I- integrative and D - derivative. While proportional and PD Controller
integrative modes are also used as single control modes, a derivative - D mode is used when prediction of the error can improve control
mode is rarely used on it’ s own in control systems. or when it necessary to stabilize the system.
- Combinations such as PI and PD control are very often used in practical - Often derivative is not taken from the error signal but from the
systems. system output variable. This is done to avoid effects of the sudden
change of the reference input that will cause sudden change in the
P Controller value of error signal.
- In general it can be said that P controller cannot stabilize higher order - Sudden change in error signal will cause sudden change in control
processes. output. To avoid that, it is suitable to design D mode to be proportional
- For the 1st order processes, meaning the processes with one to the change of the output variable.
energy storage, a large increase in gain can be tolerated. - The addition of a derivative mode to a proportional controller modifies
its response to inputs. The PD equation:
24
 - Thus, PI controller will not increase the speed of response. It can be
expected since PI controller does not have means to predict what will
- A PD controller provides an element to the response which is largest happen with the error in near future.
when the rate of change of the error is greatest and diminishes as it
becomes smaller.
- Thus with a step input signal, the controller output rises faster when we
apply the step input signal than with just proportional control. With PD
control, the output rises more rapidly toward the steady–state value and

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the overshoot is reduced.

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fn
pd
w.
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- PI controllers are very often used in industry, especially when
speed of the response is not an issue. The PI controllers are used
when:
- PD controller is often used in control of moving objects such are o Fast response of the system is not required
flying and underwater vehicles, ships, rockets etc. One of the reason o Large disturbances and noise are present during operation of the
is in stabilizing effect of PD controller on sudden changes in process
heading variable y(t). o There is only one energy storage in process (capacitive or inductive)
PI Controller: o There are large transport delays in the system
- The addition of an integral element to a proportional controller modifies PID Controller
the response removing the offset and giving a steady-state value the - PID controller has all the necessary dynamics: fast reaction on
same as the input set value. change of the controller input (D mode), increase in control signal
to lead error towards zero (I mode) and suitable action inside
control error area to eliminate oscillations (P mode).

- PI controller will eliminate forced oscillations and steady state error

resulting in operation of on-off controller and P controller respectively.
- However, introducing integral mode has a negative effect on
speed of the response and overall stability of the system.
25
- Derivative mode improves stability of the system and enables increase
in gain K and decrease in integral time constant Ti, which
increases speed of the controller response.

PID action control circuits - A circuit to perform integral action is shown below. Capacitive feedback
- PID action can be performed using either analog or digital electronic around the amplifier prevents the output from the amplifier from
circuits. following the input change.
- In order to understand how electronic circuits are used to perform these - The output changes slowly and linearly when there is a change in the

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functions, the analog circuits used for the individual actions will be measured variable

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discussed. - The slope of the output waveform is set by the time constant of the

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feedback C1 and the input resistance R1. This is integral action and the
output from the integrator is the area under the input waveform.

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- This area can be adjusted by replacing R1 with a potentiometer. The

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output of the amplifier is inverted

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pd
w.
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(a) error generating circuit and (b) proportional circuit.
- The circuit shown above in fig a is used to compare the signal from the
measured variable and the reference to generate the error signal.
- Proportional action is achieved as shown in Fig. b by amplifying the
error signal Vin. - PID controller is used when dealing with higher order capacitive
- The stage gain is the ratio of R2/R1; the gain can be adjusted using the processes (processes with more than one energy storage) when their
potentiometer R2. The output is inverted. dynamic is not similar to the dynamics of an integrator (like in many
- The circuit for derivative action is shown below. The feedback resistor thermal processes).
can be replaced with a potentiometer to adjust the differentiation - PID controller is often used in industry, but also in the control of
duration. The output signal is inverted. mobile objects (course and trajectory following included) when
- This signal can be changed to a non-inverted signal with an inverting stability and precise reference following are required.
amplifier stage if required. - Below is an analog PID controller that uses five Op-Amps.

26
 1. Manual Tuning Method
- In manual tuning method, parameters are adjusted by watching system
responses. Kp, Ki, Kd are changed until desired or required system
response is obtained.

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- Although this method is simple, it should be used by experienced

o.
personal. One Manual Tuning Method Example:

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- Firstly, Ki and Kd are set to zero. Then, the Kp is increased until the
output of the loop oscillates, after obtaining optimum Kp value, it should

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be set to approximately half of that value for a "quarter amplitude

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decay" type response.
- Then, Ki is increased until any offset is corrected in sufficient time for

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the process. However, too much Ki will cause instability.

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Tuning of Closed Loop Control - Finally, Kd is increased, until the loop is acceptably quick to reach its
- Tuning is adjustment of control parameters to the optimum values for reference after a load disturbance. However, too much Kd also will

w.
the desired control response. cause excessive response and overshoot.
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- Stability is a basic requirement. However, different systems have
different behavior, different applications have different requirements,
- A fast PID loop tuning usually overshoots slightly to reach the set point
more quickly; however, some systems cannot accept overshoot, in
and requirements may conflict with one another. which case an over-damped closed-loop system is required, which will
- PID tuning methods are: require a Kp setting significantly less than half that of the Kp setting
o Manual tuning method, causing oscillation.
o Ziegler–Nichols tuning method,
o PID tuning software methods. 2. Ziegler–Nichols tuning method (Continuous cycling method)
- Ideally, a properly tuned control loop will: - This method of tuning requires determining the critical value of
- Operate within safe constraints of the process. controller gain (KC) that will produce a continuous oscillation of a control
- Maximize operating profit. loop.
- Eliminate offset from Set Point. - This will occur when the total loop gain (KLOOP) is equal to one. The
- Be stable over the normal operating range. controller gain value (KC) then becomes known as the ultimate gain
- Avoid excessive control action (not overstress the final control (KU).
element) - If we consider a basic liquid flow control loop utilizing:
- Minimize the effect of known disturbances: • A venturi flow meter with a 4-20 mA output feeding into…
• a PID controller which in turn has a 4-20 mA output that controls...
• a valve actuator that in turn varies the flow rate of…
• the process.

27
- When the product of the gains of all four of these component parts - Implementation of the control loops can be achieved using pneumatic,
equals one, the system will become unstable when a process analog, or digital electronics.
disturbance occurs (a set-point change). - The first process controllers were pneumatic. However, these have
- It will oscillate at its natural frequency which is determined by the largely been replaced by electronic systems, because of improved
process lag and response time, and caused by the loop gain becoming reliability, less maintenance, easier installation, easier adjustment,
one. higher accuracy, lower cost, can be used with multiple variables, and
- Then measure the frequency of oscillation (the period of one cycle of have higher speed operation.
oscillation), this being the ultimate period PU.

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- In addition, the final value of KC is the critical gain of the controller (KU). ON/OFF action pneumatic controller

o.
This gain value, when multiplied with the unknown process Gain(s), will - Figure below shows a pneumatic furnace control system using a

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give a Loop Gain, KLoop , of 1. pneumatic ON/OFF controller.
- The stages of obtaining closed loop tuning (continuous cycling method)

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- Put Controller in P-Control Only

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- Select the P-Control to ERR = (SP - PV)
- Put the Controller into Automatic Mode

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- Make a Step Change to the Set point

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- Take action based on the Observation
- Conclude the Tuning Procedure.

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3. Damped cycling tuning method
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- This method is a variation of the continuous cycling method. It is used - In this case the furnace temperature sensor moves a flapper that
whenever continuous cycling imposes a danger to the process, but a controls the air flow from a nozzle.
damped oscillation of some extent is acceptable. - When the temperature in the furnace reaches its set point the sensor
- The steps of closed loop tuning (damped cycling method) are as moves the flapper toward the nozzle to stop the air flow and allow
follows: pressure to build up in the bellows.
o Put the Controller into P-Control Only - The bellows operates an air control relay that shuts OFF the air flowing
o Select the P-Control to ERR = (SP - PV) to the control valve turning OFF the fuel to the furnace.
o Put the Controller in Automatic Mode - When the temperature in the furnace drops below a set level the flapper
o Make a Step Change to the Set point is opened by the sensor, reducing the air pressure in the bellows, which
o Take action based on the Observation. in turn opens the air control valve allowing the air pressure to drop and
the control valve to open, turning ON the fuel to the furnace.
4. PID Tuning Software
- There is some prepared software that they can easily calculate the gain ON/OFF action electrical controller
parameter. Any kind of theoretical methods can be selected in some - An example of an ON/OFF action electrical room temperature controller
these methods. Some Examples: is shown below.
o MATLAB Simulink PID Controller Tuning, - In this case the room temperature is sensed by a bimetallic sensor. The
o BESTune, Expert Tune etc. sensor operates a mercury switch.
- As the temperature decreases the bimetallic element tilts the mercury
Implementation of Control Loops switch down causing the mercury to flow to the end of the glass
28
 envelope and in so doing shorts the two contacts together in the - When a carton is full it is sensed by the level sensor, which sends a
mercury switch. signal to the controller to turn OFF the material flowing from the hopper
- The contact closure operates a low voltage relay turning ON the blower and to start the conveyer moving.
motor and the heating element. - As the next carton moves into the filling position it is sensed by the
- When the room temperature rises to a predetermined set point the position sensor, which sends a signal to the controller to stop the
bimetallic strip tilts the mercury switch back causing the mercury to flow conveyer belt and to start filling the carton.
away from the contacts. - Once it is full the cycle repeats itself.
- The low voltage electrical circuit is turned OFF, the relay opens, and the - A level sensor in the hopper senses when the hopper is full and when it

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power to the heater and the blower motor is disconnected. is almost empty.

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- When empty, the sensor sends a signal to the controller to turn ON the

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feed valve to the hopper and when the hopper is full it is detected and a
signal is sent to the controller to turn the feed to the hopper OFF.

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PID action pneumatic controller
- Many configurations for PID pneumatic controllers have been

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developed over the years, have served us well, and are still in use in

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some older processing plants.
- But pneumatic controllers have, with the advent of the requirements of

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modern processing and the development of electronic controllers, are

-
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The ON/OFF controller action has many applications in industry; an
now extinct.

example of some of these uses is as shown.

- The pressure from the sensing device Pin is compared to a set or

reference pressure Pref to generate a differential force (error signal) on
- In this case, cartons on a conveyer belt are being filled from a hopper.
29
 the flapper to move the flapper in relation to the nozzle giving an output
pressure proportional to the difference between Pin and Pref.
- If the derivative restriction is removed the output pressure is fed back to - The measured variable from the sensor is compared to the set point in
the flapper via the proportional bellows to oppose the error signal and to the first unity gain comparator; its output is the difference between the
give proportional action. two signals or the error signal.
- System gain is adjusted by moving the position of the bellows along the - This signal is fed to the integrator via an inverting unity gain buffer and
flapper arm, i.e., the closer the bellows is positioned to the pivot the to the proportional amplifier and differentiator via a second inverting
greater the movement of the flapper arm. unity gain comparator, which compares the error signal to the integrator

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- By putting a variable restriction between the pressure supply and the output.

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proportional bellows, a change in Pin causes a large change in Pout, as - Initially, with no error signal the output of the integrator is zero so that

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the feedback from the proportional bellows is delayed by the derivative the zero error signal is also present at the output of the second
restriction. comparator

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- This gives a pressure transient on Pout before the proportional bellows - When there is a change in the measured variable, the error signal is

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can react, thus giving derivative action. passed through the second comparator to the proportional amplifier and
- The duration of the transient is set by the size of the bellows and the the differentiator where it is amplified in the proportional amplifier,

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setting of the restriction. added to the differential signal in a summing circuit, and fed to the

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- Integral action is achieved by the addition of the integral bellows and actuator to change the input variable.
restriction as shown. An increase in Pin moves the flapper towards the Although the integrator sees the error signal, it is slow to react and so

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-
nozzle causing an increase in output pressure. its output does not change immediately, but starts to integrate the error
-
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The increase in output pressure is fed to the integral bellows via the
restriction until the pressure in the integral bellows is sufficient to hold -
signal.
If the error signal is present for an extended period of time, the
the flapper in the position set by the increase in Pin , creating integral integrator will supply the correction signal via the summing circuit to the
action. actuator and input the correction signal to the second comparator.
- This will reduce the effective error signal to the proportional amplifier to
PID electronic controller zero, when the integrator is supplying the full correction signal to the
- Figure below shows the block diagram of an analog PID controller actuator.
- Any new change in the error signal will still be passed through the
second comparator as the integrator is only supplying an offset to
correct for the first long-term error signal.
- The proportional and differential amplifiers can then correct for any new
changes in the error signal.

30
- This circuit above is an implementation of analog PID controller which is
complex because all the amplifier blocks are shown doing a single
function to give a direct comparison to the block diagram and is only
used as an example.
- In practice there are a large number of circuit component combinations

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that can be used to produce PID action.

o.
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es
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fn
pd
w.
ww - The analog output from the monitors is converted to a digital signal in
an ADC. The loop signal is then selected in a multiplexer and PID action
- In new designs, PLC processors can be used to replace the analog is performed in the processor using software programs.
circuits to perform the PID functions using digital techniques. - The digital output signal is then fed to the actuator through a
demultiplexer and a DAC.
- The processor has mass storage for storing process data for later use
Digital Controllers or making charts and graphs and will also be able to control a number
- Modern process facilities will use a computer or PLC processor as the of peripheral units and monitors as shown.
heart of the control system. - Digital controllers will compare the digitized measured variable to the
- The system will be able to control analog loops, digital loops, and will set point stored in memory to produce an error signal which it can
have a foundation fieldbus input/output for communication with smart amplify under program control and feed to an actuator via a DAC.
sensors. - The processor can measure the rate of change of the measured
- All of these control functions may not be required in small process variable and produce a differential signal to add to the digital correction
facilities but in large facilities they are necessary. signal.
- The individual control loops are not independent in a process but are - In addition, the processor can measure the area under the measured
interrelated and many measured variables may be monitored and variable signal which it will also add to the digital correction signal.
manipulated variables controlled simultaneously. - All of these actions are under program control; the setting of them
- Several processors may also be connected to a mainframe computer program parameters can be changed with a few key strokes, making
for complex control functions. the system much more versatile than the analog equivalent.
31
 Logical Mechanism
Signal
Signal Electric Hydraulic
Processing Pneumatic Final Actuation
& Amplification Element

Process Control Actuators

- Actuators are the final elements in a control system. They receive a low
power command signal and energy input to amplify the command signal

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as appropriate to produce the required output. Actuator

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- It converts the command signal from controllers or higher-level Sensor

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components into physical adjustment in adjustable process variable. Types of Actuators
Actuators drive motions in mechanical systems. Most often this is by 1. Electrical actuators

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converting electrical energy into some form of mechanical motion.  Solenoids

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- Actuators take fluid, electric or some other source of power and convert  Electric motors
it through a motor, piston or other device to perform work.

fn
 DC servomotors
- Basic actuators are used to move valves to either fully opened or fully  AC motors

pd
closed positions.  Stepper motors
- Actuators for control or position regulating valves are given a positioning

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2. Hydraulic actuators
signal to move to any intermediate position with a high degree of  Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command signal
accuracy.
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- Although the most common and important use of an actuator is to open
3. Pneumatic actuators
 Use compressed air as the driving force
and close valves, current actuator designs go far beyond the basic open
and close function. The valve actuator can be packaged together with Manual Actuators
position sensing equipment, torque sensing, motor protection, logic - A manual actuator employs levers, gears, or wheels to facilitate
control, digital communication capacity and even PID control all in a movement while an automatic actuator has an external power source to
compact environmentally protected enclosure provide the force and motion to operate a valve remotely or
- Applications range from simple low power switches to high power automatically.
hydraulic devices operating flaps and control surfaces on aircraft; - Power actuators are a necessity on valves in pipelines located in
valves, car steering, process plant automation, etc remote areas; they are also used on valves that are frequently operated
or throttled. Valves that are particularly large may be impossible or
impractical to operate manually simply because of the sheer
horsepower requirements. Some valves may be located in extremely
hostile or toxic environments that preclude manual operation.
- Additionally, as a safety feature, certain types of power actuators may
be required to operate quickly, shutting down a valve in case of
emergency.

Electrical Actuators

32
- The electric actuator has a motor drive that provides torque to operate a
valve.
- Electric actuators are frequently used on multi-turn valves such as gate
or globe valves. With the addition of a quarter-turn gearbox, they can be
utilized on ball, plug, or other quarter-turn valves.
- As mentioned before, inductive devices can create voltage spikes and
Electromagnetic Actuators may need snubbers circuits, although most industrial applications have
- This exploits the mutual attraction of soft ferrous materials in a magnetic low enough voltage and current ratings they can be connected directly

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field. The device has one coil which provides the field energy and the to the PLC outputs.

o.
energy to be transformed. The attractive force is unidirectional such that - Most industrial solenoids will be powered by 24Vdc and draw a few

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the return device of some type is needed, often a spring. hundred mA.
- Relays or solenoids are based on this principle which is widely used in

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cars to switch a range of electrical equipment with a current demand of Motors

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more than about 10Amps – examples include in fans, head lights, horn, - Electrical Motors are continuous actuators that convert electrical
and wipers. energy into mechanical energy.

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- There are basically three types of conventional electrical motor

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available: DC type Motors, Stepper Motors and AC type Motors.
Solenoid Actuators - The DC motor achieves this by producing a continuous angular rotation

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- Solenoids are the most common actuator components. The basic that can be used to rotate pumps, fans, compressors, wheels, etc.

that will move inside wire coil.

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principle of operation is that, there is a moving ferrous core (a piston) - As well as conventional rotary motors, linear motors are also available
which are capable of producing a continuous liner movement.
- Normally the piston is held outside the coil by a spring. When a voltage - AC Motors are generally used in high power single or multi-phase
is applied to the coil and current flows, the coil builds up a magnetic industrial applications were a constant rotational torque and speed is
field that attracts the piston and pulls it into the center of the coil. required to control large loads such as fans or pumps.
- The piston can be used to supply a linear force. Well known
applications of these include in pneumatic values and car door openers.

The Basic DC Motor

33
- DC Motor is most commonly used actuator for producing continuous - The motors wound stator is an electromagnet circuit which consists of
movement and whose speed of rotation can easily be controlled, electrical coils connected together in a circular configuration to produce
making them ideal for use in applications were speed control, servo the required North-pole then a South-pole then a North-pole etc, type
type control, and/or positioning is required. stationary magnetic field system for rotation, unlike AC machines whose
- It consists of two parts, a “Stator” which is the stationary part and a stator field continually rotates with the applied frequency.
“Rotor” which is the rotating part. The result is that there are basically - The current which flows within these field coils is known as the motor
three types of DC Motor available. field current.
 Brushed Motor – This type of motor produces a magnetic field in a - These electromagnetic coils which form the stator field can be

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wound rotor (the part that rotates) by passing an electrical current electrically connected in series, parallel or both together (compound)

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through a commutator and carbon brush assembly, hence the term with the motors armature.
“Brushed”. The stators (the stationary part) magnetic field is

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- A series wound DC motor has its stator field windings connected in
produced by using either a wound stator field winding or by series with the armature. Likewise, a shunt wound DC motor has its

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permanent magnets. Generally brushed DC motors are cheap, stator field windings connected in parallel with the armature as shown.

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small and easily controlled.
 Brushless Motor – This type of motor produce a magnetic field in

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the rotor by using permanent magnets attached to it and

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commutation is achieved electronically. They are generally smaller
but more expensive than conventional brushed type DC motors

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because they use “Hall effect” switches in the stator to produce the
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required stator field rotational sequence but they have better
torque/speed characteristics, are more efficient and have a longer
operating life than equivalent brushed types.
 Servo Motor – This type of motor is basically a brushed DC motor - The rotor or armature of a DC machine consists of current carrying
with some form of positional feedback control connected to the rotor conductors connected together at one end to electrically isolated copper
shaft. They are connected to and controlled by a PWM type segments called the commutator.
controller and are mainly used in positional control systems and - The commutator allows an electrical connection to be made via carbon
radio controlled models. brushes (hence the name “Brushed” motor) to an external power supply
- Normal DC motors have almost linear characteristics with their speed of as the armature rotates.
rotation being determined by the applied DC voltage and their output - The magnetic field setup by the rotor tries to align itself with the
torque being determined by the current flowing through the motor stationary stator field causing the rotor to rotate on its axis, but can not
windings. align itself due to commutation delays.
- The speed of rotation of any DC motor can be varied from a few - The rotational speed of the motor is dependent on the strength of the
revolutions per minute (rpm) to many thousands of revolutions per rotors magnetic field and the more voltage that is applied to the motor
minute making them suitable for electronic, automotive or robotic the faster the rotor will rotate. By varying this applied DC voltage the
applications. rotational speed of the motor can also be varied.
- By connecting them to gearboxes or gear-trains their output speed can - Although DC brushed motors are very efficient and cheap, problems
be decreased while at the same time increasing the torque output of the associated with the brushed DC motor is that sparking occurs under
motor at a high speed. heavy load conditions between the two surfaces of the commutator and
carbon brushes resulting in self generating heat, short life span and
34
 electrical noise due to sparking, which can damage any semiconductor - A servo motor generally includes a built-in gearbox for speed reduction
switching device such as a MOSFET or transistor. and is capable of delivering high torques directly.
- To overcome these disadvantages, Brushless DC Motors were - The output shaft of a servo motor does not rotate freely as do the shafts
developed. of DC motors because of the gearbox and feedback devices attached.

Brushless DC motor
- The brushless DC motor is very similar to a permanent magnet DC
motor, but does not have any brushes to replace or wear out due to

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commutator sparking.

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- Therefore, little heat is generated in the rotor increasing the motors life.

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The design of the brushless motor eliminates the need for brushes by
using a more complex drive circuit were the rotor magnetic field is a

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permanent magnet which is always in synchronization with the stator

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field allows for a more precise speed and torque control.
- The control of the brushless DC motors is very different from the normal

fn
brushed DC motor, in that it this type of motor incorporates some

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means to detect the rotors angular position (or magnetic poles) required
to produce the feedback signals required to control the semiconductor

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switching devices.

some motors also use optical sensors.

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- The most common position/pole sensor is the “Hall Effect Sensor”, but - A servo motor consists of a DC motor, reduction gearbox, positional
feedback device and some form of error correction.
- Using Hall effect sensors, the polarity of the electromagnets is switched - The speed or position is controlled in relation to a positional input signal
by the motor control drive circuitry. Then the motor can be easily or reference signal applied to the device.
synchronized to a digital clock signal, providing precise speed control. - The error detection amplifier looks at this input signal and compares it
- Brushless DC motors can be constructed to have, an external with the feedback signal from the motors output shaft and determines if
permanent magnet rotor and an internal electromagnet stator or an the motor output shaft is in an error condition and, if so, the controller
internal permanent magnet rotor and an external electromagnet stator. makes appropriate corrections either speeding up the motor or slowing
- Advantages of the Brushless DC Motor are is higher efficiencies, high it down.
reliability, low electrical noise, good speed control and more importantly, - This response to the positional feedback device means that the servo
no brushes or commutator to wear out producing a much higher speed. motor operates within a “Closed Loop System”.
- However their disadvantage is that they are more expensive and more - As well as large industrial applications, servo motors are also used in
complicated to control. small remote control models and robotics, with most servo motors being
able to rotate up to about 180 degrees in both directions making them
DC Servo Motor ideal for accurate angular positioning.
- DC Servo motors are used in closed loop type applications were the - However, these RC type servos are unable to continually rotate at high
position of the output motor shaft is fed back to the motor control circuit. speed like conventional DC motors unless specially modified.
- Typical positional “Feedback” devices include Resolvers, Encoders and - A servo motor consist of several devices in one package, the motor,
Potentiometers as used in radio control models such as aero-planes gearbox, feedback device and error correction for controlling position,
and boats etc. direction or speed. They are widely used in robotics and small models
35
 as they are easily controlled using just three wires, Power, Ground and - A flywheel diode is connected across the motor terminals to protect the
Signal Control. switching transistor or MOSFET from any back emf generated by the
motor when the transistor turns the supply OFF.
- As well as the basic ON/OFF control the same circuit can also be used
to control the motors rotational speed.
DC Motor Switching and Control - By repeatedly switching the motor current ON and OFF at a high
- Small DC motors can be switched On or Off” by means of switches, enough frequency, the speed of the motor can be varied between stand
relays, transistors or MOSFET circuits with the simplest form of motor still (0 rpm) and full speed (100%).

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control being “Linear” control. - This is achieved by varying the proportion of ON time (tON) to the OFF

o.
- This type of circuit uses a bipolar Transistor as a Switch (A Darlington time (tOFF) and this can be achieved using a process known as Pulse

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transistor may also be used were a higher current rating is required) to Width Modulation.
control the motor from a single power supply. - With PWM, the motor voltage is controlled by applying pulses of

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- By varying the amount of base current flowing into the transistor the variable frequency for example, at a low frequency or with very few

ot
speed of the motor can be controlled for example, if the transistor is pulses the average voltage applied to the motor is low, and therefore
turned on “half way”, then only half of the supply voltage goes to the the motor speed is slow.

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motor. - At a higher frequency or with many pulses, the average motor terminal

pd
- If the transistor is turned “fully ON” (saturated), then all of the supply voltage is increased and the motor speed will also increase.
voltage goes to the motor and it rotates faster. To control the direction of a DC motor, the polarity of the DC power

w.
-
- Then for this linear type of control, power is delivered constantly to the applied to the motor’s connections must be reversed allowing its shaft to
motor as shown below.
ww -
rotate in the opposite direction.
One very simple and cheap way to control the rotational direction of a
DC motor is to use different switches arranged in the following manner:

- A continuous logic 1 or logic 0 is applied to the input of the circuit to turn

the motor ON (saturation) or OFF (cut-off) respectively.
36
- To achieve bi-directional control of a motor (as well as its speed),
Transistor H-bridge type circuit arrangement is used.
- The d.c motors also sink more current which cannot be supplied by the - In figure above the transistors are operated at cutoff and saturation
microcontroller hence requiring the use of an interface between the conditions so that they can act as switch.
microcontroller and the motors. - Diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 are used to block the supply voltage not to
- There are various components used to implement the circuit; relays, flow directly to the motor.
solid state transistors and IC motor drivers. - If we apply appropriate pulse width modulation (PWM) signals to A, B, C

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- As with uni-directional DC motor control as seen above, the rotational and D, the transistors will start to switch on and off.

o.
speed of the motor can also be controlled using Pulse Width Modulation - This will supply us also with control over the speed of the motor. By

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or PWM. Then by combining H-bridge switching with PWM control, both changing the duty cycle of a pulse sequence one can change the
the direction and the speed of the motor can be accurately controlled. average power supplied by that sequence.

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- Therefore, the speed of the motor will change based on the duty cycle

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The Operation Table of an H-Bridge (i.e., average power) of the pulse sequence. For example, if the motor
Function A B C D has 75 rpm with a 75% duty cycle, it will have approximately 50 rpm

fn
Forward 1 0 0 1 with 50% duty cycle signal.

pd
Reverse 0 1 1 0 - Commercial off the shelf decoder IC’s such as the SN754410 Quad Half
H-Bridge IC or the L298N which has 2 H-Bridges are available with all

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Brake 1 0 1 0
Brake 0 1 0 1 the necessary control and safety logic built in are specially designed for
Fuse test
Fuse test
1
0
1
0
0
1
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1
H-bridge bi-directional motor control circuits.

12V
12V Q_2N4401
Q_2N4401

D1N4004 D1N4004
D1 D3 C
A

Q3
Q1

M M1
Q_2N2222
Q_2N2222
D1N4004
D1N4004 D4
D2 D
B
Q4
Q2

37
 ke
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DC Stepper Motor

fn
- Stepper Motors are also electromechanical actuators that convert a - There are three basic types of stepper motor, Variable Reluctance,

pd
pulsed digital input signal into a discrete (incremental) mechanical Permanent Magnet and Hybrid (a sort of combination of both). For the
movement are used widely in industrial control applications. diagram above, variable reluctance stepper motor is shown.

w.
- A stepper motor is a type of synchronous brushless motor in that it does - The motor consists of a central rotor surrounded by four
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not have an armature with a commutator and carbon brushes but has a
rotor made up of many, some types have hundreds of permanent -
electromagnetic field coils labelled A, B, C and D.
All the coils with the same letter are connected together so that
magnetic teeth and a stator with individual windings. energizing, say coils marked. A will cause the magnetic rotor to align
- The stepper motor does not rotate in a continuous fashion like a itself with that set of coils.
conventional DC motor but moves in discrete “Steps” or “Increments”, - By applying power to each set of coils in turn the rotor can be made to
with the angle of each rotational movement or step dependant upon the rotate or "step" from one position to the next by an angle determined by
number of stator poles and rotor teeth the stepper motor has. its step angle construction, and by energizing the coils in sequence the
- Because of their discrete step operation, stepper motors can easily be rotor will produce a rotary motion.
rotated a finite fraction of a rotation at a time, such as 1.8, 3.6, 7.5 - The stepper motor driver controls both the step angle and speed of the
degrees etc. So for example, lets assume that a stepper motor motor by energizing the field coils in a set sequence for example,
completes one full revolution (360o in exactly 100 steps. “ADCB, ADCB, ADCB, A…” etc, the rotor will rotate in one direction
- Then the step angle for the motor is given as 360 degrees/100 steps = (forward) and by reversing the pulse sequence to “ABCD, ABCD,
3.6 degrees per step. This value is commonly known as the stepper ABCD, A…” etc, the rotor will rotate in the opposite direction (reverse).
motors Step Angle. - It should be noted that, the more rotor teeth and or stator coils would
- A Stepper Motor is particularly well suited to applications that require result in more control and a finer step angle.
accurate positioning and repeatability with a fast response to starting, - Also by connecting the electrical coils of the motor in different
stopping, reversing and speed control and another key feature of the configurations, Full, Half and micro-step angles are possible.
stepper motor, is its ability to hold the load steady once the require - However, to achieve micro-stepping, the stepper motor must be driven
position is achieved. by a (quasi) sinusoidal current that is expensive to implement.
-
38
- It is also possible to control the speed of rotation of a stepper motor by
altering the time delay between the digital pulses applied to the coils
(the frequency), the longer the delay the slower the speed for one
complete revolution.
- By applying a fixed number of pulses to the motor, the motor shaft will
rotate through a given angle.
- There are many stepper motor controller IC’s available which can
control the step speed, speed of rotation and motors direction. One

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such controller IC is the SAA1027 which has all the necessary counter Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators

o.
and code conversion built-in, and can automatically drive the 4 fully - Hydraulic and Pneumatic actuators are often simple devices with a

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controlled bridge outputs to the motor in the correct sequence. minimum of mechanical parts, used on linear or quarter-turn valves.
- The RS SAA1027 is a bipolar integrated circuit intended for driving a 4- - A control valve requires an actuator that is capable of positioning the

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phase two stator stepper motor. The circuit consists of a bidirectional 4- movable part to any value between the two extremes of fully open and

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state counter and a code converter to drive the four outputs in the fully closed.
sequence required for driving a stepper motor. - Positioning actuators are generally classified as to the source of power:

fn
- It features high noise immunity inputs, clockwise and anticlockwise pneumatic, electric, and occasionally hydraulic.

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operation, a reset facility and high current outputs that are protected - Pneumatic actuators their source of power is from compressed air while
against damage by voltage overshoots. hydraulic actuator their source of power is from fluids but principally

w.
- Features of RS SAA1027 works the same way.
● High noise immunity inputs
● Clockwise and counter-clockwise rotation
ww - Sufficient air or fluid pressure acts on a piston to provide thrust in a
linear motion for gate or globe valves.
● Reset facility - Alternatively, the thrust may be mechanically converted to rotary
● High output current motion to operate a quarter-turn valve.
● Outputs protected against damage by overshoots.
Hydraulic Actuators
- The most common type of hydraulic actuator is the hydraulic cylinder. A
cylinder uses pressurized fluid to create a linear force/motion.
- Single acting cylinders apply force when extending and typically use a
spring to retract the cylinder. Double acting cylinders apply force in both
directions.

39
 Pneumatic Actuators
- In the figure below, a fluid is pumped into one side of the cylinder under - They convert air pressure into mechanical motion. There are two basic
pressure causing that side of the cylinder to expand, and advancing the types: Linear actuators (cylinder/piston or diaphragm types) and rotary
piston. actuators.
- Piston and rotary actuators are functionally similar to their hydraulic
counterparts.
- Pneumatic cylinder consists of a piston in a cylinder in one of two basic

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internal configurations.

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- The double acting cylinder connects to the valve with two tubes and can

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be driven in either direction.
- The single acting cylinder can only be driven in one direction with air

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- The fluid on the other side of the piston must be allowed to escape pressure and is returned by a spring.

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freely - if the incompressible fluid was trapped the cylinder could not
advance. The force the cylinder can exert is proportional to the cross

fn
sectional area of the cylinder.

pd
- Under normal operating conditions, both ends of the cylinder are filled
with fluid. If additional fluid enters port A, the piston will move toward the

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right, but the fluid must be able to escape through port B
-
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Some actuators can create rotary motion and are very similar to the
pump designs. The figure below shows a gear motor rotary actuator.
- Rotary actuators convert air pressure into rotary mechanical motion.
One common design is the vane motor.

- For the motor, fluid is pumped in the left side of the case, putting that
area under pressure. Within the pressurized area, all surfaces receive a - The motor consist of a rotor that is offset in housing. Protruding from the
force, but only those three surfaces indicated with arrow will effect rotor are spring-loaded vanes that seal against the housing and slide in
rotation. and out of the rotor as it turns.
- The pressure on the teeth next to the case will case the gears to rotate. - Motion is achieved because the vanes on the top have more exposed
The pressure on the meshing teeth in the centre would cause the gears surface area than on the bottom and hence receive more force, causing
to turn in the opposite direction, but this torque is overpowered because the rotor to turn clockwise.
two teeth are pushing the other way.
40
- In most cases rotary actuators are not chosen for their efficiencies, but
for their power, speed and torque

- Advantages of pneumatic actuators

•They are fast on ON/OFF type tasks.
• Have big forces with elasticity.
• No hydraulic oil leak problems.
- Disadvantage:

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• Speed control is not possible because the air pressure depends on Directional control valves

o.
many variables that are out of control - A directional control valve on the receipt of some external signal, which

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might be mechanical, electrical or a pressure signal, change the
Valves direction of, or stop, or start the flow of fluid in some part of the

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- A valve is a device that starts, stops, or regulates the flow of a fluid/air pneumatic/hydraulic circuit.

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by adjusting the position of a movable part. - Thus, it might be used to control the direction of fluid flow to a cylinder
- Valves may be applied for either ON–OFF service (often called block and so use the movement of its piston to carry out actuation.

fn
valves) or for regulatory service (often called control valves). - The basic symbol for a control valve is a square. With a directional

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- Based on the nature of the moving part, valves are broadly classified control valve two or more squares are used, with each square
into two categories: representing the positions to which the valve can be switched.

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o Rising stem (sliding stem) valves: Examples include globe, angle, - Thus, figure below represents a valve with two switching positions, and
and diaphragm valves.
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o Rotary stem valves: Examples include ball and butterfly valves.
a valve with three switching positions.

- The stem is the movable part that affects the flow through the valve.
The term “ valve position ” refers to the position of the stem. The valve
position M is usually expressed in percent, but expressing M as a Two position
fraction is more convenient in some equations.
- The choice regarding type of valve is based on factors such as cost,
pressure recovery, minimum pressure within the valve, tendency to leak Three Position
when closed.
- A control valve requires an actuator that is capable of positioning the a) Flow path b) Shut off c) Initial connections
movable part to any value between the two extremes of fully open and
fully closed. Positioning actuators are generally classified as to the - Lines in the boxes are used to show the flow paths with arrows
source of power — pneumatic, electric, and occasionally hydraulic. indicating the direction of flow.
- The figure below shows the means by which valves can be switched - The pipe connections, i.e the inlet and outlet ports of the valve, are
between positions. indicated by lines drawn on the outside of the box and are drawn for just
the ‘rest/initial/neutral position’ i.e when the valve is not actuated as
figure (c).
- Directional control valves are described by the number of ports and the
number of positions. Thus, a 2/2 valve has 2 ports and 2 positions, a
3/2 valve 3 ports and 2 positions.
41
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Control of a single acting cylinder a) before solenoid activated b) when activated

o.
- Figure below shows how a double-solenoid activated valve can be used

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to control a double-acting cylinder.

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- Momentary closing switch S1 causes a current to flow through the

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solenoid at the left-hand end of the valve and so result in the piston
- For example, figure below shows the symbol for a 3/2 valve which extending.

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solenoid activation and return by means of a spring. - On opening S1 the valve remains in this extended position until a signal

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- Thus, when the solenoid is not activated by a current through it, the is received by the closure of switch S2 to activate the right-hand
signal port 2 is connected to the exhaust 3 and so is at atmospheric solenoid and return the piston.

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pressure.
-
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When the solenoid is activated, the pressure supply P is connected to
the signal port 2 and thus the output is pressurized.

Control of a double-acting cylinder

- Figure below shows how such a valve might be used to cause the
piston in a single-acting cylinder to move; the term single-acting is used Flow-Control Valves
when a pressure signal is applied to only one side of the piston. - One common type of actuator used in process control system is the
- When the switch is closed and a current passes through the solenoid, flow-control valve, which regulates the flow of fluids.
the valve switches position and pressure is applied to extend the piston - The control valve has a built-in valve-operating mechanism, allowing it
in the cylinder. to be controlled remotely by a signal from the controller. Usually, this
signal is either electric or pneumatic.
- Figure (a) shows a solenoid–actuated, on-off valve. When the solenoid
is energized, the valve is pulled open, and the fluid flows.
42
- When the solenoid is de-energized, a spring returns the valve to the 3. Give a list of applications for ON/OFF controller action.
closed position. On-off valves are used in batch processes (for 4. Why is the gain setting critical in proportional action?
example, a washing machine where the tank is filled to a specified level 5. What is the difference between an error signal and a measured variable
as quickly as possible, agitated for a while, then emptied). signal?
- Many processes require the ability to vary the flow of a fluid in a pipe on 6. What is the difference between lag time and dead time?
a continuous basis. To do this, the valve stem must be controlled with a 7. What is the difference between offset and error signal?
linear actuator of some type. 8. What are some of the actions that can be taken to reduce correction
- Figure (b) shows an electrically operated valve. In this case, an electric time?

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motor drives a lead screw-type valve stem, so it can be put in any 9. What is a dead-band?

o.
position. 10. What would be the effect of time constants on correction time?

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- Pneumatically operated valves use air pressure as the control signal. 11. What types of control do not normally require derivative action?
Shown in figure(c), you can see that as the air pressure is increased, 12. Why is ON/OFF action not normally suitable for control of a process?

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the diaphragm will move down (against a spring) and close the valve.

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This type of valve could be used in an on-off or a variable-flow
application.

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pd
w.
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Questions
1. Describe controller ON/OFF action. TOPIC 3: Sequential Control System
2. What is the difference between simple ON/OFF action and differential
ON/OFF action?
43
- A control system in which the individual steps are processed in a - The term logic is used because programming is primarily concerned
predetermined order, progression from one sequence step to the next with implementing logic and switching operation.
being dependent on defined conditions being satisfied. - The PLC is designed as replacement for the hard-wired relay and timer
- This is where the output is dependent not only on the actual inputs but logic to be found in traditional control panels, where PLC provides ease
on the sequence of the previous inputs and outputs (memorizing and flexibility of control based on programming and executing logic
events). instructions.
- Sequential problems have long been solved using conventional logic - A PLC has three main aspects: the inputs and outputs and the control
gates as building blocks, but using certain techniques to express and program. In figure below, PLC has eight inputs and four outputs.

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identify the sequence logic equations that control the system outputs - The input is anything that can

o.
- Such a system may be time-dependent, in which the step transition sense the status of the

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conditions are functions of time only; on external-event dependent, environment and then convert that
where the conditions are functions of Input signals only; or combinations information in to a signal. Often the

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of these (and perhaps more complex) conditions. signal can simply be a voltage that

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- Every process control facility, even if it is primarily a “continuous” is either on or off. For example,
process, has sequential aspects. Startup and shutdown are two input devices can be proximity

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examples that are hard to escape. switches, photoelectric sensors,

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- Advanced PLC instructions such as shift registers, sequencers, master temperature sensors, push
control relays, timers etc are provided to simplify the design and buttons, or pressure sensors.

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implementation of sequence systems. - The outputs are connected to the devices that need to be controlled

Internal Relay
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like motors, indicator lights, fans, warning sirens or heating elements.
Control processes need devices to monitor events or measure needed
- In PLCs there are elements that are used to hold data, i.e. bits, and values. These devices are generically called inputs to the PLC.
behave like relays, being able to be switched on or off and switch other - The program uses a set of logical instructions that drives the outputs
devices on or off. Hence the term internal relay. based on the inputs.
- Such internal relays do not exist as real-world switching devices but are - Flowchart is a graphical or symbolic representation of an algorithm. It is
merely bits in the storage memory that behave in the same way as the diagrammatic representation of the step-by-step solution to a given
relays. problem.
- For programming, they can be treated in the same way as an external
relay output and input. Thus inputs to external switches can be used to Practical Interlock System
give an output from an internal relay.  An interlock is a device used to prevent undesired states in a state
- This then results in the internal relay contacts being used, in conjunction machine, which in a general sense can include any electrical, electronic,
with other external input switches to give an output, e.g. activate a or mechanical device or system.
motor.  In most applications an interlock is used to help prevent a machine from
harming its operator or damaging itself by stopping the machine when
- PLC is a unit of hardware used to control and automate industrial tripped.
processes. It is a micro-computer based controller that uses stored  Household microwave ovens are equipped with interlock
instructions in programmable memory to implement logic, sequencing, switches which disable the magnetron if the door is opened.
timing, counting and arithmetic functions through digital or analog
input/output modules, for controlling machines and processes.
44
  Similarly household washing machines will interrupt the spin operation. Alternatively, a solenoid valve can simply be reset by the use
cycle when the lid is open. of a pushbutton that energizes the valve.
 Interlocks also serve as important safety devices in industrial settings,
where they protect employees from devices such as robots, presses, Solenoid
and hammers.  Solenoid is a device that produces mechanical motion from the
 While interlocks can be something as sophisticated as curtains of energization of an electromagnet coil. The movable portion of a
infrared beams and photodetectors, they are often just switches. solenoid is called an armature.
 Solenoids can be used to electrically open door latches, open or shut

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Manual vs. Automatic Operation of Interlock Systems valves, move robotic limbs, and even actuate electric switch

o.
 Operation of an interlock system may take place either through manual mechanisms. However, if a solenoid is used to actuate a set of switch

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or automatic trip. contacts, then the term relay
 In a manual trip, the interlock system is manually actuated from a  Solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. The valve is

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switch or pushbutton, which may be located on a local panel in the field controlled by an electric current through a solenoid: in the case of a two-

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or in the control room. A manual trip allows an operator to trip the port valve the flow is switched on or off; in the case of a three-port
valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet ports.

fn
system independently of the interlock system in the event of a
hazardous situation developing.

pd
 An automatic trip, as the name implies, is automatically activated when Limit switch
 Some switches are specifically designed to be operated by the motion

w.
a hazardous situation is detected. A common example is the de-
energizing of a solenoid valve that fails a control valve to its safe of a machine rather than by the hand of a human operator.
position. ww  These motion-operated switches are commonly called limit switches,
because they are often used to limit the motion of a machine by turning
Manual vs. Automatic Reset of Interlocks off the actuating power to a component if it moves too far.
 A tripped component (e.g. a solenoid valve) needs to be reset after a  They are used for controlling machinery as part of a control system, as
trip had been initiated. The reset may be done either automatically or a safety interlocks, or to count objects passing a point.
manually.  A limit switch is an electromechanical device that consists of an
 Self-Canceling Interlock has automatic reset that returns the interlock actuator mechanically linked to a set of contacts. When an object
system to normal operation when the usual process conditions had comes into contact with the actuator, the device operates the contacts
been re-established or when the offending situation had been effectively to make or break an electrical connection.
dealt with.  Limit switches are used in a variety of applications and environments
 Manual Reset Interlock requires the operator to re-initiate the process because of their ruggedness, ease of installation, and reliability of
before continuing the operation of the equipment involved. This method operation. They can determine the presence or absence, passing,
is generally preferable over automatic reset because it requires an positioning, and end of travel of an object. They were first used to define
investigation of the possible causes for the trip. Positive action by the the limit of travel of an object; hence the name "Limit Switch"
operating personnel to return the operating conditions to normal is
required before the interlock can be cancelled.  Components of limit Switch
 Manual reset on a solenoid valve is most commonly carried out by the  Actuator: The portion of the switch that comes in contact with
use of a latching lever that locks the valve when a trip occurs. Unlatch the object being sensed. When there is no force or torque
of the lever is required to return the solenoid valve to its normal applied to the actuator it is in the unactuated, free or rest
45
 position. The position to which the actuator must be moved in is detected by either the interruption or reflection of a light
order to operate the contacts is called the trip point or operating beam. Optical switches are also useful in safety applications,
position. When the motion of the actuator is reversed, the where beams of light can be used to detect personnel entry
position at which the contacts return to their original state is into a dangerous area.
called the reset point or releasing position. Mechanical Advantages of Limit Switches
 Ease of use
 Head: It houses the mechanism that translates actuator  Simple visible operation
movement into contact movement. When the actuator is moved  Durable housing

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as intended, the mechanism operates the switch contacts.  Well sealed for reliable operation

o.
 Contact Block: It houses the electrical contact elements of the  High resistance to different ambient conditions found in industry

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switch. It typically contains either two or four contact pairs.  High repeatability
 Terminal Block: The terminal block contains the screw  Positive opening operation of contacts (some models)

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terminations. This is where the electrical (wire) connection

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between the switch and the rest of the control circuit is made. Electrical Advantages of Limit Switches


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Switch Body: The switch body houses the contact block in a  Suitable for switching higher power loads than other sensor
plug-in switch. It and terminal block in the nonplug-in switch. technologies (5A at 24V DC or 10A at 120V AC typical vs. less

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 Base: The base houses the terminal block in a plug-in switch. than 1A for proximities or photoelectrics)

w.
Nonplug-in switches do not have a separate base  Immunity to electrical noise interference
 Immunity to radio frequency interference (walkie-talkies)
Limit switches come in several varieties:
ww  No leakage current
 Minimal voltage drops
 Lever actuator limit switch: These limit switches closely resemble  Simple Normally Open and/or Normally Closed operation
rugged toggle or selector hand switches fitted with a lever pushed
by the machine part. Often, the levers are tipped with a small roller Disadvantages of Limit Switches
bearing, preventing the lever from being worn off by repeated
 Shorter contact life than solid-state technology
contact with the machine part.
 Moving mechanical parts wear out eventually
 Proximity switches sense the approach of a metallic machine part
 Not all applications can use contact sensing
either by a magnetic or high-frequency electromagnetic field. Simple
proximity switches use a permanent magnet to actuate a sealed
Typical Applications
switch mechanism whenever the machine part gets close.
 Conveyor systems
 More complex proximity switches work like a metal detector,
energizing a coil of wire with a high-frequency current, and  Transfer machines
electronically monitoring the magnitude of that current. If a  Automatic turret lathes
metallic part (not necessarily magnetic) gets close enough to  Milling and boring machines
the coil, the current will increase, and trip the monitoring  Radial drills
circuit.
 Another form of proximity switch is the optical switch,
comprised of a light source and photocell. Machine position
46
Encoder
- The encoder is a device that senses a physical parameter and converts
it to a digital code.

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- An encoder is a sensor of mechanical motion that generates digital

o.
signals in response to motion. As an electro-mechanical device, an

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encoder is able to provide motion control system users with information
concerning position, velocity and direction.

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- There are two different types of encoders: linear and rotary.

ot
- Linear encoder responds to motion along a path, while a rotary
encoder responds to rotational motion. An encoder is generally

fn
categorized by the means of its output.

pd
 Incremental encoder generates a train of pulses which can be
used to determine position and speed.

w.
o Incremental encoders have two separate outputs called
“quadrature outputs”.
ww
o These two outputs are displaced at 90o out of phase from each
other with the direction of rotation of the shaft being determined
from the output sequence.
o The number of transparent and dark segments or slots on the  Absolute encoder generates unique bit configurations to track
disk determines the resolution of the device and increasing the positions directly.
number of lines in the pattern increases the resolution per o They provide a unique output code for every single position of
degree of rotation. rotation indicating both position and direction.
o Typical encoded discs have a resolution of up to 256 pulses or o Their coded disk consists of multiple concentric “tracks” of light
8-bits per rotation. and dark segments.
o The simplest incremental encoder is called a tachometer. It has o Each track is independent with its own photo detector to
one single square wave output and is often used in simultaneously read a unique coded position value for each
unidirectional applications where basic position or speed angle of movement.
information only is required. o The number of tracks on the disk corresponds to the binary “bit”-
o The “Quadrature” or “Sine wave” encoder is the more common resolution of the encoder so a 12-bit absolute encoder would
and has two output square waves commonly called channel A have 12 tracks and the same coded value only appears once
and channel B. This device uses two photo detectors, slightly per revolution.
offset from each other by 90o thereby producing two separate
sine and cosine output signals.

47
 o One main advantage of an absolute encoder is its non-volatile - Linear encoder is a sensor or transducer paired with a scale that
memory which retains the exact position of the encoder without encodes position.
the need to return to a “home” position if the power fails. - The sensor reads the scale in order to convert the encoded position into
an analog or digital signal, which can then be decoded into position by a
Advantages of an Encoder digital readout (DRO) or motion controller.
- Highly reliable and accurate - Motion can be determined by change in position over time. Linear
- Low-cost feedback encoder technologies include optical, magnetic, inductive, capacitive
- High resolution and eddy current. Optical technologies include shadow, self-imaging

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- Integrated electronics and interferometric.

o.
- Fuses optical and digital technology - Linear encoders are used in metrology instruments, motion systems

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- Can be incorporated into existing applications and high precision machining tools ranging from digital calipers and
- Compact size coordinate measuring machines to stages, CNC Mills, manufacturing

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gantry tables and semiconductor steppers.

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Disadvantages of an Encoder - Optical linear encoders: dominate the high resolution market and may
- Subject to magnetic or radio interference (Magnetic Encoders) employ shuttering/Moiré, diffraction or holographic principles. Optical

fn
- Direct light source interference (Optical Encoders) encoders are the most accurate of the standard styles of encoders, and

pd
- Susceptible to dirt, oil and dust contaminates the most commonly used in industrial automation applications. When
specifying an optical encoder, it’s important that the encoder has extra

w.
Encoders Application protection built in to prevent contamination from dust, vibration and

different industries.
ww
- Encoders have become an essential component to applications in many other conditions common to industrial environments. Light sources used
include infrared LEDs, visible LEDs, miniature light-bulbs and laser
- The following is a partial list of industries making use of encoders: diodes.
• Automotive – The automotive industry utilize encoders as sensors of - Magnetic linear encoders: it employs either active (magnetized) or
mechanical motion may be applied to controlling speed. passive (variable reluctance) scales and position may be sensed using
• Consumer Electronics and Office Equipment – In the consumer sense-coils, Hall effect or magneto-resistive readheads. With coarser
electronics industry, encoders are widely used office equipment such as scale periods than optical encoders (typically a few hundred
PC-based scanning equipment, printers, and scanners. micrometers to several millimeters) resolutions in the order of a
• Industrial – In the industrial industry, encoders are used in labeling micrometer are the norm.
machines, packaging and machine tooling with single and multi-axis - Capacitive linear encoders work by sensing the capacitance between
motor controllers. Encoders can also be found in CNC machine control. a reader and scale. Typical applications are digital calipers. One of the
• Medical – In the medical industry, encoders are utilized in medical disadvantages is the sensitivity to uneven dirt, which can locally change
scanners, microscopic or nanoscopic motion control of automated the relative permittivity.
devices and dispensing pumps. - Inductive technology is robust to contaminants, allowing calipers and
• Military - The military also utilizes encoders in their application of other measurement tools that are coolant-proof. A well-known
positioning antennas. application of the inductive measuring principle is the Inductosyn.
• Scientific Instruments – Scientific equipment implement encoders in
the positioning of an observatory telescope. b) Rotary encoders
- Rotary Encoders are another type of position sensor which resemble
a) Linear encoders potentiometers but are non-contact optical devices used for converting
48
 the angular position of a rotating shaft into an analogue or digital data
code.
- In other words, they convert mechanical movement into an electrical
signal (preferably digital).
- All optical encoders work on the same basic principle. Light from an
LED or infra-red light source is passed through a rotating high-
resolution encoded disk that contains the required code patterns, either
binary, grey code or BCD.

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- Photo detectors scan the disk as it rotates and an electronic circuit

o.
processes the information into a digital form as a stream of binary

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output pulses that are fed to counters or controllers which determine the
actual angular position of the shaft. Flowcharts

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- Flowchart is a graphical or symbolic representation of an algorithm. It is

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the diagrammatic representation of the step-by-step solution to a given
problem.

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- It is ideal for a process that has sequential process steps. The steps will

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be executed in a simple order that may change as the result of some
simple decisions.

w.
- The symbols used for flowcharts are shown below. These blocks are
ww connected using arrows to indicate the sequence of the steps. The
different blocks imply different types of program actions.

General rules for flowcharts

- All symbols of the flowchart are connected by flow lines (note arrows,
not lines)
49
- Flow lines enter the top of the symbol and exit out the bottom, except
for the Decision symbol, which can have flow lines exiting from the
bottom or the sides
- Flowcharts are drawn so flow generally goes from top to bottom
- The beginning and the end of the flowchart is indicated using the
terminal symbol

Note

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- Programs always need a start block, but PLC programs rarely stop so

o.
the stop block is rarely used. Other important blocks include operations

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and decisions. The other functions may be used but are not necessary
for most PLC applications.

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Example 1

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- A flowchart is shown in below for a control system for a large water
tank.

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- When a start button is pushed the tank will start to fill, and the flow out

w.
will be stopped.
- When full, or the stop button is pushed the outlet will open up, and the
ww flow in will be stopped.
- In the flowchart the general flow of execution starts at the top. The first
operation is to open the outlet valve and close the inlet valve.
- Next, a single decision block is used to wait for a button to be pushed.
When the button is pushed the yes branch is followed and the inlet
valve is opened, and the outlet valve is closed.
- Then the flow chart goes into a loop that uses two decision blocks to
wait until the tank is full, or the stop button is pushed.
- If either case occurs the inlet valve is closed and the outlet valve is
opened. The system then goes back to wait for the start button to be
pushed again.
- When the controller is on the program should always be running, so
only a start block is needed.
- Many beginners will neglect to put in checks for stop buttons.

Questions with solutions

1. Draw a flow chart for cutting the grass, then develop ladder logic for
three of the actions/decisions.

50
2. Design a garage door controller using a flowchart. The behavior of the
garage door controller is as follows,
 there is a single button in the garage, and a single button remote
control.
 when the button is pushed the door will move up or down.
 if the button is pushed once while moving, the door will stop, a
second push will start motion again in the opposite direction.
 there are top/bottom limit switches to stop the motion of the door.

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 there is a light beam across the bottom of the door. If the beam is

o.
cut while the door is closing the door will stop and reverse.

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 there is a garage light that will be on for 5 minutes after the door
opens or closes.

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Flowchart for the above example

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w.
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51
 ww
w.
pd
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52
 7. A controlled car park has 4 spaces in the packing lot. Cars are detected
and allowed to enter into the parking space if available. If NO space a
Questions “Full” indicator lamp should be lit, otherwise individual indicator lamps
1. A signal lamp is required to be switched on if a pump is running and the should light to show the available parking space. Design a flowchart and
pressure is satisfactory, or if the lamp test switch is closed. Draw a PLC ladder diagram of the car parking system; include comments on
flowchart and ladder diagram. every rung.
2. Consider a valve which is to be operated to lift a load when a pump is
running and either the lift switch is operated or a switch operated 8. With the aid of a flowchart and ladder program, explain how a converter

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indicating that the load has not already been lifted and is at the bottom can be used in a machine to direct 6 products to a packaging box and

o.
of its lift channel. Devise a flowchart and ladder diagram. 12 products to another box simultaneously.

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3. An Alarm system is used in conjunction with an automated bottling
system in a milk bottling plant. A conveyer belt carries empty bottles 9. A machine is being designed to wrap boxes of chocolate. The boxes

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that are to be filled with milk. The alarm goes off in any of the conditions arrive at the machine on a conveyor belt. The list below shows the

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occurs. process steps in sequence.
- Milk tank is empty and bottles are in conveyor belt. - The box arrives and is detected by an optical sensor (P), after this

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- There are no bottles in the conveyer and there is milk in the tank. the conveyor is stopped (C) and the box is clamped in place (H).

pd
- There is milk in the tank and bottles on the conveyor belt but electric - A wrapping mechanism (W) is turned on for 2 seconds.
power is off. - A sticker cylinder (S) is turned on for 1 second to put consumer

w.
- There is no milk in the tank, no bottles on the conveyor belt and labelling on the box.
electric power is off.
i)
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Write down a Boolean expression for the alarm system.
- The clamp (H) is turned off and the conveyor (C) is turned on.
- After the box leaves the system returns to an idle state.
ii) Implement this system using a flowchart and PLC ladder Develop ladder logic for the system using a flowchart. Don’t forget to
diagram. include regular start and stop inputs.
5. Components pass along a chute and interrupt a light switch which goes
low (off) each time it is interrupted. Every time 6 components have been 10.
counted, an eject operation is used to remove the batch and the then it
all starts again.
Produce a flowchart and ladder logic diagram to do this operation. The
counter is designated C460

6. Design a flowchart and ladder program for an industrial control system

that:
 Count ten objects passing along a conveyor belt;
 Closes a deflecting gate when the number has been deflected
into a carton
 Allows a time of 5 seconds between the tenth object counted
and closing of the deflector.

53
 Topic 4: Digital control system
Introduction
- In continuous time control systems, all the system variables are

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continuous signals. Whether the system is linear or nonlinear, all

o.
variables are continuously present and therefore known (available) at all

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times.

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fn
pd
w.
ww - However, digital control systems employ a computer as a
fundamental component in the controller.
- It can be viewed from different perspectives including control
algorithm, computer program, conversion between analog and
digital domains, system performance etc.
- In a digital control system, the control algorithm is implemented in a
digital computer.

An
In

54
Principles of operation
- The computer typically receives a measurement of the controlled
variable, also often receives the reference input, and produces its
output using an algorithm.
- This output is usually converted to an analog signal using a D/A
converter, and then amplified by a power amplifier to drive the plant.

Filtering:

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- Before sampling, the analog input must be filtered with an anti-aliasing

o.
filter.

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- The anti-aliasing filter is a low-pass filter that limits high frequencies in
the input signal to only those that meet the requirements of the

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sampling theorem.

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- The filter eliminates frequencies that exceed a certain limit that is

fn
determined by the sampling rate.
- The error signal is discretized and fed to the computer by using an A/D Sampling

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(analog to digital) converter. - The first step in converting a signal to digital form is to use a sample-
The controller output is again a discrete signal which is applied to the

w.
- and-hold circuit.
plant after using a D/A (digital to analog) converter. - This circuit samples the input signal at a rate determined by a clock
-
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Error signal e(t) is sampled at intervals of T. In the context of control
and communication, sampling is a process by which a continuous time
signal and holds the level on a capacitor until the next clock pulse. The
amplitude of an analog signal is first sampled.
signal is converted into a sequence of numbers at discrete time - The purpose of the sample and hold circuit is to take a sample of the
intervals. input signal (analog) and hold it essentially constant while the A/D
- One of the most important aspects is the sampling process level. conversion is taking place.
- It is a fundamental property of digital control systems because of the
- This function is usually implemented with a switch and capacitor. The
discrete nature of operation of digital computer.
switch connects the capacitor to the signal conditioning circuit once
every sample period.
Analog to Digital converter (ADC)
- ADC is an electronic device that converts an input analog voltage (or - The capacitor then holds the voltage value measured until a new
sample is acquired.
current) to a digital number proportional to the magnitude of the voltage
or current. - Many times, the sample and hold circuitry is incorporated into the same
- With introduction of digital computers the data or physical quantity taken integrated circuit package.
in analogue form must be converted to digital form in order to be - The more samples per second there are, the more representative of the
computed. analog signal the set of samples will be.
- In order to covert an analogue quantity to a digital number, three - After sampling, the signal value is known only at discrete points in time,
processes takes place; sampling, quantization and binary encoding. called sampling instants.
- If there points have a sufficient close spacing, a smooth curve drawn
through them allows interpolating immediate values to any degree of
accuracy.
55
- The number of samples per second is called the sampling frequency o Successive approximation (Potentiometric) ADC
or sampling rate, and it depends on the highest frequency component o Ramp type ADC
present in the analog signal. o Integrating Type ADC
- The relation of sampling rate end the highest frequency of the signal to o Dual –slope integrating type
be sample is as follows:
- The sampling theorem states that if the highest frequency content in
the input signal is fh Hz, then input signal can be recovered without

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distortion if it is sampled at a rate of at least 2f h samples/sec.
Quantization

o.
- This is the process of approximating a continuous range of values by Analog Signal

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relatively small set discrete symbols or integer values.

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- To store or transmit the sampled values via a digital system, the sample
values are represented in numerical form.

ot
- This requires quantizing where each discrete sample value is rounded

fn
off to the closest numerical value in a set of digital words in use.
- Each sampled amplitude must be converted to one of a finite number of

pd
possible values, or levels. For ease in conversion to binary form, the
t

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number of levels is usually a power of 2 depending on the degree of Sampling
ww
precision required. 8

- The quantized signal stays at the sample value until the next sampling 6

Amplitude
instants. In this quantizing process the information in accurate signal
values is lost because of rounds off and the original signal cannot be 4
reproduced exactly any more.
2
- The quality of the coding depends on the number of quantum levels that
is defined to provide the required performance. t
T
Binary encoding 8 Quantizing
- In the next step in the digitization process, the output of the quantizer is
mapped into a binary sequence. Amplitude
6
- It is apparent that 8 levels require three binary digits, or bits; 16 levels 4
require four bits; and 256 levels require eight bits. In general 2n levels
require n bits. 2
- In order to use more levels, more binary samples would have to be
squeezed into the allotted time slot between successive signal samples. t
encoding
Types of ADC 101 111 111 110 011 001 001 011110 111 111 110 011 001 001 011
- There are several types of analog to digital converter.

56
 - DAC converters are also used as a part of the circuitry of several ADC
converters.
- Thus, digital to analog converter is used to convert digital quantity into
Integrating (or dual slope) A/Ds analog quantity. DAC converter produces an output current of voltage
- These are used for very low frequency applications (a few hundred proportional to digital quantity (binary word) applied to its input.
hertz maximum) and may have very high accuracy and precision (e.g. - It functions as a zero-order hold, holding its output at a constant value
22 bit). until it receives the next discrete input.
- They are found in thermocouple and RTD modules. Other advantages - There are several ways of making a digital to analog converter. Some of

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include very low cost, noise and mains pickup tend to be reduced by the them are given as under.

o.
integrating and dual slope nature of the A/D converter. 1. Binary weighted resistor DAC

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- The A/D procedure essentially requires a capacitor to be charged with 2. R-2R Ladder network
the input signal for a fixed time, and then uses a counter to calculate 3. Serial DAC converter

es
how long it takes for the capacitor to discharge. This length of time is

ot
proportional to the input voltage. Binary weighted Resistor DAC
- It consists of the following four major components.

fn
Successive approximation A/Ds 1. n switches one for each bit applied to the input

pd
- Successive approximation A/Ds allow much higher sampling rates (up 2. a weighted resistor ladder network, where the resistance are
to a few hundred kHz with 12 bits is possible) while still being

w.
inversely proportional to the numerical significance of the
reasonable in cost. corresponding binary digital
ww
- The conversion algorithm is similar to that of a binary search, where the
A/D starts by comparing the input with a voltage (generated by an
3. a reference voltage Vref and
4. A summing amplifier that adds the current flowing in the resistive
internal D/A converter), corresponding to half of the full-scale range. network to develop a signal that is proportional to the digital input.
- If the input is in the lower half, the first digit is zero and the A/D repeats
this comparison using the lower half of the input range. If the voltage
had been in the upper half, the first digit would have been 1.
- This dividing of the remaining fraction of the input range in half and
comparing to the input voltage continues until the specified number of
bits of accuracy has been obtained. It is obviously important that the
input signal does not change when the conversion process is underway.

Digital to analog conversion

- Today microcomputers are widely used for industrial control. The output
of the microcomputer is a digital quantity.
- In many applications the digital output of the microcomputer has to be
converted into analog quantity which is used for the control of relay,
small motor, actuator etc.
- In communication system digital transmission is faster and convenient
but the digital signals have to be converted back to analog signals at
the receiving terminal.
57
- The reference voltage source VR is considered to have zero internal
impedance.
- The resistor that are connected to the switches have value such as to
make the current flow proportion to the binary weight of the respective
input.
- But the resistor in the MSB position has the value R, the next has the
value 2R etc. The resistor of the LSB has the value of (2n-1) R.
- When all the bits of digital word have value of 1, then the output current

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of D/A converter is termed the full scale output current and is an

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important design parameter.

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- On the other hand, if all switches are open i.e. all ai coefficients are
zero, then the output voltage (current) is zero.

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- The maximum output voltage Vo = -RiI depends on the feedback resistor

ot
Rf. As, the operational amplifier is operated in the negative feedback Elements of DAS
mode for the purpose of summing so that it performs as an excellent - Analog multiplexer: permits a number of original sources to be

fn
current to voltage converter. automatically measure by the same data acquisition hardware.

pd
- It consists of a series of switches whose inputs are tied to the various
The Data Acquisition System analog signals and whole outputs are tied to a common measuring

w.
- This is electronic instrument, or group of interconnected electronic point.
ww
hardware items, dedicated to the measurement and quantization of
analog signals for digital analysis or processing.
- Each input is individually connected to the measuring point in a
predetermined sequence. The number of channels in a multiplexer may
- Once the parameter to be measure is translated into the analog- vary from two to several hundred.
electrical domain, the DAS performs the translation to the digital-
electrical domain. - Signal conditioning: Very often the signals presented to the inputs of
- In some cases the DAS simply records, or stores the digital data. While the data acquisition system are not in a form appropriate for conversion,
more sophisticated systems may be capable of analysis or further and so they must be preconditioned. The required signal conditioning
processing. could consist of linear amplification, logarithmic amplification, filtering,
- For instance, a DAS may be as simple as a digital voltmeter (DVM) peak detection, or sample-and-hold.
which displays its output as a decimal readout, or it may be complex - Often more than one of these functions is required. For instance, it is
enough to contain a large-scale computer as part of its hardware. not uncommon to combine amplification with filtering or to find a low-
level amplifier before a sample-and-hold.

58
 - Digital buffer: The ability to record discrete events is often a
requirement of a data acquisition system.
- Since these events are usually accompanied by the opening or closing
of a switch, they represent a digital input, out-of-tolerance conditions or
some other situations that might invalidate the data collection are most
often designated as “discrete events”.

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- Output buffer: The output buffer acts as the data collector for the DAS./

o.
In an ordered sequence, it gathers up such data as the multiplexer

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channel number, the signal conditioner gain, A/D converter data,
manual data, clock information, and discrete events.

es
- The buffer combines the data with the proper format for entry into the

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recording or processing system. It also provides the proper buffering
and control to interface with the recording or processing device.

fn
- If the processing device were a minicomputer, the output buffer might

pd
be called a “Peripheral controller”.
- Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Converter: The analog-to-digital converter

w.
actually translates the analog signal into an encoded digital format.
- Recording / processing device: A number of different equipment
ww
- Of the numerous ways to perform this function, only about half dozen
types can fill the role of the recording or processing device. Some of
techniques have found wide acceptance. Most notable are the dual-
the equipment types commonly used are paper tape punches,
slope integrating and the successive approximation converters.
teleprinters (TTY), magnetic tape units, line printers, cathode-ray tube
- A/D converters are often referred to by the number of output digits they
displays, floppy disks, general-purpose digital computers, and special-
produce. In a binary system, the range is from 4 to 16 bits, while in a
purpose digital processors.
binary-coded decimal system, 5 to 4 digits are normal.
- In recent years, all these components of the data acquisition system
- Digital clock: The digital clock provides the master timing for the data
have become more automated; a typical block diagram can be found
acquisition system.
with the exception of manual entry, which is accomplished directly the
- It may be as simple as a multiphased crystal controlled oscillator, or it
computer through the keyboard display.
may provide the user with a wide selection of multiplexer rates and
- Clock Information is supplied by the computer, and timing is generated
modes of operation. Some systems also contain both time-of-day and
in the input/output (I/O) controller.
day-of-year clocks.
- This system configuration has two distinct advantages: first, on-line
- Manual Data Entry: Many data acquisition systems provide users with
programmable processing is possible; and second, a host of storage
a way to tag the data they are accumulating, through some sort of
media is available. The rapid expansion of the data acquisition field is
manual data entry.
directly attributable to the advent of low-cost computer hardware, which
- They may wish to note such things as the type of data, special
makes systems like that of figure below a reality.
conditions surrounding the measurements, and / or the run number.
- Yet we should not overlook the dotted-line box in the lower right-hand
- Such information is generally provided in a “header” that precedes the
corner of the figure. Software can easily become a more costly burden
actual measurement data.
than the hardware.
59
 2. Signal analysis
3. Automated factory testing, and
4. Process control

Data Logging
- The data logger is a data acquisition system that measures the analog
inputs, translates the results into the digital domain, and stores the data
for future processing or analysis.

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- From the earliest days of recorded data, scientists have set up

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experiments with appropriate analog measuring devices at critical points

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in the operation.
- They have tabulated their data either by visual observation at set

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intervals or by recording it on another analog device, such as a pen

ot
recorder.
- In either case, they had to spend many hours analyzing the results.

fn
The data logger provides an automated method of making the

pd
measurements and recording the data.
- It can perform these functions at precise intervals and with a degree of

w.
accuracy beyond any person’s physical capability.
ww - Because the data is store in digital format, the data analysis is easily
performed by an off-line computer.
- Since many data loggers are highly portable, data-taking can be
automated even in very remote locations.

Alarm System
- In industrial plants and installations, control systems are used to monitor
and control processes.
- Control Systems, whether a conventional Control Desk or a
Computer/PLCs System with SCADA or a Distributed Control System
(DCS), provides a man-machine-interface to monitor and control the
plant equipment and processes.
- Alarm Systems are an integral part of man-machine interface. An alarm
system consists of both hardware and software including; field signal
sensors, transmitters, alarm generators & handlers, alarm processors,
- The latest trend in test instrumentation is to embed a micro processor in alarm displays, annunciator window panels, alarm recorders and
the heart of the equipment. This places tremendous programming printers.
power and flexibility in the hands of the user. - Alarm systems indicate the abnormal conditions and problems of the
- The data acquisition system potential uses are:- plant and equipment to the operators, enabling them to take corrective
1. Data logging action and bring the plant/equipment back to normal conditions.
60
- Alarm systems give signals to the operators in the form of audible o Real Time Alarms are the alarms that show the current alarms in
sound, visual indications in different colors and/or continuous blinking, the system.
text messages, etc. o Historical alarms are simply the logging of real time alarms. This
- An alarm system brings the following to the notice of the operator: will give a historical of the alarms that will allow system engineers
 problems that need operator attention to prevent alarms.
 process changes that require corrective action - Only four alarm priorities should be implemented. These are:
 unsafe operating conditions before Emergency Shut-down of o High priority: Alarms that warn of dangerous conditions that
could cause a shutdown of a major activity.

ke
the plant
 hazardous conditions o Medium priority: Alarms that should be acted on as quickly as

o.
 deviations from desired/normal conditions possible; but will not cause a shutdown.
o Low priority: Alarms that should be dealt with when time permits.

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o Event only: Statistical or technical information. No enunciator

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sounds for these.

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- The limiting of the number of types of alarms is to keep the system
straightforward and with easy interpretation of the alarms.

fn
- Higher priority alarms should be louder; lower pitched and have a higher

pd
pulse frequency than the lower priority alarms.
Alarms are classified as unacknowledged (and flashing on the screen)

w.
-
until the operator acknowledges them via the keyboard. They then
ww -
become an accepted alarm.
One weakness in many alarm systems is the occurrence of trivial
alarms, which irritate and confuse the operator.

Human Machine interface (HMI)

- Human–Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus or device which
presents processed data to a human operator, and through this, the
human operator monitors and controls the process.
- The HMI of a digital control system is where data is processed and
presented to be viewed and monitored by a human operator.
- This interface usually includes control where the individual can interface
with the control system
- Another approach as opposed to the pure screen listing of alarms is to - It uses the project screens created during project development and
have an associated enunciator panel (situated next to the operator animates them based on real-time data received from field control units
display) with illuminated pushbuttons. and field data servers.
- Each pushbutton would indicate the area from which the alarms - Authorized operators can monitor detailed activities for many types of
originate and also when depressed would cause the appropriate devices and send commands using standard faceplate command
schematic to appear on the operator display. windows and group displays.
- There exist two types of alarms: - Typical hardware that is provided is:

61
 o One or more operator displays (which may be of the touch - The tertiary level, which gives more details on certain secondary level,
type) displays.
o Industrial (or Mylar) type keyboards which have audible or - The various graphic screens that are available are:
tactile feedback o Free form graphic screens: This is where the screen format can
o Operator panels consisting of highlighted keys to bring up be created by the users, using whatever layout and symbols they
predefined graphic displays can create. These are best constructed by the operators (with
o Printers (one for alarms and one for reports) assistance from the engineer). They offer the designer complete
o Alarm buzzers (or external sirens) flexibility in the layout of the information.

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- A useful addition although possibly expensive option is a video copier o Operating group displays: Here a standard set of symbols is

o.
for reproducing the operator screens in color. used to create displays as required. These provide the data in a

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standard presentation format.
o Trend displays: These displays occupy part or the entire screen

es
depending on the configuration. They provide trends on the data

ot
of analog values.
o Alarm displays: These log the current alarms for the system.

fn
- It has been shown that operators consult and use overview type

pd
schematics at least ten times more often than secondary and tertiary
schematics.

w.
- It is thus imperative that as much effort as possible goes into the correct
ww -
design of such displays.
The operators should be consulted as much as possible in the design of
- Displays should appear within one second of the operator pressing the these screens to make them as useful as possible.
appropriate display key(s) - Overview displays have to cover a large amount of the system and it is
thus important to eliminate any part of the display, which does not
Operator displays and graphics convey information to the operator.
- The organization of displays should be done in a clear and logical way - This would mean that equipment outlines and flow lines are not put into
to allow the operator to quickly and effectively identify the information of overview schematics.
interest. - Secondary and tertiary displays are consulted less and probably require
- The architecture of displays is to have a progressive decrease in scope more information than that of the live updates.
of the displays and a progressive increase in detail as the operator - Outlines of equipment and text messages should be de-emphasized by
looks for some specific information (and is proceeding down the using low intensity colors.
hierarchy of displays). - An icon should be designed to indicate clearly the area associated with
- Displays should be organized into three layers: a given schematic or operation.
- The primary level which is an overview level and which should be - This allows the operator to quickly work out which area the current
reached directly from the function keys on the keypad. display is referring to.
- The secondary level, which consists of a number of displays,
associated with that of the primary level. These should be able to be
accessed directly from the primary level displays. Topic 5: Fundamentals of Robots

62
- The word robot first appeared in print in the 1920 play R.U.R. General Characteristics
(Rossum’s Universal Robots) by Karel Capek, a Czechoslovakian - Specialized machine tools with a degree of flexibility that distinguishes
playwright. "Robot" in Czech comes from the word "robota", meaning them from fixed-purpose automation.
"compulsory labor“. - ability to move mechanical arm to perform work.
- Typical of early science fiction, the robots take over and exterminate the - It is essentially a mechanical arm that is bolted to the floor, a machine,
human race. the ceiling, or, in some cases the wall fitted with its mechanical hand,
- Robot is defined as an electromechanical device with multiple degrees- and taught to do repetitive task in a controlled, ordered environment.
of-freedom (DOF) that is programmable to accomplish a variety of - robot interface with their work environment once a mechanical hand has

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tasks. been attached to the robot’s toolmounting plate.

o.
- The Robotics Industries Association (RIA) defines robot in the following - A general-purpose, programmable machine possessing certain
way: ‘An industrial robot is a programmable, multi-functional

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anthropomorphic characteristics
manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools, or special devices  Hazardous work environments

es
through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety  Repetitive work cycle

ot
of tasks’.  Consistency and accuracy
- An industrial robot consists of a number of rigid links connected by  Difficult handling task for humans

fn
joints of different types, controlled and monitored by a computer.  Multishift operations

pd
- Robot technology is an applied science that is referred to as a  Reprogrammable, flexible
combination of machine tools and computer applications. This includes  Interfaced to other computer systems

w.
such diverse fields as machine design, control theory, microelectronics,
ww
computer programming, artificial intelligence, human factors, and
production theory.
Basic Components
- The basic components of an industrial robot are:
- Robotics is the science of robots while humans working in this area are o Manipulator
called roboticists. o End effector (which is the part of the manipulator).
- Isaac Asimov coined and popularized the term robotics through many o Power supply
science-fiction novels and short stories. o Controller.
- Asimov's most important contribution to the history of the robot is the o Means for programming.
creation of his “Three Laws of Robotics”. - The manipulator, which is the robot’s arm, consists of segments
1. A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a jointed together with axes capable of motion in various directions
human being to come to harm. allowing the robot to perform work.
2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except - The end effector which is a gripper tool, a special device, or fixture
where such orders would conflict with the First Law. attached to the robot’s arm, actually performs the work.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection - Power supply provides and regulates the energy that is converted to
does not conflict with the First or Second Law. motion by the robot actuator, and it may be electric, pneumatic, or
- Asimov later adds a "zeroth law" to the list: hydraulic.
- Zeroth law: A robot may not injure humanity, or, through inaction, - The controller initiates, terminates, and coordinates the motion of
allow humanity to come to harm. sequences of a robot. Also it accepts the necessary inputs to the robot
and provides the outputs to interface with the outside world.
- The means for programming is used to record movements into the
robot’s memory. A robot may be programmed using any of several
63
different methods. The teach pendant, also called a teach box or hand-
held programmer, teaches a robot the movements required to perform a
useful task. The operator uses a teach pendant to move the robot Robotics Terminology
through the series of points that describe its desired path. The points 1. DOF degrees-of-freedom: the number of independent motions a
are recorded by the controller for later use. device can make. (Also called mobility)

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o.
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es
ot
fn
pd
w.
2. Position: The translational (straight-line) location of something.
ww 3. Orientation: The rotational (angle) location of something. A robot’s
orientation is measured by roll, pitch, and yaw angles.
4. Link: A rigid piece of material connecting joints in a robot.
5. Joint: The device which allows relative motion between two links in a
robot.
6. Workspace/Work envelop: The volume in space that a robot’s end-
effector can reach, both in position and orientation.
7. Payload: the ability to carry, continuously and satisfactorily, a given
maximum weight at a given speed.
8. Velocity/speed: the maximum speed at which the tip of a robot is
capable of moving at full extension, expressed in inches or millimeters
per second. The speed is usually specified at a specific load or
assuming that the robot is carrying a fixed weight. Actual speed may
vary depending upon the weight carried by the robot.
9. Cycle: time it takes for the robot to complete one cycle of picking up a
given object at a given height, moving it to a given distance, lowering it,
releasing it, and returning to the starting point.
10. Accuracy: a robot’s ability to position the end effector at a specified
point in space upon receiving a control command without previously
having attained that position.
64
11. Repeatability: the ability of a robot to return consistently to a previously signals and translated by the controller into the more elementary
defined and achieved location. instructions that Level II can understand.
12. Resolution: the smallest incremental change in position that it make or
its control system can measure.
13. Size: the physical size of a robot, which influences its capacity and its
capabilities.

Controller

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- The controller is the part of a robot that coordinates all movements of

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the mechanical system.

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- It also receives input from the immediate environment through various
sensors.

es
- The heart of the robot’s controller is generally a microprocessor linked

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to input/output and monitoring devices.
- The commands issued by the controller activate the motion control

fn
mechanism, consisting of various controllers, amplifiers, and actuators.

pd
- An actuator is a motor or valve that converts power into robot
movement.

w.
- This movement is initiated by a series of instructions, called a program,
stored in the controller’s memory.
ww
- The controller has three levels of hierarchical control. Hierarchical
control assigns levels of organization to the controllers within a robotic
system.
- Each level sends control signals to the level below and feedback signals
to the level above. The levels become more elemental as they progress
toward the actuator. Each level is dependent on the level above it for
instructions. Manipulator
- The three levels are: - The manipulator consists of segments that may be jointed and that
o Level I—Actuator Control. The most elementary level at which move about, allowing the robot to do work.
separate movements of the robot along various planes, such as - The manipulator is the arm of the robot which must move materials,
the X, Y, and Z axes are controlled. parts, tools, or special devices through various motions to provide
o Level II—Path Control. The path control (intermediate) level useful work.
coordinates the separate movements along the planes - A manipulator can be identified by method of control, power source,
determined in Level I into the desired trajectory or path. actuation of the joints, and other factors. These factors help identify the
o Level III—Main Control. The primary function of this highest best type of robot for the task at hand.
control level is to interpret the written instructions from the - For example, you would not use an electric robot in an environment
human programmer regarding the tasks required. The where combustible fumes exist and a spark could cause an explosion.
instructions are then combined with various environmental - The manipulator is made up of a series of segments and joints much
like those found in the human arm.
65
- Joints connect two segments together and allow them to move relative
to one another. The joints provide either linear (straight line) or rotary
(circular) movement.
- The muscles of the human body supply the driving force that moves the
various body joints. Similarly, a robot uses actuators to move its arm
along programmed paths and then to hold its joints rigid once the - A robot movement can be divided into two general categories: arm and
correct position is reached. body (shoulder and elbow) motions and wrist motions.
- Manipulation is carried out using mechanical devices such as linkages, - The individual joint motions associated with these categories are

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gears, actuators, and feedback devices. There are two basic types of referred to as degree of freedom. Each axis is equal to one degree of

o.
motion provided by actuators: linear and rotary. freedom. typically an industrial robots are equipped with 4-6 degrees of

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- Linear actuators provide motion along a straight line; they extend or freedom
retract their attached loads. - The wrist can reach a point in space with specific orientation by any of

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- Rotary actuators provide rotation, moving their loads in an arc or circle. three motions: a pitch, or up-and-down-motion; a yaw, or side-to-side

ot
Rotary motion can be converted into linear motion using a lead screw or motion; and a roll, or rotating motion. The joint labeled pitch, yaw, and
other mechanical means of conversion. roll are called orientation axes.

fn
- These types of actuators are also used outside the robot to move - The points that manipulator bends, slides, or rotates are called joints or

pd
workpieces and provide other kinds of motion within the work envelope. position axes. Position axes are called as world coordinates, is
identified as being fixed location within the manipulator that serves as

w.
absolute frame of reference.
ww o The x-axis travel moves the manipulator in an in-and-out
motion.
o The y-axis motion causes the manipulator to move side-to-side.
o The z axis motion causes the manipulator to move in and up
and-down motion.
- The mechanical design of a robot manipulator relates directly to its work
envelope and motion characteristics.
- A tachometer is a device used to measure the speed of an object. In the
case of robotic systems, a tachometer is used to monitor acceleration
and deceleration of the manipulator’s movements

End Effector
- The end effector is the robot’s hand, or the end-of-arm tooling on the
robot.
- It is a device attached to the wrist of the manipulator for the purpose of
grasping, lifting, transporting, maneuvering, or performing operations on
a workpiece.
- The end effector is one of the most important components of a robot
system. The robot’s performance is a direct result of how well the end
effector meets the task requirements.
66
- The area within reach of the robot’s end effector is called its work - For each degree of freedom, a joint is required. A robot requires six
envelope. degrees of freedom to be completely versatile.
- Its movements are clumsier than those of a human hand, which has 22
Power Supply degrees of freedom.
- The power supply provides the energy to drive the controller and - The number of degrees of freedom defines the robot’s configuration.
actuators. It may convert ac voltage to the dc voltage required by the For example, many simple applications require movement along three
robot’s internal circuits, or it may be a pump or compressor providing axes: X, Y, and Z.
hydraulic or pneumatic power.

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- The three basic types of power supplies are electrical, hydraulic, and

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pneumatic. The most common energy source available, where industrial

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robots are used, is electricity. The second most common is compressed
air, and the least common is hydraulic power.

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- These primary sources of energy must be converted into the form and

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amount required by the type of robot being used.
- The electronic part of the control unit, and any electric drive actuator,

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requires electrical power.

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- A robot containing hydraulic actuators requires the conversion of
electrical power into hydraulic energy through the use of an electric,

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motor-driven, hydraulic pump.
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- A robot with pneumatic actuators requires compressed air, which is
usually supplied by a compressor driven by an electric motor. - These tasks require three joints, or three degrees of freedom.
- The three degrees of freedom in the robot arm are the rotational
traverse, the radial traverse, and the vertical traverse.
Degrees of Freedom o The rotational traverse (x-axis travel) is movement on a
- Although robots have a certain amount of dexterity, it does not compare vertical axis. This is the side-to-side swivel of the robot’s arm on
to human dexterity. its base.
- The movements of the human hand are controlled by 35 muscles. o The radial traverse (y-axis motion)is the extension and
Fifteen of these muscles are located in the forearm. The arrangement of retraction of the arm, creating in-and-out motion relative to the
muscles in the hand provides great strength to the fingers and thumb for base.
grasping objects. o The vertical traverse (z-axis motion) provides up-and-down
- Each finger can act alone or together with the thumb. This enables the motion.
hand to do many intricate and delicate tasks. In addition, the human - For applications that require more freedom, additional degrees can be
hand has 27 bones. obtained from the wrist, which gives the end effector its flexibility.
- Figure below shows the bones found in the hand and wrist. This bone, - The three degrees of freedom in the wrist have aeronautical names:
joint, and muscle arrangement gives the hand its dexterity. pitch, yaw, and roll.
- Degrees of freedom (DOF) is a term used to describe a robot’s o The pitch, or bend, is the up-and-down movement of the wrist.
freedom of motion in three dimensional space—specifically, the ability o The yaw is the side-to-side movement.
to move forward and backward, up and down, and to the left and to the o The roll, or swivel, involves rotation.
right.
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 - Three common methods of classifying robots are by the types of
control system used, the type of actuator drive used, and the shape
of the work envelope.

Type of Control System

- Robots may use one of two control systems—non-servo and servo.
- The earliest type of robot was non-servo, which is considered a non-
intelligent robot.

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- The second classification is the servo robot. These robots are classified

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as either intelligent or highly intelligent. The primary difference between

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an intelligent and highly intelligent robot is the level of awareness of its
environment.

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Non-Servo Robots
- Non-servo robots are the simplest robots and are often referred to as

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“limited sequence,” “pick-and-place,” or “fixed-stop robots.”

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- The non-servo robot is an open-loop system. In an open-loop system,
no feedback mechanism is used to compare programmed positions to

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actual positions.
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washing machine
- Non-servo robots are also limited in their movement and these
limitations are usually in the form of a mechanical stop. This form of
robot is excellent in repetitive tasks, such as material transfer.
- One may question if the non-servo robots qualify as a robot based on
the definition provided by the Robot Institute of America.
- A robot requires a total of six degrees of freedom to locate and orient its - However, if these robots are equipped with a programmable logic
hand at any point in its work envelope. controller (PLC) they easily meet the requirement of a reprogrammable
- Although six degrees of freedom are required for maximum flexibility, device, thus allowing them to be classified as a robot.
most applications require only three to five. - The diagram in Figure below represents a pneumatic (air-controlled),
- When more degrees of freedom are required, the robot’s motions and non-servo robot.
controller design become more complex.
- Some industrial robots have seven or eight degrees of freedom. These
additional degrees are achieved by mounting the robot on a track or
moving base. This addition also increases the robot’s reach

Classifying Robots
- Robots can be classified in various ways, depending on their
components, configuration, and use.
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 - A servo amplifier translates signals from the controller into motor
voltage and current signals. Servo amplifiers are used in motion control
systems where precise control of position or velocity is necessary.
- In a sense, a servomechanism is a type of control system that detects
and corrects for errors.
- Figure below shows a block diagram of a servo robot system.

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 At the beginning of the cycle, the controller sends a signal to the

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control valve of the manipulator.

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 As the valve opens, air passes into the air cylinder, causing the rod

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in the cylinder to move. As long as the valve remains open, this rod
continues to move until it is restrained by the end stop.

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 After the rod reaches the limit of its travel, a limit switch tells the

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controller to close the control valve.
 The controller sends the control valve a signal to close.
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 The controller then moves to the next step in the program and
initiates the necessary signals. If the signals go to the robot’s end
effector, for example, they might cause the gripper to close in order
to grasp an object.
- The process is repeated until all the steps in the program have been
completed.
- Characteristics of non-servo robots:
• Relatively inexpensive compared to servo robots.
• Simple to understand and operate.
• Precise and reliable.
• Simple to maintain. - The diagram in figure above details one of the axes used in a hydraulic
• Capable of fairly high speeds of operation. robot and helps to explain its operation.
• Small in size. o When the cycle begins, the controller searches the robot’s
• Limited to relatively simple programs. programming for the desired locations along each axis.
o Using the feedback signals, the controller determines the actual
Servo Robots locations on the various axes of the manipulator.
- The servo robot is a closed-loop system because it allows for feedback. o The desired locations and actual locations are compared.
In a closed-loop system, the feedback signal sent to the servo amplifier
affects the output of the system.

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 o When these locations do not match, an error signal is generated - Many newer robots use servo motors rather than hydraulic or pneumatic
and fed back to the servo amplifier. The greater the error, the ones.
higher the intensity of the signal. - Small and medium-size robots commonly use dc servo motors.
o These error signals are increased by the servo amplifier and Because of their high torque capabilities, ac servo motors are found in
applied to the control valve on the appropriate axis. heavy-duty robots.
o The valve opens in proportion to the intensity of the signal - A stepper motor is an incrementally controlled dc motor. Stepper motors
received. The opened valve admits fluid to the proper actuator to are rarely used in commercial industrial robots, but are commonly found
move the various segments of the manipulator. in educational robots.

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o New signals are generated as the manipulator moves. - Conventional, electric-drive motors are quiet, simple, and can be used

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o The servo control valves close when there are no more error in clean-air environments. Robots that use electric actuator drives

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signals, shutting off the flow of fluid. require less floor space, and their energy source is readily available.
o The manipulator comes to rest at the desired position. - The rotary motion of most electric actuator drives must be geared down

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o The controller then addresses the next instruction in the (reduced) to provide the speed or torque required by the manipulator.

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program, which may be to move to another location or operate - However, the conventionally geared drive causes problems of backlash,
some peripheral equipment. friction, compliance, and wear. These problems cause inaccuracy, poor

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- The process is repeated until all steps of the program are completed. dynamic response, need for regular maintenance, poor torque control

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- Characteristics of servo robots are : capability, and limited maximum speed on longer moves.
- Relatively expensive to purchase, operate, and maintain. Loads that are heavy enough to stall (stop) the motor can cause

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- Use a sophisticated, closed-loop controller. damage. Conventional electric-drive motors also have poor output
- Wide range of capabilities.
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- Can transfer objects from one point to another, as well as along
power compared to their weight. This means that a larger, heavier
motor must be mounted on the robot arm when a large amount of
a controlled, continuous path. torque is needed.
- Respond to very sophisticated programming. - However, manufacturers are beginning to offer robots that use direct-
- Use a manipulator arm that can be programmed to avoid drive motors, which eliminate some of these problems. These high-
obstructions within the work envelope. torque motors drive the arm directly, without the need for reducer gears.
- Using direct-drive motors in robots results in a more streamlined design.
Type of Actuator Drive Maintenance requirements are also reduced.
- One common method of classifying robots is the type of drive required - Robots that use direct-drive motors operate at higher speeds, with
by the actuators. greater flexibility, and greater accuracy than those that use conventional
• Electrical actuators use electric power. electric-drive motors.
• Pneumatic actuators use pneumatic (air) power. - Applications currently being performed by robots with direct-drive
• Hydraulic actuators, use hydraulic (fluid) power. motors are mechanical assembly, electronic assembly, and material
handling.
Electric Drive - These robots will increasingly meet the demands of advanced, high-
- Three types of motors are commonly used for electric actuator drives: speed, precision applications.
ac servo motors, dc servo motors, and stepper motors.
- Both ac and dc servo motors have built-in methods for controlling exact Hydraulic Drive
position.

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- Many earlier robots were driven by hydraulic actuator drives. A - It is also difficult to keep the air as clean and dry as the control system
hydraulic drive system uses fluid and consists of a pump connected to a requires.
reservoir tank, control valves, and a hydraulic actuator. - Robots that use pneumatic actuator drives are noisy and vibrate as the
- Hydraulic drive systems provide both linear and rotary motion using a air cylinders and motors stop.
much simpler arrangement than conventional electric-drive systems.
- The storage tank supplies a large amount of instant power, which is not Shape of the Work Envelope
available from electric-drive systems. - Robots come in many sizes and shapes. The type of coordinate system
- Hydraulic actuator drives have several advantages. used by the manipulator also varies.

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o They provide precise motion control over a wide range of - The type of coordinate system, the arrangement of joints, and the length

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speeds. of the manipulator’s segments all help determine the shape of the work
o They can handle heavy loads on the end of the manipulator arm,

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envelope.
can be used around highly explosive materials, - The joints of a robot are designed to enable the robot to move its end-

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o and are not easily damaged when quickly stopped while carrying effector along a path from one position to another as desired.

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a heavy load. - To identify the maximum work area, a point on the robot’s wrist is used,
- However, they are expensive to purchase and maintain and are not rather than the tip of the gripper or the end of the tool bit.

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energy efficient. - Therefore, the work envelope is slightly larger when the tip of the tool is

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- Hydraulic actuator drivers are also noisier than electric-drive actuators considered.
and are not recommended for clean-room environments due to the

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possibility of hydraulic fluid leaks. Robotic Joints

Pneumatic Drive
ww - A robot joint is a mechanism that permits relative movement between
parts of a robot arm.
- Pneumatic drive systems make use of air-driven actuators. Since air is - The basic movements required for a desired motion of most industrial
also a fluid, many of the same principles that apply to hydraulic systems robots are:
are applicable to pneumatic systems. o Rotational movement: This enables the robot to place its arm
- Pneumatic and hydraulic motors and cylinders are very similar. Since in any direction on a horizontal plane.
most industrial plants have a compressed air system running throughout o Radial movement: This enables the robot to move its end-
assembly areas, air is an economical and readily available energy effector radially to reach distant points.
source. o Vertical movement: This enables the robot to take its end-
- This makes the installation of robots that use pneumatic actuator drives effector to different heights.
easier and less costly than that of hydraulic robots. - These degrees of freedom, independently or in combination with others,
- For lightweight pick-and-place applications that require both speed and define the complete motion of the end-effector.
accuracy, a pneumatic robot is potentially a good choice. - These motions are accomplished by movements of individual joints of
- Pneumatic actuator drives work at high speeds and are most useful for the robot arm. The joint movements are basically the same as relative
small-to-medium loads. motion of adjoining links.
- They are economical to operate and maintain and can be used in - Depending on the nature of this relative motion, the joints are classified
explosive atmospheres. as prismatic or revolute.
- However, since air is compressible, precise placement and positioning o Prismatic joints: In a prismatic joint, also known as a sliding
require additional components to achieve the smooth control possible or linear joint (L), the links are generally parallel to one. They
with a hydraulic system. permit links to move in a linear relationship. They are called
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 prismatic because the cross section of the joint is considered as - A robot which is constructed around this configuration consists of three
a generalized prism. The variation are orthogonal slides; the three slides are parallel to the x, y, and z axes of
 Linear joint (L) the Cartesian coordinate system i.e. with 3 prismatic joints (linear joints
 Orthogonal joint (O) (L).

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o Revolute joints permit only angular motion between links. Their

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variations include:
 Rotational joint (R)

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 Twisting joint (T)

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 Revolving joint (V)

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- By appropriate movements of these slides, the robot is capable of

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moving its arm at any point within its three dimensional rectangularly

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spaced work space. Gantry robots are Cartesian robots (LLL).
These robots are commonly used for:

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-
- Rotational joint (R) is identified by its motion, rotation about an axis • pick and place work
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perpendicular to the adjoining links. Here, the lengths of adjoining links
do not change but the relative position of the links with respect to one
• assembly operations
• handling machine tools
another changes as the rotation takes place. • arc welding
- Twisting joint (T) is also a rotational joint, where the rotation takes
place about an axis that is parallel to both adjoining links. Advantages:
- Revolving joint (V) is another rotational joint, where the rotation takes • Ability to do straight line insertions into furnaces.
place about an axis that is parallel to one of the adjoining links. Usually, • Easy computation and programming.
the links are aligned perpendicular to one another at this kind of joint. • Most rigid structure for given length.
The rotation involves revolution of one link about another.
Disadvantages:
Physical Configuration • Requires large operating volume.
- Four basic configurations are identified with most of the commercially • Exposed guiding surfaces require covering in corrosive or dusty
available industrial robots environments.
1. Cartesian configuration • can only reach front of itself
2. Cylindrical configuration • axes hard to seal
3. Polar configuration
4. Joint-arm configuration 2. Cylindrical Configuration
- In this configuration, the robot body is a vertical column that swivels
1. Cartesian Configuration about a vertical axis.

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- The arm consists of several orthogonal slides which allow the arm to be - This configuration also goes by the name “spherical coordinate”
moved up or down and in and out with respect to the body. because the workspace within which it can move its arm is a partial
- Robots with cylindrical configuration have one rotary (R) joint at the sphere.
base and linear (L) joints succeeded to connect the links i.e. 2 prismatic - Thus, the polar robots have a work space of spherical shape and the
joints and one rotary joint. arm is connected to the base with a twisting (T) joint and rotatory (R)
and linear (L) joints follow.
- Robot with 1 prismatic joint and 2 rotary joints – the axes consistent with
a polar coordinate system.

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- These robots are commonly used for:
• handling at die-casting machines

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• assembly operations
• handling machine tools
• spot welding
ww - The designation of the arm for this configuration can be TRL or TRR.
Robots with the designation TRL are also called spherical robots. This
robots are commonly used for:
Advantages: • handling at die casting or fettling machines
• can reach all around itself • handling machine tools
• rotational axis easy to seal • arc/spot welding
• relatively easy programming Advantages:
• rigid enough to handle heavy loads through large working space • Large working envelope.
• good access into cavities and machine openings • Two rotary drives are easily sealed against liquids/dust.
Disadvantages:
• Complex coordinates more difficult to visualize, control, and
Disadvantages: program.
• can't reach above itself • Exposed linear drive.
• linear axes is hard to seal • low accuracy.
• won’t reach around obstacles Articulated robots
• exposed drives are difficult to cover from dust and liquids - Those with the designation TRR are also called articulated robots. An
articulated robot more closely resembles the human arm. These robots
3. Polar configuration: have at least 3 rotary joints.

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 - They are commonly used for:
• pick and place work
• assembly operations

Advantages:
• high speed.
- They are commonly used for: • height axis is rigid
• assembly operations • large work area for floor space

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• welding • moderately easy to program.

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• weld sealing
• spray painting

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Disadvantages:
• handling at die casting or fettling machines • limited applications.

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• 2 ways to reach point

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Advantages: • difficult to program off-line
• all rotary joints allows for maximum flexibility • highly complex arm

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• any point in total volume can be reached.

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• all joints can be sealed from the environment.

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Disadvantages:
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• Extremely difficult to visualize, control, and program.
• Restricted volume coverage.
• low accuracy

4. Jointed-arm configuration
- This is combination of cylindrical and
articulated configurations. This is similar in
appearance to the human arm.
- The arm consists of several straight members
connected by joints which are analogous to
the human shoulder, elbow, and wrist.
- The robot arm is mounted to a base which
can be rotated to provide the robot with the
capacity to work within a quasi-spherical
space.
5. SCARA (Selective Compliance Articulated Robot Arm) Robots
- This is similar to jointed-arm robot except that vertical axes are used for
shoulder and elbow joints to be compliant in horizontal direction for
vertical insertion tasks.
- The robot has at least 2 parallel rotary joints.
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 - This is capable of moving from one point to another point. The locations
are recorded in the control memory.
- PTP robots do not control the path to get from one point to the next
point.
- Common applications include component insertion, spot welding, hole
drilling, machine loading and unloading, and crude assembly
operations.

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2. Continuous-path (CP) control robot

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- The CP robot is capable of performing movements along the controlled

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path. With CP from one control, the robot can stop at any specified point
along the controlled path.

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- All the points along the path must be stored explicitly in the robot's

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control memory.
- Applications Straight-line motion is the simplest example for this type of

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a) LRL robot, b) RRL robot, c) TRL robot, d) LVL robot robot. Some continuous-path controlled robots also have the capability

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to follow a smooth curve path that has been defined by the programmer.
Question - In such cases the programmer manually moves the robot arm through

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Sketch following manipulator configurations the desired path and the controller unit stores a large number of
(a) TRT:R, (b) TVR:TR, (c) RR:T.
ww individual point locations along the path in memory (teach-in).
- Typical applications include spray painting, finishing, gluing, and arc
Solution: welding operations.

R 3. Controlled-path robot
R - In controlled-path robots, the control equipment can generate paths of
T T R R T different geometry such as straight lines, circles, and interpolated
R curves with a high degree of accuracy.
R V - Good accuracy can be obtained at any point along the specified path.
- All controlled-path robots have a servo capability to correct their path.
- Only the start and finish points and the path definition function must be
T stored in the robot's control memory.
T - It is important to mention that all controlled-path robots have a servo
capability to correct their path.
(a) TRT:R (b) TVR:TR (c) RR:T
4. Intelligent control robot
- This exhibits behavior that makes it seem intelligent, e.g., responds to
Motion System (Robot Control Systems) sensor inputs, makes decisions, communicates with humans
1. Point-to-point (PTP) control robot

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5. Classified on the Basis of Architecture

Harvard Architecture
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- Microcontrollers based on the Harvard Architecture have separate data
bus and an instruction bus. This allows execution to occur in parallel.
- As an instruction is being “pre-fetched”, the current instruction is
executing on the data bus. Once the current instruction is complete, the
next instruction is ready to go.
- This pre-fetch theoretically allows for much faster execution than Von-
Neuman architecture, on the expense of complexity.
- The Harvard Architecture executes instructions in fewer instruction

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cycles than the Von-Neuman architecture.

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- For example, the Intel MCS-51 family of microcontrollers and PIC

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microcontrollers uses Harvard Architecture.
- The same instruction (as shown under Von-Newman architecture)

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would be

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executed as follows:
Cycle 1: - Complete previous instructio

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- Read the “Move Data to Accumulator” instruction

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Cycle 2: - Execute “Move Data to Accumulator” instruction
- Read next instruction

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Hence each instruction is effectively executed in one instruction cycle.
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