Chapter 2

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o B S 5 2 6 8 :

P a r t 2 : 1 9 9 6

2.1 Introduction

Strength capability of timber is difficult to assess as we have no control over

its quality and growth. The strength of timber is a function of several param-
eters including the moisture content, density, duration of the applied load,
size of members and presence of various strength-reducing characteristics
such as slope of grain, knots, fissures and wane. To overcome this difficulty,
the stress grading method of strength classification has been devised1.
Guidance on the use of timber in building and civil engineering structures
is given in BS 5268: Structural use of timber. This was originally divided into
seven parts:

Part 1: Limit state design, materials and workmanship.

Part 2: Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and
workmanship.
Part 3: Code of practice for trussed rafter roofs.
Part 4: Fire resistance of timber structures.
Part 5: Preservation treatments for constructional timber.
Part 6: Code of practice for timber framed walls.
Part 7: Recommendations for the calculation basis for span tables.

Part 1 of BS 5268 was never completed and, with the introduction of

Eurocode 5: D D ENV 1995-1-1: Design of timber structures, the develop-
ment of this part was completely abandoned.
Part 2 of BS 5268, on which the design of structural timber is based, was
originally published as CP 112 in 1952 and revised later in 1967 and, with
extensive amendment, in 1971. The 'basic stresses' introduced in CP 112
were determined from carrying out short-term loading tests on small timber
specimens free from all defects. The data was used to estimate the minimum
strength which was taken as the value below which not more than 1 % of
the test results fell. These strengths were multiplied by a reduction factor
to give basic stresses. The reduction factor made an allowance for the
 reduction in strength due to duration for loading, size of specimen and other
effects normally associated with a safety factor, such as accidental overload-
ing, simplifying assumptions made during design and design inaccuracy,
together with poor workmanship. Basic stress was defined as the stress that
could be permanently sustained by timber free from any strength-reducing
characteristics1.
Since 1967 there have been continuing and significant changes affecting
the structural use of timber. Research studies in the UK and other countries
had shown the need for a review of the stress values and modification factors
given in the original code.
With the introduction of BS 5268 in 1984 the concept of'basic stresses' was
largely abandoned and the new approach for assessing the strength of timber
moved somewhat in line with iimit states' design philosophy. In 1996, Part 2
of BS 5268 was revised with a clear aim to bring this code as close as possible
to, and to run in parallel with, Eurocode 5: DD ENV 1995-1-1: Design of
timber structures, Part 1.1 General rules and rules for buildings. The overall
aim has been to incorporate material specifications and design approaches
from Eurocode 5, while maintaining a permissible stress code with which
designers, accustomed to BS 5268, will feel familiar and be able to use with-
out difficulty. The first step in this process involves strength grading of timber
sections. There are two European standards which relate to strength grading:

BSEN 518:1995 Structural timber. Grading. Requirements for visual

strength grading standards.
BS EN 519:1995 Structural timber. Grading. Requirements for machine
strength graded timber and grading machines.

Guidance for stress grading of the two types of timber, namely softwoods
and hardwoods, are given in the following British Standards:

BS 4978:1996 Specification for softwoods graded for structural use.

BS 5756:1997 Specification for tropical hardwoods graded for structural use.

The current revised versions of these standards conform with the

requirements of BS EN 518:1995.

2.2 Design philosophy

The structural design of timber members is related to Part 2 of BS 5268, and

is based on permissible stress design philosophy in which design stresses are
derived on a statistical basis and deformations are also limited.
Elastic theory is used to analyse structures under various loading con-
ditions to give the worst design case. Then timber sections are chosen so that
the permissible stresses are not exceeded at any point of the structure.
 Permissible stresses are calculated by multiplying the 'grade stresses', given
in Tables 7 to 12a of BS 5268: Part 2, by the appropriate modification factors,
K-factors, to allow for the effects of parameters such as load duration,
moisture content, load sharing, section size, etc. Applied stresses which
are derived from the service loads should be less than or equal to the
permissible stresses. A summary of the K-factors used for the calculation
of permissible stresses is given in Table 2.1. Owing to changes made to
BS5268.Part 2 in 1996, some ./^-factors which were used in the previous
editions, such as Ku A^0, etc., have been withdrawn.
The permissible stress design philosophy, as in BS 5268: Part 2, is different
from the limit states design philosophy of Eurocode 5 which has two basic
requirements. The first is ultimate limit states (i.e. safety) which is usually

Table 2.1 Summary of ^-factors used for calculation of permissible stresses

^-factor Description or application BS 5268: Part 2:1996

K2 Timber grade stresses and moduli for service class 3 Table 13

K3 Duration of loading Table 14
A4 Bearing stress Table 15
K5 Shear at notched ends Clause 2.10.4
K6 Form factor: bending stress for non-rectangular sections Clause 2.10.5
K1 Depth factor: bending stress for beams other than Clause 2.10.6
300 mm deep
Kg Load sharing systems Clause 2.9
K9 To modify Emin for deflection in trimmer beams and lintels Table 17
KI2 Slenderness in compression members Table 19/Annex B
Ki3 Effective length of spaced columns Table 20
Ai 4 Width factor for tension members Clause 2.12.2
Ai5_2o Single grade glued laminated members and horizontally Table 21
laminated beams
A27-29 Vertically glued laminated members Table 22
A30-32 Individually designed glued end joints in horizontally Table 23
glued laminated members
^33-34 Curved glued laminated beams Clause 3.5.3
#35 Stress factor in pitched cambered softwood beams Clause 3.5.4.2
K36 Plywood grade stresses for duration of loading and Table 33
service classes
K31 Stress concentration factor for ply-webbed beams Clause 4.6
^38-41 For tempered hardboards Section 5
Kser Fastener slip moduli Table 52
^43-50 Nailed joints Clause 6.4
^52-54 Screwed joints Clause 6.5
^56, 57 Bolted and dowelled joints Clause 6.6
^s,c,58-6i Toothed-plate connector joints Clause 6.7
#S,C,D,62-65 Split-ring connector joints Clause 6.8
^S,C,D,66-69 Shear-plate connector joints Clause 6.9
A 70 Glued joints Clause 6.10
 expressed in terms of load-carrying capacity and is achieved by factoring-up
of load values and factoring-down of material strength properties by partial
safety factors that reflect the reliability of the values that they modify. The
second is serviceability limit states (i.e. deformation and vibration limits)
which refers to the ability of a structural system and its elements to perform
satisfactorily in normal use.
It is important to note that in permissible stress design philosophy partial
safety factors (i.e. modification factors) are applied only to material prop-
erties, i.e. for the calculation of permissible stresses, and not to the loading.

2.3 Stress g r a d i n g o f t i m b e r

Once timber has been seasoned it is stress graded; this grading will
determine the strength class of the timber to satisfy the design requirements
of BS 5268: Part 2. Strength grading takes into account defects within the
timber such as slope of grain, existence and extent of knots and fissures, etc.
All timber used for structural work needs to be strength graded by either
visual inspection or by an approved strength grading machine. Clause 2.5 of
BS 5268: Part 2 deals with strength grading of timber.

2.3.1 Visual grading

Visual grading is a manual process carried out by an approved grader. The
grader examines each piece of timber to check the size and frequency of
specific physical characteristics or defects, e.g. knots, slope of grains, rate
of growth, wane, resin pockets and distortion, etc.
The required specifications are given in BS 4978 and BS 5756 to determine if
a piece of timber is accepted into one of the two visual stress grades or rejected.
These are General Structural (GS) and Special Structural (SS) grades. Table 2
of BS 5268 : Part 2 (reproduced here as Table 2.2) refers to main softwood
combinations of species visually graded in accordance with BS 4978.

2.3.2 Machine grading

Machine grading of timber sections is carried out on the principle that
strength is related to stiffness. The machine exerts pressure and bending is
induced at increments along timber length. The resulting deflection is then
automatically measured and compared with pre-programmed criteria, which
leads to the grading of timber section. BS 5268: Part 2, Clause 2.5 specifies
that machine graded timber, other than that carried out by North American
Export Standard for Machine Stress-rated Lumber (e.g. 145Of-1.3E), should
meet the requirements of BS EN 519. To this effect timber is graded directly
to the strength class boundaries and marked accordingly.
 In general less material is rejected if it is machine graded, however timber
is also visually inspected during machine grading to ensure major defects do
not exist.

2.4 S t r e n g t h classes

The concept of grouping timber into strength classes was introduced into the
UK with BS 5268: Part 2 in 1984. Strength classes offer a number of advant-
ages both to the designer and the supplier of timber. The designer can
undertake his design without the need to check on the availability and price of
a large number of species and grades which he might use. Suppliers can supply
any of the species/grade combinations that meet the strength class called for
in a specification. The concept also allows new species to be introduced onto
the market without affecting existing specifications for timber.
The latest strength classes used in the current version of BS 5268: Part 2:
1996 relate to the European strength classes which are defined in BS EN
338:1995 Structural timber. Strength classes. There are a total of 16 strength
classes, C14 to C40 for softwoods and D30 to D70 for hardwoods as given
in Table 7 of BS 5268: Part 2:1996 (reproduced here as Table 2.3). The
number in each strength class refers to its 'characteristic bending strength'
value, for example, C40 timber has a characteristic bending strength of
40N/mm 2 . It is to be noted that characteristic strength values are con-
siderably larger than the grade stress values used in BS 5268: Part 2, as they
do not include effects of long-term loading and safety factors.

Softwood grading: Softwoods which satisfy the requirements for strength

classes given in BS EN 338 when graded in accordance with BS 4978 and
American timber standards NLGA and NGRDL are given in Tables 2, 3, 4
and 5 of BS 5268: Part 2. The new strength classes for softwoods are C14,
C16, C18, C22, C24, TR26, C27, C30, C35 and C40. However it is likely
that the old strength class system (i.e. SCl to SC9) may be encountered for
some time. A comparison of the lowest of the new strength class (C classes)
against the most common old SC classes can be made: SC3 compares with
C16, SC4 with C24, and SC5 with C27. TR26 timber, which is commonly
used for axially loaded members (i.e. trussed rafters), is equivalent to the
superseded M75 European red wood/white wood.

Hardwood grading: Tropical hardwoods which satisfy the requirements for

strength classes given in BS EN 338 when graded to HS grade in accordance
with BS 5756 are given in Table 6 of BS 5268: Part 2:1996. The strength
classes for tropical hardwoods are D30, D35, D40, D50, D60 and D70.

Grade stresses: Grade stresses and moduli of elasticity for service classes 1
and 2 (described in Section 2.5.2) are given in Table 7 of BS 5268: Part 2 for
Table 2.2 Softwood combinations of species and visual grades which satisfy the require-
ments for various strength classes. Timber graded in accordance with BS 4978 (Table 2,
BS 5268: Part 2)

Timber species Strength classes

C14 C16 C18 C22 C24 C27 C30

Imported:
Parana pine GS SS
Caribbean pitch pine GS SS
Redwood GS SS
Whitewood GS SS
Western red cedar GS SS
Douglas fir-larch (Canada and USA) GS SS
Hem-fir (Canada and USA) GS SS
Spruce-pine-fir (Canada and USA) GS SS
Sitka spruce (Canada) GS SS
Western white woods (USA) GS SS
Southern pine (USA) GS SS
British grown:
Douglas fir GS SS
Larch GS SS
British pine GS SS
British spruce GS SS

16 strength classes, and in Tables 8 to 12a for individual softwood and

hardwood species and grades. Table 7 is reproduced here as Table 2.3.

2. 5 Design considerations (factors affecting t i m b e r strength)

As mentioned previously, there are several factors which influence timber

strength and hence they should be considered in the analysis—design process
of all structural timber members, assemblies and frameworks. The main
design criteria recommended by BS 5268: Part 2, Clause 1.6 for considera-
tion are listed below.

2.5.1 Loading
For the purpose of design, loading should be in accordance with
BS 6399: Parts 1, 2, and 32 and CP 3: Chapter V: Part 23 or other relevant
standards, where applicable.

2.5.2 Service classes

Due to the effects of moisture content on mechanical properties of timber,
the permissible property values should be those corresponding to one of the
Table 2.3 Grade stresses and moduli of elasticity for various strength classes: for service classes 1 and 2 (Table 7, BS 5268: Part 2)

Strength Building Tension // Compression Compression Shear // Modulus of elasticity Density0

classa // to grain, to grain, // to grain, ± to grain,b to grain,
Pk Pmean
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (kg/m3)

C14 4.1 2.5 5.2 2.1 1.6 0.60 6800 4600 290 350
C16 5.3 3.2 6.8 2.2 1.7 0.67 8 800 5 800 310 370
C18 5.8 3.5 7.1 2.2 1.7 0.67 9100 6000 320 380
C22 6.8 4.1 7.5 2.3 1.7 0.71 9700 6 500 340 410
C24 7.5 4.5 7.9 2.4 1.9 0.71 10800 7200 350 420
TR26d 10.0 6.0 8.2 2.5 2.0 1.10 11000 7400 370 450
C27 10.0 6.0 8.2 2.5 2.0 1.10 12 300 8200 370 450
C30 11.0 6.6 8.6 2.7 2.2 1.20 12300 8200 380 460
C35 12.0 7.2 8.7 2.9 2.4 1.30 13400 9000 400 480
C40 13.0 7.8 8.7 3.0 2.6 1.40 14500 10000 420 500
D30 9.0 5.4 8.1 2.8 2.2 1.40 9 500 6000 530 640
D35 11.0 6.6 8.6 3.4 2.6 1.70 10000 6 500 560 670
D40 12.5 7.5 12.6 3.9 3.0 2.00 10800 7 500 590 700
D50 16.0 9.6 15.2 4.5 3.5 2.20 15000 12600 650 780
D60 18.0 10.8 18.0 5.2 4.0 2.40 18 500 15 600 700 840
D70 23.0 13.8 23.0 6.0 4.6 2.60 21000 18000 900 1080

a
Strength classes C14 to C40 and TR26 are for softwoods, D30 to D70 are for hardwoods
b
If wane is allowed, the lower value should be used
c
Characteristic density values are used only when designing joints. For calculation of dead load, the average density should be used
d
The strength class TR26 is essentially for the manufacture of trussed rafters but may be used for other applications with the grade stresses and
moduli given above. For joints, the tabulated permissible loads for strength class C27 should be used. When used with the provisos given in
BS 5268: Part 3 the grade stresses are similar to the former M75 redwood/whitwood so timber and trussed rafter designs to this M75 grade/species
combination are interchangeable with timber and trussed rafter designs using the TR26 strength class.
 Table 2.4 Modification factor K2 for obtaining stresses
and moduli applicable to service class 3 (Table 13,
BS 5268: Part 2)

Property K2

Bending parallel to grain 0.8

Tension parallel to grain 0.8
Compression parallel to grain 0.6
Compression perpendicular to grain 0.6
Shear parallel to grain 0.9
Mean and minimum modulus of elasticity 0.8

three service classes described in Clause 1.6.4 and given in Table 1 of

BS 5268 : Part 2:1996. These are summarised below:

(1) Service class 1 refers to timber used internally in a continuously heated

building. The average moisture content likely to be attained in service
condition is 12%.
(2) Service class 2 refers to timber used in a covered building. The average
moisture content likely to be attained in service condition if building is
generally heated is 15%, and if unheated, 18%.
(3) Service class 3 refers to timber used externally and fully exposed. The
average moisture content likely to be attained in service condition is
over 20%.

Grade stress and elastic moduli values given in Tables 7 to 12a of

BS 5268: Part 2 apply to various strength classes and timber species in
service classes 1 and 2. For service class 3 condition they should be multiplied
by the modification factor K2 from Table 13 of the code (reproduced here
as Table 2.4).

2.5.3 Moisture content

As moisture content affects the structural properties of timber significantly,
BS 5268: Part 2:1996 recommends that in order to reduce movement and
creep under load the moisture content of timber and wood-based panels
when installed should be close to that likely to be attained in service.

2.5.4 Duration of loading

Duration of load affects timber strength and therefore the permissible
stresses. The grade stresses (Tables 7 to 12a) and the joint strengths given in
BS 5268: Part 2 are applicable to long-term loading. Because timber and
wood-based materials can sustain a much greater load for a short period
 Table 2.5 Modification factor K3 for duration of loading (Table 14,
BS5268.Part 2)

Duration of loading K3

Long-term: i.e. dead -f permanent imposed51 1.00

Medium-term: i.e. dead -f temporary imposed -f- snow 1.25
Short-term: i.e. dead + imposed + wind,b dead •+• imposed 1.50
+ snow + windb
Very short-term: i.e. dead 4- imposed + wind (gust)0 1.75

a
For uniformly distributed imposed floor loads K3 — 1 except for type 2
and type 3 buildings (see Table 5 of BS 6399: Part 1:19842) where, for
corridors, hallways, landings and stairways only, K3 may be assumed to
be 1.5.
b
For wind, short-term category applies to class C (15 s gust) as defined
in CP 3: Chapter V: Part 2 3 or, where the largest diagonal dimension of
the loaded area a , as defined in BS 6399: Part 2, 2 exceeds 50 m.
c
For wind, very short-term category applies to classes A and B (3 s or 5 s
gust) as defined in CP 3: Chapter V: Part 2 3 or, where the largest
diagonal dimension of the loaded area a, as defined in BS 6399: Part 2, 2
does not exceeds 50 m.

(a few minutes) than for a long period (several years), the grade stresses and
the joint loads may be increased for other conditions of loading by the
modification factors given in the appropriate sections of BS 5268: Part 2.
Table 14 of BS5268.Part 2 (reproduced here as Table 2.5) gives the
modification factor K3 by which all grade stresses (excluding moduli of
elasticity and shear moduli) should be multiplied for various durations
of loading.

2.5.5 Section size

The bending, tension and compression and moduli of elasticity given in

Part 2 of BS 5268 are applicable to materials 300 mm deep (or wide, for
tension). Because these properties of timber are dependent on section size
and size related grade effects, the grade stresses should be modified for
section sizes other than 300 mm deep by the modification factors specified in
the appropriate sections of the code.
In general, it is possible to design timber structures using any size of
timber. However, since the specific use is normally not known at the time
of conversion, sawmills tend to produce a range of standard sizes known as
'customary' sizes. Specifying such customary sizes will often result in greater
availability and savings in cost4.
The customary lengths and sizes produced by sawmills in the UK,
normally available from stock, are given in Tables NA. 1 to NA.4 of the
 National Annex to BS EN 336:1995 which uses target sizes as the basis for
the standard. Further information and details of the customary lengths and
sizes are given in Appendix A.

2.5.6 Load-sharing systems

The grade stresses given in Part 2 of BS 5268 are applicable to individual
pieces of structural timber. Where a number of pieces of timber (in general
four or more) at a maximum spacing of 610 mm centre to centre act together
to support a common load, then the grade stresses can be modified
(increased) in accordance with the appropriate sections of the code.
In a load-sharing system such as rafters, joists, trusses or wall studs
spaced at a maximum of 610 mm centre to centre, and which has adequate
provision for the lateral distribution of loads by means of purlins, binders,
boarding, battens, etc., the appropriate grade stresses can be multiplied
by the load-sharing modification factor K% which has a value of 1.1.
In addition, BS 5268: Part 2 recommends that the mean modulus of elas-
ticity should be used to calculate deflections and displacements induced by
static loading conditions.
Therefore in a load-sharing system:
Modification factor ATg = 1.1
Modulus of elasticity E = Emean
It is to be noted that special provisions are provided in BS 5268: Part 2 for
built-up beams, trimmer joists and lintels, and laminated beams; these are
given in Clauses 2.10.10, 2.10.11 and Section 3 of the code. It is also
important to note that the provisions for load-sharing systems do not extend
to the calculation of modification factor Kn for load-sharing columns.

2.5.7 Additional properties

BS 5268: Part 2 recommends that in the absence of test data, the following
grade stress and moduli of elasticity values may be used:
tension perpendicular to = | x shear stress parallel to
grain, a , ^ grain, xg>//
=
torsional shear, xtorsion \ x shear stress parallel to
grain, xgi№
rolling shear, Tr = \ x shear stress parallel to
grain,
modulus of elasticity J_ to
grain, E±
shear modulus, G
permissible compressive stress
where the load is inclined at an
angle a to the grain, a C ) f l ^ ) t t
2.6 Symbols

The following symbols and subscripts are used to identify section properties
of timber elements, applied loading conditions, type of force and induced
and permissible stresses. Symbols and subscripts are kept as similar as
possible to those given in Part 2 of BS 5268:1996.

Geometrical and mechanical properties

a distance
a angle of grain
A area
b breadth of beam, thickness of member
d diameter
E modulus of elasticity
Emean mean value of modulus of elasticity
Emin minimum value of modulus of elasticity
G modulus of rigidity or shear modulus
h depth of member
/ radius of gyration
/ second moment of area
L length, span
Le effective length, effective span
m mass
n number
X slenderness ratio
Q first moment of area
Pfc characteristic density
Pmean average density
Z section modulus

Bending
M bending moment
(Jm1O, a applied bending stress parallel to grain
(ymg,u grade bending stress parallel to grain
(Jm^adm,!! permissible bending stress parallel to grain

Shear
Fv applied shear force
T
fl,// applied shear stress parallel t o grain
Xg1Ji grade shear stress parallel to grain
tadmji permissible shear stress parallel to grain
xria applied rolling shear stress
^,adm permissible rolling shear stress
 Deflection
Am bending deflection
A5 shear deflection
^wtai total deflection due to bending and shear
Aadm permissible deflection

Compression
oc,a, H applied compressive stress parallel to grain
ac&,n grade compressive stress parallel to grain
Gc,adm,n permissible compressive stress parallel to grain
a
c,a,± applied compressive stress perpendicular to grain
CT^x grade compressive stress perpendicular to grain
oc,adm,i_ permissible compressive stress perpendicular to grain

Tension
G
t,a, H applied tensile stress parallel to grain
Ot&,n grade tensile stress parallel to grain
Ot,adm,n permissible tensile stress parallel to grain

2.7 References

1. Arya, C. (1994) Design of structural elements. E. & F. N. Spon, London.

2. British Standards Institution (1984, 1995, 1988) BS 6399: Loading for buildings.
Part 1:1984: Code of practice for dead and imposed loads. Part 2:1995: Code of
practice for wind loads. Part 3:1988: Code of practice for imposed roof loads. BSI,
London.
3. British Standards Institution (1972) CP 3: Chapter V.Loading. Part
2:1972: Wind loads. BSI, London.
4. British Standards Institution (1995) BS EN 336: Structural timber. Coniferous
and poplar. Sizes. Permissible deviations. BSI, London.