Asia-Pacific Edu Res

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-021-00596-4

REGULAR ARTICLE

The Social Nature of Second Language Metacognition

Manfred Man-fat Wu1

Accepted: 8 June 2021

 De La Salle University 2021

Abstract Metacognition is one of the key notions in Introduction

contemporary research both in second language (L2)
teaching and education in general. L2 metacognition has In recent decades, researchers are beginning to acknowl-
been found to contribute significantly to learner variables edge the influences of contexts on metacognition. Brinck
such as language learning motivation. The main feature of and Liljenfors (2013) suggest the origin of metacognition
the findings on L2 metacognition research based on the from the perspective of developmental psychology, which
diverse theoretical disciplines is its individualistic and is highly suggestive and relevant to the focus of this paper.
cognitive nature. Metacognition does not come from a They mention that research has provided evidence that
vacuum, and social experiences provide core ingredients implicit and perceptual metacognition in infants emerges
for its development and maintenance. This paper aims to from dyadic reciprocal interaction. This experience also
explore the roles of metacognition in the interpersonal and allows infants to be aware of social control. Metacognitive
societal spheres from an Hegelian perspective. The results control, the capacity for taking corrective actions, together
of this paper suggest that metacognition involves emotion, with attention by others, allows infants to experience inti-
and the social aspect plays important roles in the formation macy and trust. The process of metacognition development
and maintenance of metacognition. Hegelian philosophy involves emotion and attention in addition to cognition as
suggests that metacognition exerts positive influences on its name suggests. This is another element being ignored in
the L2 learning of individual learners, as well as performs literature to date. Emotion, at the same time, is the key to
social and moral functions on a collective level. The major the development of self-confidence. It is because negative
pedagogical recommendation is that in enhancing the emotions enhance the development of mechanism used for
metacognition of language learners, teachers should focus coping negative situations. Therefore, emotion is proposed
on the emotional, interpersonal, and social aspects. in this paper as a metacognitive element which differs from
Teachers should also raise learners’ awareness of their the pure cognitive perspective literature to date embraces.
roles in the larger society. As will be introduced in detail in the third section of this
paper, this reciprocal view on the development of
Keywords Second language metacognition
metacognition in literature shares the dialectical account of
Second language learning
Hegel
Master and slave
Hegel on the development of human consciousness. Mutual
Intersubjectivity
Mutual recognition recognition is the key element for individual and collective
consciousness to progress in Hegel’s philosophy. Brinck
and Liljenfors (2013) indicate that infants need self-regu-
lation, monitoring and cognition because real life interac-
tions are not always successful and are very often
& Manfred Man-fat Wu unpredictable — adults may fail to respond to infants’
[email protected]
initiations or respond in time, or one adult may disappear in
1
Research Office, The Open University of Hong Kong, Ho front of infants and being replaced by another. Based on
Man Tin, Hong Kong, China the findings of a myriad of research (Legerstee et al., 2007;

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Lewis & Carpendale, 2009; Sroufe, 2005), they conclude the final section, pedagogical implications will be
that by 2–4 months, infants are already developing their provided.
metacognition: they monitor their own knowledge state,
predict others’ actions, infer what communicators intends
to refer and so on. Language plays an important role in An Overview of Hegel’s Theories on Language
metacognition because it is ‘the highest function of the
sensory-motor capacities that enable human beings to Hegel suggests that collective human consciousness
organize their surroundings’ (Brinck & Liljenfors, 2013, on both the individual and collective levels goes through a
p. 90). Through language, a child can express his or her series of developmental stages through a method called the
higher-order re-description of their metacognition. This dialectic, which is characterized by positedness, opposite-
conclusion, again, highly resembles Hegel’s (1977) view ness, contradiction, mediation, and synthesis. Language
that language allows individuals to externalize their sub- plays a key role in the development of self-consciousness
jectivity so that their inners can come to term with the outer or human individuality, as it allows individuals to exter-
reality. nalize and objectify their inner subjectivities and to achieve
The majority of research on metacognition, including mutual recognition among individuals (Hegel, 1971, 1977;
that on second language (L2) metacognition, has been Rauch, 1983). Mutual recognition is the building block of
conducted under the tradition of cognitive approaches community, or ethical life (Sittlichkeit), which in turn
(Anderson, 2012; Flavell, 1979, 1987; Goh, 2008; Lee & enables the collective human consciousness to progress to
Mak, 2018). In fact, other than the attempt by Brinck and the higher stages of civil society, morality, and freedom.
Liljenfors (2013) little literature on viewing metacognition In Hegel’s philosophy, language is also a means for arts
from a social interactional perspective to date could be and religion, and for the Spirit to manifest itself into dif-
located, both in the education field and L2 research. To fill ferent realms of the collective human beings, such as
this research gap, this paper explores how metacognition in family, law, and philosophy. Throughout the course of its
L2 learning are related to the social context. In addition to development, consciousness in experiencing its phe-
exploring the social origin of metacognition, this paper also nomenology gradually builds up a sense of awareness of
covers the collective functions of metacognition. The the outer environment, self-monitoring, self-regulation, and
enhanced understanding on the social nature of metacog- self-control. Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit (PhS)
nition can both improve training on L2 metacognition and (Hegel, 1977) provides an account on the different stages
achieve collective aims, such as the establishment of civil (or moments in Hegelian term) of this process, from
society, state, morality, and freedom. awareness of the outer sensual world to the establishment
To achieve the above aims, the Hegelian perspective of reciprocal relationship with another individual (i.e., the
will be adopted. The main advantage of adopting an master and slave relationship) and finally possessing an all-
Hegelian perspective is that it is comprehensive in nature, encompassing knowledge of itself and the world (i.e.,
that it covers interpersonal and family relationships, com- Absolute Knowing).
munity, society, politics, and morality. It also provides a The above accounts show that the entire philosophical
systematic perspective on how individuals are related to the system of Hegel, of course including his theories of lan-
larger social contexts. This is especially true given the guage, is social in nature. Language in Hegel’s philosophy
eclectic theoretical backgrounds of research and discus- is not only originated socially but also performs social and
sions on L2 metacognition to date. Another strength of the anthropological–spiritual functions. According to Hegel
Hegelian approach is that its philosophical nature can (1971), language serves an important function in the tran-
provide new insights to research on L2 metacognition, sition from intuition to thinking through transforming
which has been characterized by instrumentalism aiming to images into signs, objectifying them through utterances,
equip learners with strategies and skills for better language and developing itself into a system of thought and a shared
learning and performance (Cross, 2010). system. Language, a product of intelligence, contains
This introductory section has provided the background externalized, determinate expressions that are free from the
on and justifications for adopting an Hegelian perspective immediacy of the natural environment. It allows the Spirit,
on L2 metacognition. In the next section, a brief account on the collective human consciousness, and a mind common
Hegel’s theories on language will be introduced, followed to all individuals (Solomon, 1970), to reach absolute
by the major approaches and research on L2 metacognition. freedom.
In the fourth section, an Hegelian account of L2 Before discussing how Hegel’s theories on language can
metacognition, with particular reference to its social origin contribute to existing knowledge on L2 metacognition, an
and the social functions it performs, will be highlighted. In overview on research on L2 metacognition to date is
introduced below.

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Metacognition in Second Language Learning and an activation role for learners’ application of genre
knowledge (Yeh, 2015).
According to Flavell (1979, 1987), metacognition com- Research has also found that metacognition facilitates
prises metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive regulation, the teaching and learning of critical literacy (Olin-Scheller
and metacognitive experiences. Metacognitive knowledge & Tengberg, 2017). Olin-Scheller and Tengberg (2017)
involves learners’ awareness of their own cognition, affect, point out that formal academic training mainly focuses on
tasks, and control over knowledge. Metacognitive knowl- the specialized contents of subjects and formal academic
edge includes knowledge about the world, the person, discourses. The result is that learners are only exposed to
tasks, and strategies. Teng (2019b) and Wenden (1998) and are only aware of these two aspects, and the informal
applied Flavell’s framework and collected empirical find- everyday life discourses and their everyday knowledge of
ings of the existence of these three types of knowledge on the texts (primary discourses) are being neglected. Based
L2 listening from a diary study on tertiary education L2 on this premise, they gathered data from classroom
learners. Metacognitive regulation is how individuals reg- observations and written materials produced by students
ulate their cognition and experiences. Metacognitive and found that metacognition supports the development of
experiences are experiences that are related to the ongoing vertical discourse (characterized by specialized, abstract,
cognitive endeavor. and generalized ability) and secondary discourse (everyday
Although Teng (2019b) and Wenden (1998) focuses on informal language). More importantly, metacognition is
the knowledge aspect, other L2 researchers identified highly influential in contributing to learners’ ability to
additional features of metacognition based on the Flavell’s evaluate different types of texts critically especially on the
conceptualization. Schraw (1998) identified three skills of validity of arguments. Based on the findings of their study,
metacognitive regulation: planning, monitoring, and eval- they advocate that reading instruction should aim at
uating. Danuwong (2006), on the other hand, identified metacognitive reflection, particularly on how to read and
several features of metacognition. Metacognition is con- what is read (i.e. textual power). It is because reading
scious, deliberate, and nongender specific. It is also ‘falli- instruction can support movements between language dis-
ble’, meaning that very often misjudgments are involved, courses and critical literacy.
and learners may not have accurate perception on the In research on other language skills, metacognition has
expected performance of themselves. Metacognition (i.e., been treated as closely related to language learning
knowledge and experiences) is an indicator and predictor strategies, under the umbrella of metacognitive strategy
of successes in both academic performance and other research (Graham & Macaro, 2008). It has been consis-
aspects of life. Finally, metacognition is teachable and can tently found that metacognitive strategy training has posi-
be transferred to other situations and life aspects. tive effects on language performance (Graham & Macaro,
Researchers such as Chamot (2004) and McCormick 2008), on the development of learners’ metacognition
(2003) have been suggesting metacognition is positively (Cross, 2010), and is a predictor of language performance
related to L2 learning. As Danuwong (2006), they (Pishghadam & Khajavy, 2013). Lee and Mak (2018)
remarked that another important research finding in this extended metacognition training to L2 writing at the sec-
area is that metacognition is teachable, and evidence has ondary school level, and proposed an integrative frame-
supported the effectiveness of metacognition instruction on work that involves the three stages of planning, translating,
learning outcomes. Among the four major language skills and reviewing in the writing process.
of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, metacognition The above review shows that cognition rather than
has been receiving particular attention in listening. social interaction has been the central focus of L2
Metacognition has been found to be the key influence of L2 metacognition research to date. However, as far as the
listening performance (Vandergrift & Goh, 2012). Empir- social aspect of metacognition is concerned, studies
ical evidence (Goh, 2008) also supports the view of Van- focused mostly on the interpersonal aspect. No reference is
dergrift and Tafahodtari (2010) on the determining effects made on the contribution of the larger social environment
of the two components in Flavell’s model, namely on L2 metacognition development and the collective
metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences functions performed by L2 metacognition. In the next
in affecting learning outcomes. Vandergrift and section, how Hegelian theories of language can fill these
Tafaghodtari (2010) highlight that successful learners, not theoretical gaps will be introduced.
only language learners but also learners in the general
sense, have been found to apply metacognitive knowledge
in their learning. In L2 writing, metacognition was found to
play a mediating role in writing performance (Teng, 2019b)

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An Hegelian Account of Metacognition in Second to have only an alienated existence that he acquires a mind
Language Learning of his own’ (Hegel, 1977, pp. 118–119). Despite using the
metaphor of master and slave who are antagonistic with
Social Origin of L2 Metacognition each other in accounting for mutual recognition hence
describing mutual recognition in a different context,
As mentioned at the outset, the majority of theories and Hegel’s account above is consistent with the view of social
research on metacognition does not give sufficient constructivists and psychologists, that cognition and rea-
emphasis on the social origin of metacognition except soning are socially originated. The account by Hegel also
Brinck and Liljenfors (2013). Cross (2010) reports empir- indicates that metacognition as comprised of knowledge,
ical evidence of the effectiveness of a social interaction regulation, and experiences as conceptualized by pioneers
approach in the form of peer–peer dialogue on enhancing such as Flavell (1979, 1987) only partially describes the
the L2 listening metacognition of adult Japanese EFL nature of metacognition. The social origin and the emo-
learners. Another research that makes direct reference to tional aspect of metacognition are equally, if not more,
the effectiveness of social interaction in L2 metacognitive important. Uninformed of Hegel’s philosophy, Lee and
enhancement is Teng (2019a), which focused on group Mak (2018) enhanced the conceptualization of metacog-
metacognitive support. Summarizing the findings of pre- nition by defining metacognitive experiences as being both
vious researchers, Teng (2019a) points out social interac- cognitive and affective.
tions are a useful means for the enhancement of L2 Hegel’s notion of intersubjectivity, which not only
metacognition because group feedback encourages learn- involves cognition but also emotion, is also evidenced by
ers’ self-reflection and knowledge construction. More the research of Brink and Liljenfors (2013). According
specifically, group feedback was found to facilitate learn- to them, intersubjectivity is first achieved by an infant
ers’ contemplation of the procedures for assignment writ- imitating caretakers. This is later developed to reciprocal
ing. Group feedback also supports learners in their interactions in the form of eye gaze, facial expression, and
planning, monitoring, evaluating, and debugging in the a sense of self for the infant. They added that intersub-
writing process. Despite investigating L2 metacognition jectivity contributes to the development of metacognition
from a non-Hegelian perspective, the results of this study through three means: shared monitoring and control of
are highly consistent with the Hegel’s philosophy, that the cognition, training of actions that realize monitoring and
reflections caused by mutual recognition in interpersonal control function, and finally immediate feedback. The
encounters are an important origin of intelligence and achievement of intersubjectivity, or shared emotion and
awareness (or in Hegel’s terminology, self-consciousness). cognitive perspectives, is a key to the development of
Teng and Reynolds (2019) conducted a study on the metacognition. According to Brinck and Liljenfors (2013),
effects of collaborative learning and metacognitive intersubjectivity ‘allows infants to internalize and construct
prompts on L2 reading comprehension and incidental L2 rudimentary strategies for monitoring and control of their
vocabulary learning. The results on the comparisons among own and others’ cognition by emotion and attention. The
groups receiving different treatments in terms of collabo- functions of initiating, maintaining, and achieving turns
rative learning and metacognitive prompts indicate that the make proto-conversation a productive platform for devel-
group which received collaborative learning with oping metacognition’ (Brinck & Liljenfors, 2013, p. 85).
metacognitive prompts outperformed other groups. The Intersubjectivity allows infants to be aware of their cog-
results of this study confirm those of the previous research nition and ‘cognition of cognition’ (i.e. metacognition).
on the effectiveness of metacognitive prompts in a group Empirical evidence has provided support for the exis-
setting for incidental vocabulary learning (Davis, 2003; tence and development of infantile intersubjectivity
Nietfeld & Schraw, 2002). (Reddy, 2003; Trevarthen & Aitken, 2001). Intersubjec-
In Hegel’s renowned account of master and slave tivity is an effective means for the enhancement of
dialectic, mutual recognition involves emotion and results metacognitive capacity and self-reflection for schizo-
in the emergence of thinking and reasoning (Hegel, phrenic patients (Lysaker et al., 2013). In his account on
1971, 1977). The slave experiences anxiety and fear of his the master and slave dialectic, Hegel (1977) also mentions
master, and is forced to produce to satisfy his master’s the experience of fear, loss, alienation, and anger of the
material wants. The alienation with what he produces slave before achieving intelligence. This recognition of
forces the slave to reflect upon himself, and this results in emotion can complement the traditional conceptualization
slave’s independent thinking. In Hegel’s words, ‘through of metacognition as individuals’ awareness of their own
this rediscovery of himself by himself, the bondsman emotion.
realizes that it is precisely in his work wherein he seemed

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In addition to cognitive enhancement and emotional previous section. Viewing from a collective perspective,
maintenance, social interactions heighten awareness among this process heightens human consciousness. The third
individuals. Consistent with the view of L2 researchers as element, metacognitive experiences, allows L2 learners to
described in the previous section, Hegel remarked that participate in real-life endeavors. In Hegelian terms, this
awareness (or in his term consciousness) is an important experience enables individual to progress from particular-
element of metacognition. In Hegel’s philosophy, aware- ity to universality. In participating in real life learning, a
ness of others in the form of mutual recognition contributes learner needs to communicate with others. This means that
not only to developments on the individual level but also he or she needs to externalize his or her own inner sub-
serves as the foundation for individuals’ awareness of their jectivities. In encountering an external other, a learner will
roles, rights, responsibility, and morality in their family, experience alienation and a sense of loss, and it is only
community, and social institutions, such as workplace. after struggling that he or she will achieve a more universal
Hegel states that mutual recognitive relationship between perspective.
individuals ‘forms the substance of ethical life, namely, of The above process, when taking place on the collective
the family, of sexual love (there this unity has the form of level, results in the following outcomes: increased collec-
particularity), of patriotism … of love towards God, of tive knowledge, self-regulation on a community scale, and
bravery too, … also of honour …’ (Hegel, 1971, p. 177). collective experience of phenomenology which further
As mentioned in the previous section, despite not focusing contribute to knowledge, self-regulation, and self-moni-
directly on mutual recognition, Teng’s (2019a) findings toring on both the individual and collective levels. An
provide support to Hegel’s view on the power of social additional outcome of this universal perspective is a higher
interactions in facilitating the reflection, knowledge level of awareness, both in terms of cognition and social
increase, and awareness of learners regarding their L2 environment. This view is also consistent with Olin-
learning. Scheller and Tengberg’s (2017) finding of the contribution
The desire-held-in-check of the slave in the material of metacognitive reflection to critical literacy mentioned
production for his master in the master and slave dialectic earlier.
contributes to the capacity for self-monitoring in self-reg- The enhanced reasoning, self-regulation, universal per-
ulation, a key element of metacognition (Teng & Reynold, spective, and social awareness together equip individuals to
2019). In order not to consume the food and materials he participate in the ethical life (Sittlichkeit) (Hegel, 1977), in
produced for his master, the slave must continuously which all individuals are fully recognized as members of
monitor and regulate his own desires and emotions. Thus, the civil society, are well aware of their rights and duties,
one important source of self-monitoring and self-regulation and are able to regulate themselves. In ethical life, indi-
is social interaction. viduals can realize themselves through participating in civil
In Flavell’s theory, metacognition consists of knowl- realm of the society, in their vocation through the estates
edge, regulation, and experiences. Hegel’s theories have (or professional organizationsin the modern sense). At the
indicated that mutual recognition and interpersonal rela- same time, their families are well protected by the state and
tionship are important origins for individual intelligence individuals can realize themselves in their different roles in
and knowledge, self-awareness in terms of cognition, the family, such as parents and children. These qualities,
affect, tasks, control over knowledge, and finally self- according to Hegel, are pre-requisites to human freedom,
monitoring and self-regulation, which enable an individual and are essential for consciousness to progress to the stage
to exercise the higher-order process of the experience. In of morality. It is because individuals that are recognized by
short, Hegel points out the social origins of metacognition. others can express their conscience, and through the
dialectical process of encountering with the subjectivities
Collective Functions of L2 Metacognition of others, a more universal perspective will result. This
contributes to moral advancements because a broader
Hegelian philosophy suggests that L2 metacognition per- moral perspective can prevent individuals from cultural
forms several collective functions for human individuals. and moral relativism.
Three elements of metacognition proposed by Flavell The above social functions of L2 metacognition as
(1979, 1987); (Flavell et al., 1993) are metacognitive suggested by Hegelian theories of language can comple-
knowledge, metacognitive regulation, and metacognitive ment the instrumental goal of metacognition research, i.e.,
experiences. In addition to contributing to learning, these how metacognition is positively related to L2 performance
three elements are also the impetuses for advancements of and how metacognitive training, particularly in terms of
the collective human consciousness in the realms of com- metacognitive strategy training, contribute to positive L2
munity, morality, and freedom. Metacognitive regulation is learning outcomes.
similar to the desire-held-in-check introduced in the

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Summary and Conclusion Little (2007) reminds us that learner journals are an
effective means for learner self-reflection and self-evalua-
To recapitulate, this paper proposes that L2 metacognition tion, and cumulative journals are excellent records of the
is formed socially through mutual interactions among development of language learning identity, of which
individuals. How Hegel’s philosophy contributes to the metacognition is a key element. Similarly, enabling
existing literature on L2 metacognition has been explored learners to play an active role in meaning expression in
and discussed. The result is that Hegel’s theories are able to writing has also been suggested (Lee & Mak, 2018).
allow L2 researchers to be aware that L2 metacognition is Research has found that upon achieving a certain level of
not only originated in social interactions but is also intri- language proficiency that allows the implementation of
cately related to the collective human entity and performs group work, learners are able to apply metalinguistic
the interpersonal, collective, moral, and spiritual functions. concepts to the analysis of the target language (Thomsen,
Therefore, the social environment has significant influences 2003). This means that as the constructivist theory sug-
on L2 metacognition. On the both the individual and col- gests, interactive activities such as group work are effective
lective levels, social interactions contribute to the three means for the enhancement of metacognition. Conducting
metacognition elements of metacognitive knowledge, group discussions regularly can also enhance leaners’
metacognitive regulation, and metacognitive experiences, mutual exchange in terms of both knowledge and emotion,
which at the same time exert mutual influences on each and clarification of their uncertainties.
other. Spada (2007) summarizes the key tenets of Commu-
nicative language teaching (CLT): it focuses on meaning, it
enables the provision of feedback on learner error, is
Recommendations learner-centred, and is communicative. These features are
highly consistent with the social and collective nature of
In this section, how the social elements identified in this language Hegel ascribed to language. Therefore, the
paper can be designed and put into classroom practice will implementation of CLT for L2 metacognition is highly
be introduced. consistent with Hegel’s theories of language. The use of
L2 metacognition does not come from a vacuum, and it approaches that do not teach language in isolation from the
is developed from social interactions. Therefore, in L2 context, such as the task-based and content and language
learning opportunities for interpersonal interactions should integrated learning (CLIL) (Wolff, 2011) are effective
be created for learners. However, this does not mean the means for raising learners’ awareness of the features of the
mere provision of opportunities is sufficient. To maximize target language, which in turn enhances learners’
the contribution of learning activities on L2 metacognition, metacognition.
learning activities must be carefully designed. The positive relationships that are found to exist
One concrete example is the incorporation of reflective between metacognition and L2 learning have led experts to
elements, as evidence has found that reflection is an propose direct instruction of metacognition in the L2
effective means for the development of metacognition classroom (Teng & Zhang, 2018; Teng, 2019a). The
(Ohlin-Scheller & Tengberg, 2017). The use of diary by strategies provided by Lee and Mark (2018), which are
learners to reflect their roles with others in classroom based on the premise that writing is a social activity, are
learning activities, activities on understanding how others drawing mind map, using visual organizer before writing,
perform their metacognitive thinking and awareness, and checking the relevance of content, using online resources to
discussions on the ways for metacognition enhancement check grammar and vocabulary during writing, and finally,
among learners are some means for metacognitive self-evaluating after writing. Outside the language class-
instructions. Diary has been found to be effective in the room, metacognitive interventions were also found to exert
promotion of metalinguistic reflection (Simard, 2004). greater impacts on learning outcomes than interventions of
Therefore, activities such as routine writing activity invit- other cognitive skills (Higgins et al., 2005). In fact,
ing students to reflect the extent of lesson goal achievement metacognition has been found to be positively related not
and to evaluate their own performance, can be included in only to L2 performance but also to problem-solving skills
the language classroom. Students can also be invited to in science and mathematics (McCormick et al., 2012).
suggest the next steps they would take in their learning and Practitioners and researchers have developed diversified
the evaluation of their collaborative learning with others. approaches on the instruction of metacognition. An
These activities allow learners to express and to organize example is computer-based learning environments for
not only their cognition but also their emotions, an metacognition instruction that include human adaptive
important element of metacognition this paper proposes. scaffolds, fixed scaffolds, and computer-based adaptive
scaffolds. McCormick et al. (2012) provide a

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The Social Nature of Second Language Metacognition

comprehensive summary of the major projects and findings among L2 researchers (Carson & Longhini, 2002), research
on this area. Again, to enable L2 metacognition to perform on metacognition is still following a positivist tradition,
its collective function, Hegelian elements need to be especially using survey questionnaire that contain the
incorporated into these approaches. In sum, enhancement scales and items for testing learners’ metacognitive
to existing social means for the enhancement of L2 knowledge. Diary is a highly suitable instrument for
metacognition should be made. investigating metacognition given its strength in gathering
The above pedagogical recommendations based on the qualitative data. The results of this exploration indicate that
results of this paper not only benefit learners but also metacognition is intricately related to the cognition and
provide substantial benefits to language teachers, school emotion of individuals at the same time to the interpersonal
managers, and practitioners. Reflective activities and and social spheres. The qualitative research approach is
journal writing enable teachers to understand the suitable for capturing data on these aspects.
metacognitive and emotional status of students, and to
Declarations
monitor their progress. Group activities such as group
sharing and peer dialogue create ample opportunities for Conflict of interest The author declares that this manuscript is his
teachers to observe and intervene both cognitively and original has not been published in whole or in part elsewhere and is
emotionally whenever necessary. To the school managers not currently under consideration in whole or in part for publication
and practitioners, these activities can enable information elsewhere. The project received no funding and the author has no
conflict of interest to declare.
gathering on students’ metacognition on an institutional
level. Through the sharing with teachers, school managers
can also obtain information on the landscape of the school References
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