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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE

A Computer system can be broadly classified in to four parts namely:
- Input hardware
- Processing hardware
- Storage hardware
- Output hardware
A computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the external environment. When you
work with the computer you feed your data and instructions through some devices to the computer.
These devices are called Input devices. Similarly computer after processing, gives output through
other devices called output devices.
For a particular application one form of device is more desirable compared to others. We will
discuss various types of I/O devices that are used for different types of applications. They are also
known as peripheral devices because they surround the CPU and make a communication between
computer and the outer world.
A] INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are necessary to convert our information or data in to a form which can be
understood by the computer. A good input device should provide timely, accurate and useful data to
the main memory of the computer for processing followings are the most useful input devices.
1. Keyboard: - This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The layout of
keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter of the type QWERTY. It also contains some
extra command keys and function keys. It contains a total of 101 to 104 keys. A typical
keyboard used in a computer is shown in Fig. 2.6. You have to press correct combination of
keys to input data. The computer can recognise the electrical signals corresponding to the
correct key combination and processing is done accordingly.

Fig. 2.6
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2. Mouse: - Mouse is an input device shown in Fig. 2.7 that is used with your personal
computer. It rolls on a small ball and has two or three buttons on the top. When you roll the
mouse across a flat surface the screen censors the mouse in the direction of mouse
movement. The cursor moves very fast with mouse giving you more freedom to work in any
direction. It is easier and faster to move through a mouse.
3. Scanner: The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to input
a picture the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical device that can input any
graphical matter and display it back. The common optical scanner devices are Magnetic Ink
Character Recognition (MICR), Optical Mark Reader (OMR) and Optical Character Reader
(OCR).
o Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): - This is widely used by banks to
process large volumes of cheques and drafts. Cheques are put inside the MICR. As
they enter the reading unit the cheques pass through the magnetic field which causes
the read head to recognise the character of the cheques.
o Optical Mark Reader (OMR): This technique is used when students have
appeared in objective type tests and they had to mark their answer by darkening a
square or circular space by pencil. These answer sheets are directly fed to a computer
for grading where OMR is used.
o Optical Character Recognition (OCR): - This technique unites the direct reading
of any printed character. Suppose you have a set of hand written characters on a
piece of paper. You put it inside the scanner of the computer. This pattern is
compared with a site of patterns stored inside the computer. Whichever pattern is
matched is called a character read. Patterns that cannot be identified are rejected.
OCRs are expensive though better the MICR.
B) PROCESSING HARDWARE
INTRODUCTION
In the previous lesson we discussed about the evolution of computer. In this lesson we will provide
you with an overview of the basic design of a computer. You will know how different parts of a
computer are organised and how various operations are performed between different parts to do a

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specific task. As you know from the previous lesson the internal architecture of computer may differ
from system to system, but the basic organisation remains the same for all computer systems.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson you will be able to:
 understand basic organisation of computer system
 understand the meaning of Arithmetic Logical Unit, Control Unit and Central Processing
Unit
 differentiate between bit , byte and a word
 define computer memory
 differentiate between primary memory and secondary memory
 differentiate between primary storage and secondary storage units
 differentiate between input devices and output devices
BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS
A computer as shown in Fig. 2.1 performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective
of their size and make. These are 1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input, 2) it stores data,
3) it can process data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in the form of output, and 5) it
controls all operations inside a computer. We discuss below each of these operations.
1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should
know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data
and performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from
us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

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Figure Basic computer Operations

2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has
to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of
Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same
speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This
storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality.
It provides space for storing data and instructions.
The storage unit performs the following major functions:
 All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
 Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and
makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is
then sent back to the storage unit.
4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.
Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside
the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored
inside the computer for further processing.

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5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed.
Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes
care of step by step processing of all operations in side the computer.
FUNCTIONAL UNITS
In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the
task between its various functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate units
for its operation. They are 1) arithmetic logical unit, 2) control unit, and 3) registers.
a) Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual
processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major
operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and
comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the
output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.
b) Control Unit (CU)
The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that
things are done in proper fashion. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer
programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main
memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to
execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer
simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they
perform the input and output. Therefore it is the manager of all operations mentioned in the
previous section.
c) Registers
Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed, there is also movement of
data between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer the processed data with high
speed. So the computer uses a number of special memory units called registers. They are not part of
the main memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directed by the
control unit.
C) MEMORY SYSTEM IN A COMPUTER

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There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and secondary. Primary memory is accessible
directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of primary memory. As soon as the computer is
switched off the contents of the primary memory is lost. You can store and retrieve data much faster
with primary memory compared to secondary memory. Secondary memory such as floppy disks,
magnetic disk, etc., is located outside the computer. Primary memory is more expensive than
secondary memory. Because of this the size of primary memory is less than that of secondary
memory. We will discuss about secondary memory later on.
Computer memory is used to store two things: i) instructions to execute a program and ii) data.
When the computer is doing any job, the data that have to be processed are stored in the primary
memory. This data may come from an input device like keyboard or from a secondary storage device
like a floppy disk.
As program or the set of instructions is kept in primary memory, the computer is able to follow
instantly the set of instructions. For example, when you book ticket from railway reservation
counter, the computer has to follow the same steps: take the request, check the availability of seats,
calculate fare, wait for money to be paid, store the reservation and get the ticket printed out. The
programme containing these steps is kept in memory of the computer and is followed for each
request.
But inside the computer, the steps followed are quite different from what we see on the monitor or
screen. In computer’s memory both programs and data are stored in the binary form. You have
already been introduced with decimal number system, that is the numbers 1 to 9 and 0. The binary
system has only two values 0 and 1. These are called bits. As human beings we all understand
decimal system but the computer can only understand binary system. It is because a large number of
integrated circuits inside the computer can be considered as switches, which can be made ON, or
OFF. If a switch is ON it is considered 1 and if it is OFF it is 0. A number of switches in different
states will give you a message like this: 110101....10. So the computer takes input in the form of 0
and 1 and gives output in the form 0 and 1 only. Is it not absurd if the computer gives outputs as 0’s
& 1’s only? But you do not have to worry about. Every number in binary system can be converted
to decimal system and vice versa; for example, 1010 meaning decimal 10. Therefore it is the
computer that takes information or data in decimal form from you, convert it in to binary form,
process it producing output in binary form and again convert the output to decimal form.

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The primary memory as you know in the computer is in the form of IC’s (Integrated Circuits).
These circuits are called Random Access Memory (RAM). Each of RAM’s locations stores one byte
of information. (One byte is equal to 8 bits). A bit is an acronym for binary digit, which stands for one
binary piece of information. This can be either 0 or 1. You will know more about RAM later. The
Primary or internal storage section is made up of several small storage locations (ICs) called cells.
Each of these cells can store a fixed number of bits called word length.
Each cell has a unique number assigned to it called the address of the cell and it is used to identify
the cells. The address starts at 0 and goes up to (N-1). You should know that the memory is like a
large cabinet containing as many drawers as there are addresses on memory. Each drawer contains a
word and the address is written on outside of the drawer.
Capacity of Primary Memory
You know that each cell of memory contains one character or 1 byte of data. So the capacity is
defined in terms of byte or words. Thus 64 kilobyte (KB) memory is capable of storing 64 ´ 1024 =
32,768 bytes. (1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes). A memory size ranges from few kilobytes in small systems to
several thousand kilobytes in large mainframe and super computer. In your personal computer you
will find memory capacity in the range of 64 KB, 4 MB, 8 MB and even 16 MB (MB = Million
bytes).
The following terms related to memory of a computer are discussed below:
1. Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as random access
memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory
directly store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of the memory as the first
address. It is also called read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the
primary storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer
is switched off. The memories, which loose their content on failure of power supply, are
known as volatile memories .So now we can say that RAM is volatile memory.
2. Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory in computer, which is called Read
Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of
program and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM stores some standard processing
programs supplied by the manufacturers to operate the personal computer. The ROM can
only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is

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stored in the ROM that examines and initializes various equipment attached to the PC when
the switch is made ON. The memories, which do not loose their content on failure of power
supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.
3. PROM There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or
erase programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store your program in PROM
chip. Once the programmes are written it cannot be changed and remain intact even if
power is switched off. Therefore programs or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot
be erased or changed.
4. EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which over come
the problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by
erasing the information stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip
for some time ultraviolet light and it erases chip is reprogrammed using a special
programming facility. When the EPROM is in use information can only be read.
5. Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main
memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main
memory. To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached
between CPU and Main memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of
CPU. It is called CACHE memory. CACHE memories are accessed much faster than
conventional RAM. It is used to store programs or data currently being executed or
temporary data frequently used by the CPU. So each memory makes main memory to be
faster and larger than it really is. It is also very expensive to have bigger size of cache
memory and its size is normally kept small.
6. Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed, there is also
movement of data between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer the
processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a number of special memory units
called registers. They are not part of the main memory but they store data or information
temporarily and pass it on as directed by the control unit.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 2

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1. Distinguish between bit and byte.

2. Define volatile and non-volatile memory.
3. Write True or False:
(a) There are two kinds of computer memory primary and secondary.
(b) The computer takes inputs in the form of 0 and 1.
(c) The storage of program and data in the RAM is permanent.
(d) PROM is secondary memory.
(e) The memories which do not loose their content on failure of power supply are known as non-
volatile memories.
SECONDARY STORAGE
You are now clear that the operating speed of primary memory or main memory should be as fast as
possible to cope up with the CPU speed. These high-speed storage devices are very expensive and
hence the cost per bit of storage is also very high. Again the storage capacity of the main memory is
also very limited. Often it is necessary to store hundreds of millions of bytes of data for the CPU to
process. Therefore additional memory is required in all the computer systems. This memory is called
auxiliary memory or secondary storage.
In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the operating speed is slower
than that of the primary storage. Huge volume of data are stored here on permanent basis and
transferred to the primary storage as and when required. Most widely used secondary storage devices
are magnetic tapes and magnetic disk.
1. Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe computers
where large volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also you can use tapes in the
form of cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is inexpensive. Tapes consist of magnetic
materials that store data permanently. It can be 12.5 mm to 25 mm wide plastic film-type
and 500 meter to 1200 meter long which is coated with magnetic material. The deck is
connected to the central processor and information is fed into or read from the tape through
the processor. It similar to cassette tape recorder.

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Fig. Magnetic Tape

Advantages of Magnetic Tape:
 Compact: A 10-inch diameter reel of tape is 2400 feet long and is able to hold 800, 1600 or
6250 characters in each inch of its length. The maximum capacity of such tape is 180 million
characters. Thus data are stored much more compactly on tape.
 Economical: The cost of storing characters is very less as compared to other storage
devices.
 Fast: Copying of data is easier and fast.
 Long term Storage and Re-usability: Magnetic tapes can be used for long term storage
and a tape can be used repeatedly with out loss of data.
2. Magnetic Disk: You might have seen the gramophone record, which is circular like a disk
and coated with magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in computer are made on the same
principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the computer drive. Data is stored on both
the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most popular for direct access storage device. Each
disk consists of a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded on
tracks of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic spot
represents one bit and its absence represents zero bit. The information stored in a disk can be
read many times without affecting the stored data. So the reading operation is non-
destructive. But if you want to write a new data, then the existing data is erased from the disk
and new data is recorded.

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3. Floppy Disk: It is similar to magnetic disk discussed above. They are 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch
in diameter. They come in single or double density and recorded on one or both surface of
the diskette. The capacity of a 5.25-inch floppy is 1.2 mega bytes whereas for 3.5 inch floppy
it is 1.44 mega bytes. It is cheaper than any other storage devices and is portable. The floppy
is a low cost device particularly suitable for personal computer system.
4. Optical Disk:
With every new application and software there is greater demand for memory capacity. It is the
necessity to store large volume of data that has led to the development of optical disk storage
medium. Optical disks can be divided into the following categories:
1. Compact Disk/ Read Only Memory (CD-ROM): CD-ROM disks are made of reflective metals.
CD-ROM is written during the process of manufacturing by high power laser beam. Here the
storage density is very high, storage cost is very low and access time is relatively fast. Each
disk is approximately 4 1/2 inches in diameter and can hold over 600 MB of data. As the
CD-ROM can be read only we cannot write or make changes into the data contained in it.
2. Write Once, Read Many (WORM): The inconvenience that we can not write any thing in to a
CD-ROM is avoided in WORM. A WORM allows the user to write data permanently on to
the disk. Once the data is written it can never be erased without physically damaging the
disk. Here data can be recorded from keyboard, video scanner, OCR equipment and other
devices. The advantage of WORM is that it can store vast amount of data amounting to
gigabytes (109 bytes). Any document in a WORM can be accessed very fast, say less than 30
seconds.
3. Erasable Optical Disk: These are optical disks where data can be written, erased and re-written.
This also applies a laser beam to write and re-write the data. These disks may be used as
alternatives to traditional disks. Erasable optical disks are based on a technology known as
magnetic optical (MO). To write a data bit on to the erasable optical disk the MO drive's laser
beam heats a tiny, precisely defined point on the disk's surface and magnetises it.
4] OUTPUT DEVICES
1. Visual Display Unit: The most popular input/output device is the Visual Display Unit
(VDU). It is also called the monitor. A Keyboard is used to input data and Monitor is used
to display the input data and to receive massages from the computer. A monitor has its own

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box which is separated from the main computer system and is connected to the computer by
cable. In some systems it is compact with the system unit. It can be color or monochrome.
2. Terminals: It is a very popular interactive input-output unit. It can be divided into two
types: hard copy terminals and soft copy terminals. A hard copy terminal provides a printout on
paper whereas soft copy terminals provide visual copy on monitor. A terminal when
connected to a CPU sends instructions directly to the computer. Terminals are also classified
as dumb terminals or intelligent terminals depending upon the work situation.
3. Printer: It is an important output device which can be used to get a printed copy of the
processed text or result on paper. There are different types of printers that are designed for
different types of applications. Depending on their speed and approach of printing, printers
are classified as impact and non-impact printers. Impact printers use the familiar typewriter
approach of hammering a typeface against the paper and inked ribbon. Dot-matrix printers are
of this type. Non-impact printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print. They use electro-
static chemicals and ink-jet technologies. Laser printers and Ink-jet printers are of this type. This
type of printers can produce color printing and elaborate graphics.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 3
1. Distinguish between impact and non-impact printers.
2. Define soft copy and hard copy terminals.
3. Write True or False:
(a) Secondary memory is called Auxiliary memory.
(b) The magnetic tapes and magnetic disk are primary memories.
(c) A CD-ROM is read only memory.
(d) Mouse is an output device.
(e) Printer is an important output device.
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
In this lesson we discussed five basic operations that a computer performs. These are input, storage,
processing, output and control. A computer accepts data as input, stores it, processes it as the user
requires and provides the output in a desired format. The storage unit of a computer is divided into
two parts: primary storage and secondary storage. We have discussed the devices used for these two
types of storage and their usefulness.

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TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What are the five basic operations performed by any computer system?
2. Draw a block diagram to illustrate the basic organization of computer system and explain the
function of various units.
3. What is input device? How does it differ from output device?
4. Differentiate between RAM and ROM. Also distinguish between PROM and EPROM.
5. What is cache memory? How is it different from primary memory?
6. Write short notes on (a) Control Unit (b) Random Access Memory (RAM)

FEEDBACK TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 1
1. The five basic operations that a computer performs are input, storage, processing, output
and control.
2. ALU: Arithmetic Logic Unit
CU: Control Unit
CPU: Central Processing Unit
3. (a) i (b) iii (c) i
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 2
1. A bit is an acronym for binary digit, which stands for one binary piece of information. This
can be either 0 or 1. A byte is equal to 8 bits.
2. The memories which are erased if there is a power failure are known as volatile memories.
RAM is an example of volatile memory. The memories, which do not loose their content on
failure of power supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.
3. (a) T(b) T(c) F(d) F(e) T
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 3
1. Impact printers use the familiar typewriter approach of hammering a typeface against the
paper and inked ribbon. Non-impact printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print. They
use electro-static chemicals and ink-jet technologies.
2. A hard copy terminal provides a printout on paper whereas soft copy terminals provide visual
copy on monitor.

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3. (a) T(b) F(c) T (d) F (e) T

COMPUTER BUSES
NB: The internal circuitry of the CPU is interconnected with a number of Buses: A bus is an electronic
pathway that links various CPU components (ALU, Registers and CU). There are three kinds of buses
namely:
i. Data bus- transfers data
ii. Address bus- carries addresses of memory locations for both data and instructions
iii. Control bus- conveys control signals from the Control unit (CU)

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