MATH 4 NC - MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD {M, A, T, H, E, I, C, S}.

b. The set of the three major island groups in the Philippines.

BASIC PROPERTIES OF SETS Philippines is {Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao}
• A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. The terms “set,” Note: When writing sets, the order of the elements does not matter.
“collection,” and “family” are synonymous. Individual objects are called
elements or members of a set. Usually, we denote sets with capital EXAMPLE 2.1.2
letters while elements with small letters. • Use statement form method to describe each of the given sets.
• A set maybe finite or infinite. For example, the set consisting of months a. {a, e, i, o, u }
that begin with the letter M has March and May as its elements. This is The set of vowels in the English Alphabet.
a finite set. On the other hand, the set consisting of positive odd b. {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
integers is an example of an infinite set. The set of first five positive even integers.

COMMON NUMBER SETS

SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
𝐍 NATURAL NUMBERS/ COUNTING NUMBERS
𝑵 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,…}
𝐖 WHOLE NUMBERS
The number zero together with the natural numbers.
𝑾 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,…}
𝐙 INTEGERS
METHODS FOR REPRESENTING SETS The positive integers, negative integers and zero.
1. Statement form method - well-defined description of the elements of 𝒁 = {…, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …}
the set is given. RATIONAL NUMBERS
𝑸
2. Roster method - listing or enumerating the members. Commas are 𝑝
used to separate the elements of the set while braces are used to Rational numbers are numbers of the form where p and q are
𝑞
designate that the enclosed elements form a set. integers and q ≠ 0. These numbers are either terminating or
3. Set-Builder Notation - especially useful when describing infinite sets. repeating decimals.
1 1
Examples: = 0.5 , = 0.333 … 𝑜𝑟 ̅̅̅̅ 0.3
EXAMPLE: 2 3
Statement form Method Roster Method 𝑰 IRRATIONAL NUMBERS
The set of first seven prime numbers {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17} Irrational numbers are numbers which cannot be written as a simple
The set of days of the week { Mon, Tues, Wed, Thurs, Fri, Sat, fraction. These are numbers which are nonterminating and
Sun} nonrepeating decimals.
Examples: 𝝅 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟓𝟗 … , √𝟐 = 1.41421…
EXAMPLE 2.1.1 𝑹 REAL NUMBERS
• Use roster method to write each of the given sets. Real numbers are either rational numbers or irrational numbers.
a. The set of all letters in the word MATHEMATICS.

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• The symbol ∈ is read “is an element of” or “it belongs to”. DEFINITION 2.1.2
• The symbol  is read “is not an element of” or “it does not belong to”. • A set is finite if the number of elements in a set is finite. In other words,
a finite set is a set which you could in principle count and finish
EXAMPLE 2.1.3. counting.
• Determine whether each statement is true or false.
a. -5 ∈ 𝑁 DEFINITION 2.1.3
There are no negative natural numbers, so the statement is false. • An infinite set is a set whose elements cannot be counted. In other
1 words, an infinite set is a set that has no last element.
b. ∉𝑍
3
1
Since is not an integer, so the statement is true. DEFINITION 2.1.4
3
• The cardinality of a finite set is the number of distinct elements in the
SET-BUILDER NOTATION set. It is also called the cardinal number of the set. The cardinal number
• is especially useful when describing infinite sets. For instance, in set- of a finite set A is denoted by the notation 𝑛(𝐴) or |𝐴|.
builder notation, the set of natural numbers greater than 7 is written as
follow EXAMPLE 2.1.6
𝐷 = { 0, 0, 0, 4 , 9 , 4 , 9}
Elements that are listed more than once are counted only once. Thus,
𝑛(𝐷) = 3.

DEFINITION 2.1.5
• Set A is equal to set B, denoted by A = B if and only if A and B have
exactly the same elements.
EXAMPLE 2.1.4
• Use set-builder notation to write the set of integers less than –3. EXAMPLE 2.1.7
{𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑍 and x < -3} A = {5, 7, 0, 5} and B = {0, 5, 7}
Since the two sets have exactly the same elements, so they are equal.
DEFINITION 2.1.1 DEFINITION 2.1.6
• The empty set is the set that has no elements in it. It is also called null • Set A is equivalent to set B denoted by A ~ B if and only if A and B
set or void set. have the same number of elements.
• The symbol  or { } is used to represent the empty set. • Note: All equal sets are equivalents sets. However, the converse of this
statement is false.
EXAMPLE 2.1.5
• The set of negative natural numbers is an example of an empty set. EXAMPLE 2.1.8
𝐴 = {d, f, h, k, x, v} and 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 < 𝑥 < 8}.
Each set has exactly six elements, so the sets are equivalent.

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 SUBSET AND PROPER SUBSET H = {coke, pepsi, 7-up, sprite}
DEFINITION 2.1.7 List all the subsets of set Y.
• Set A is a subset of set B, denoted by A ⊆ B, if and only if every
element of set A is an element of set B. Solution
An organized list shows the following subsets.
EXAMPLE 2.1.9 {} Subset with 0 element
{2, 4, 6, 8, 10} ⊆ {−1, 0 , 2, 4, 6, 8, 10} {coke}, {pepsi}, {7-up}, {sprite} Subsets with 1 element
• This statement is true because every element of the first set is also an coke, pepsi}, {coke, 7-up}, {coke, sprite}, {pepsi, 7-up} Subsets with 2 elements
element of the second set. {Coke, pepsi, 7-up}, {coke, pepsi, sprite}, {coke, 7-up, Subsets with 3 elements
sprite}, {pepsi, 7-up, sprite}
SUBSET RELATIONSHIPS {coke, pepsi, 7-up, sprite} Subsets with 4 elements
a. a. A ⊆ A, for any set A Therefore, a set with 4 elements has 16 subsets and 15 proper subsets.
b. ∅ ⊆ A, for any set A
The notation A ⊈ 𝐵 is used to denote that set A EXAMPLE 2.1.13
is not a subset of set B. • A newly opened bakery sells breads for which you can choose from
eight toppings.
EXAMPLE 2.1.10 𝑊 ⊈ 𝑁 a. How many different variations of breads can the bakery serve?
0 is a whole number, but 0 is not a natural number, so this statement is true. 28 = 256
The bakery can serve a bread with no topping, one topping, two toppings,
DEFINITION 2.1.8 three toppings, four toppings and so forth up to all eight toppings. Let T be
• Set A is a proper subset of set B, denoted by A ⊂ B, if every element the set consisting of the eight toppings. The elements in each subset of T
describe exactly one of the variations of toppings that the bakery can
of set A is an element of set B, and A ≠ B.
serve.
b. What is the minimum number of toppings the bakery must provide if it
EXAMPLE 2.1.11
wishes to advertise that it offers over 2000 variations of its breads?
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = { 5, 2, 4, 1, 3}
Use the method of guessing and checking to find the smallest natural
• The elements of set A are also elements of set B and A ≠ B, so A ⊂ B. number n for which 2n > 1000.
2 = 512
9 2 = 1024
10 211 = 2048
THEOREM 2.1.1 Over 2000 variations of its breads.
• A set with n elements has 2n subsets.
SET OPERATIONS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
THEOREM 2.1.2
• A set with n elements has 2n – 1 proper subsets. DEFINITION 2.2.1
• The set of all elements that are being considered is called the
EXAMPLE 2.1.12 universal set.
Set Y shows the four popular soft drinks that are sold in a school canteen. • We will use the letter 𝑈 to denote the universal set.

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 VENN DIAGRAM WITH THREE SETS

DEFINITION 2.2.2
• The complement of a set A, denoted by A′, is the set of all elements of
the universal set U that are not elements of set A.
Note: a. 𝑈 ′ = ∅ b. ∅′ = 𝑈
where,
EXAMPLE 2.2.1 w = number of elements that belong to none of the sets A, B or C
let 𝑈 = {𝑥|𝑥 < 11 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠}, 𝑄 = {1, 3, 5, Tip: Always start filling values in the Venn diagram from the innermost
7}, and 𝑅 = {2, 4, 6, 8}. value.
Find
a. 𝑄 ′ SET OPERATIONS
𝑄 ′ = {2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10} INTERSECTION OF SETS
b. 𝑅 ′ DEFINITION 2.2.3
𝑅 ′ = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10} • The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of
elements common to both A and B.
WHAT IS A VENN DIAGRAM? A ∩ B = {𝑥 |𝑥 ∈ A and 𝑥 ∈ B}
• Venn diagram, also known as Euler-Venn diagram is a simple
representation of sets by diagrams. The usual depiction makes use of a The shaded region below represents the intersection of sets A and B.
rectangle as the universal set and circles for the sets under
consideration.

VENN DIAGRAM WITH TWO SETS

where; Definition 2.2.4

x = number of elements that belong to set A only • Two sets A and B are disjoint if A ∩ B = ∅.
y = number of elements that belong to set B only
z = number of elements that belong to set A and B both (A∩B)
w = number of elements that belong to none of the sets A or B

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 A ∩ B = {1, 2, 5, 6, 8} ∩ {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
UNION OF SETS = {1, 5, 6}
DEFINITION 2.2.5 b. B U C
• The union of sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set that contains BUC = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} U {3, 4, 7, 10}.
all elements that belong to A or B or to both. = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10}
A ∪ B = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ A or 𝑥 ∈ B} c. B – C
B – C = {1, 5, 6}

APPLICATIONS OF SETS
EXAMPLE 2.2.3
• In a university, 200 students are randomly selected. 140 like tea, 120
like coffee and 80 like both tea and coffee.
a. How many students like only tea?
DIFFERENCE OF SETS 60
Definition 2.2.6 b. How many students like only coffee?
• The difference of sets A and B, denoted by A − B, is the set that 40
contains all elements that belong to A minus the elements that belong to c. How many students like neither tea nor coffee?
B. 20
A − B = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ A and 𝑥 ∉ B} d. How many students like only one of tea or coffee?
In the figure below, the shaded region represents the difference of sets A 60 + 40 = 100
and B. e. How many students like at least one of the beverages?
60 + 40 + 80 = 180
Solution: The given information may be represented by the following Venn
diagram, where T = tea and C = coffee.

Example 2.2.2
Let A = {1, 2, 5, 6, 8} , B = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, EXAMPLE 2.2.4
and C = {3, 4, 7, 10}. a. In a class of 50 students, 27 like Math, 44 like English and every single
student has at least one like subject.
Find a. How many students like both Math and English?
a. A ∩ B

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b. How many students like Math alone? Therefore, only 23 students like English alone
c. How many students like English alone?
EXAMPLE 2.2.5
Solution b. In a survey of university students, 64 had taken mathematics course, 94
The 27 students who like Math is composed of the students who like Math had taken chemistry course, 58 had taken physics course, 28 had taken
alone (M) and the students who like both Math and English (B). Hence, M + mathematics and physics, 26 had taken mathematics and chemistry, 22
B = 27 had taken chemistry and physics course, and 14 had taken all the three
Also, the 44 students who like English is composed of the students who like courses. Find how many had taken one course only.
English (E) and the students who like both English and Math (B). Hence, E +
B = 44 Solution :
Lastly, the total number of students in the class is 50 which is composed of Step 1: Let M, C and P represent the courses Mathematics, Chemistry and
students who like Math alone (M), those who like English alone (E) and those Physics respectively.
who like both Math and English (B). Hence, M + B + E = 50 Venn diagram related to the information given in the question:
a. Solving for the number of students who like both Math and English (B):
Note that M + B = 27 and E + B = 44
Then (M + B) + ( E + B) = 27 + 44
M + B + E + B = 71
But M + B + E = 50
So (M + B + E) + B = 71
50 + B = 71
B = 21 Step 2 :
Therefore, 21 students like both Math and English From the venn diagram above, we have
b. Solving for the number of students who like Math alone (M): No. of students who had taken only math = 24
Note that M + B = 27 No. of students who had taken only chemistry = 60
But B = 21 No. of students who had taken only physics = 22
So M + B = 27 Step 3 :
M + 21 = 27 Total no. of students who had taken only one course :
M = 27 – 21 = 24 + 60 + 22
M=6 = 106
Therefore, only 6 students like Math alone So, the total number of students who had taken only one course is 106.
c. Solving for the number of students who like English alone (E):
Note that E + B = 44
But B = 21
So E + B = 44
E + 21 = 44
E = 44 – 21
E = 23

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 LOGIC COMPOUND STATEMENTS
f. Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if
SECTION 3.1 LOGIC STATEMENTS AND QUANTIFIERS . . . then, and if and only if creates a compound statement.
Example – Compound Statements
LOGIC STATEMENTS a. I will attend the meeting, or I will go to school.
Definition 3.1.1 b. 0 + 5 = 5 and parrot is a bird.
c. A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not c. If you buy a ticket, then you can take the flight.
both true and false. d. I am not going to school if and only if today is Sunday.

Example: Determine whether each sentence is a statement. LOGIC CONNECTIVES

a) Cagayan de Oro City is in Mindanao. S g. George Boole used symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple
is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Thus, it is not a statement. statements and the symbols ~, ∧, ∨, → and ⟷ to represent
b) Are you going to school? NS connectives.
is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Thus, it is not a statement. ~ Negating with statements
c) 5131 − 1 is an odd number. S ∧ And
The sentence “5131 − 1 is an odd number” is either true or false, and it is ∨ or
not both true and false, so it is a statement.
d) Brush your teeth. NS → If…Then…
The sentence “Brush your teeth” is a command; it is not a declarative ⟷ If and only if
sentence. Thus, it is not a statement.
e) x + 4 = 8 S LOGIC CONNECTIVES AND SYMBOLS
x + 4 = 8 is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for
= 4, and it is false for any other values of x. Statement Connective Symbolic Type of
Form Statement
Exercise: Determine whether each sentence is a statement. Not 𝑝 Not ~𝑝 Negation
a) Go to the supermarket. 𝑝 and 𝑞 And 𝑝∧𝑞 Conjunction
b) One million is a large number. 𝑝 or 𝑞 Or 𝑝∨𝑞 Disjunction
c) In the year 2030, the president of the Philippines will be a woman. If 𝑝, then 𝑞 If…then 𝑝→𝑞 Conditional
d) 40 - 18 = 23 𝑝 if and only if 𝑞 If and only if 𝑝⟷𝑞 Biconditional
e) x + y > 5
TRUTH VALUE
SIMPLE STATEMENTS AND COMPOUND STATEMENTS Definition 3.1.4
Definition 3.1.2 h. The truth value of a simple statement is true if is a true statement, and
d. A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. the truth value of a simple statement is false if it is a false statement.
Definition 3.1.3 ➢ The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth
e. A compound statement is a statement that conveys two or more ideas. values of its simple statements and its connectives.

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 Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.
TRUTH TABLE a. 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝
Definition 3.1.5 The game will be shown on GMA and the game will be played in
i. The truth table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for Araneta Coliseum.
all possible truth values of its simple statements. b. ~𝑟 ∧ 𝑠
The game will be shown on TV5 and the Blue Eagles are favored to
Example 3.1.3: Write the negation of each statement. win.
a. Gary Valenciano is a singer. c. 𝑠 ↔ ~𝑝
Gary Valenciano is not a singer. The Blue Eagles are favored to win if and only if the game will not be
b. The dog does not need to be fed. played in Araneta Coliseum.
The dog needs to be fed.
COMPOUND STATEMENTS AND GROUPING SYMBOLS
Example – Write Compound Statements in Symbolic Form Symbolic Form The parentheses indicate that
Consider the following statements. 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟) 𝑞 and ~𝑟 are grouped together
p: Today is Friday.
(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 𝑝 and 𝑞 are grouped together
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie. (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) → (𝑟 ∨ 𝑠) 𝑝 and ~𝑞 are grouped together
s: I am not going to the basketball game. 𝑟 and 𝑠 are also grouped together

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form. Use of parenthesis

a. Today is Friday, and it is raining. • If a statement in symbolic form is written as an English sentence, then
𝑝 ∧𝑞 the simple statements that appear together in parentheses in the
b. It is not raining, and I am going to a movie. symbolic form will all be on the same side of the comma that appears
~𝑞 ∧ 𝑟 in the English sentence.
c. I am going to the basketball game, or I am going to a movie. • If a compound statement is written as an English sentence, then a
~𝑠 ∨ 𝑟 comma is used to indicate which statements are grouped together.
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
𝑞→𝑠 Statements on the same side of a comma are grouped together.
English Sentence The comma indicates that:
Example 3.1.5 Consider the following statements. 𝑝 and 𝑞 or no 𝑟. 𝑞 and ~𝑟 are grouped together because they
𝑝:The game will be played in Araneta Coliseum. are both in the same side of the comma
q: The game will be shown on GMA. 𝑝 and 𝑞, or 𝑟 𝑝 and 𝑞 are grouped together because they
r: The game will not be shown on TV5. are both on the same side of the comma
s: The Blue Eagles are favored to win. If 𝑝 and not 𝑞, then 𝑟 or 𝑠. 𝑝 and ~𝑞 are grouped together because they
are both to the left of the comma
𝑟 and 𝑠 are grouped together because they
are both to the right of the comma

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 TRUTH VALUE OF A CONJUCTION
Example 3.1.5 Let 𝒑, 𝒒, and 𝒓 represent the following. • The conjunction 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is true if and only if both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true
𝑝 : You get a promotion. • The truth table below shows the four possible cases that arise when we
𝑞 : You complete the training. form a conjunction of two statements.
𝑟 : You will receive a bonus.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒
a. Write (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ⟶ 𝑟 as an English sentence. Truth Table for T T T
Because the p and the q statements both appear in parentheses in the 𝒑∧𝒒 T F F
symbolic form, they are placed to the left of the comma in the English F T F
sentence. F F F

TRUTH VALUE OF DISJUNCTION

• The truth table below shows that the disjunction p or q is false if both p
and q are false; however, it is true in all other cases.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒
Truth Table for T T T
If you get a promotion and complete the training, then you will receive 𝒑∨𝒒 T F T
a bonus.
F T T
F F F
b. Write “If you do not complete the training, then you will
not get a promotion and you will not receive a bonus.” in
symbolic form. Example 3.1.6 Determine whether each statement is true or false.
Because the not p and the not r statements are both to a. 7 ≥ 5. TS
the right of the comma in the English sentence, they are 7 ≥ 5 means 7 > 5 or 7 = 5. Because 7 > 5 is true, the statement
grouped together in parentheses in the symbolic form. 7 ≥ 5 is a true statement.
b. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number. F
This is a false statement because 5 is not an even number
c. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number. T
This is a true statement because each simple statement is true.

QUANTIFIERS AND NEGATION

• In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least
~𝑞 → (~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑟)
one are called existential quantifiers. Existential quantifiers are used as
prefixes to assert the existence of something.
• In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are called universal
quantifiers. The universal quantifiers none and no deny the existence

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 of something, whereas the universal quantifiers all and every are used F T T
to assert that every element of a given set satisfies some condition F T F
F F T
Statement Negation F F F
All 𝑋 are 𝑌 Some 𝑋 are not 𝑌 Standard truth table form for a statement that involves the three simple 𝑝, 𝑞, and 𝑟
No 𝑋 are 𝑌 Some 𝑋 are 𝑌
Some 𝑋 are not 𝑌 All 𝑋 are 𝑌 Example 3.2.1 a. Construct a table for ~(~𝒑 ⋁ 𝒒) ⋁ 𝒒.
Some 𝑋 are 𝑌 No 𝑋 are 𝑌 1. Start with the standard truth table form and then include a ∼ 𝑝 column.
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑
Example 3.1.7 Write the negation of each of the following statements. T T F
a. No doctors write in a legible manner T F F
Some doctors write in a legible manner. F T T
b. Some airports are open. F F T
No airports are open. 2. Now use the truth values from the ∼ 𝑝 and 𝑞 columns to produce the
c. All movies are worth the price of admission truth values for ∼ 𝑝⋁𝑞 as shown in the rightmost column of the
Some movies are not worth the price of admission. following table.
d. No odd numbers are divisible by 2. 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒑⋁𝒒
Some odd numbers are divisible by 2. T T F T
T F F F
TRUTH TABLES, EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS, AND TAUTOLOGIES F T T T
• If the given statement involves only two simple statements, then start F F T T
with a table with four rows, called the standard truth table form. 3. Negate the truth values in the (∼ 𝑝⋁𝑞) column to produce the
𝒑 𝒒 Given Statement following.
T T 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒑⋁𝒒 ~(~𝒑⋁𝒒)
T F T T F T F
F T T F F F T
F F F T T T F
Standard Truth table form for a given statement that involves only the two simple statements 𝑝 and 𝑞
F F T T F
4. As our last step, we form the disjunction of ∼ (∼ 𝑝⋁𝑞) with 𝑞 and
• Compound statements that involve exactly three simple statements place the results in the rightmost column of the table. See the following
require a standard truth table form with 23 = 8 rows
table. The shaded column is the truth table for ∼ (∼ 𝑝⋁𝑞) ⋁𝑞.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 Given Statement
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒑⋁𝒒 ~(~𝒑⋁𝒒) ~(~𝒑⋁𝒒)⋁𝒒
T T T
T T F T F T
T T F
T F F F T T
T F T
F T T T F T
T F F

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 F F T T F F DE MORGAN’S LAWS FOR STATEMENTS
• For any statements 𝑝 and 𝑞,
b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of ∼ (𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞) ≡ ∼ 𝑝 ⋀ ∼ 𝑞
~(~𝑝⋁𝑞)⋁𝑞, given that p is true and q is false. ∼ (𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞) ≡ ∼ 𝑝 ⋁ ∼ 𝑞
In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that when p is true, and q • These equivalences can be used to restate certain English sentences in
is false, the statement ∼ (∼ 𝑝⋁𝑞) ⋁𝑞 in the rightmost column is an equivalent form.
true.
Example 3.2.4 Use De Morgan’s law to restate the given sentence in an
EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS equivalent form.
Definition 3.2.1 a. It is not true that, I graduated or I got a job.
• Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same truth value Let p be the statement “I graduated” and q be the statement “I got a
for all possible truth values of their simple statements. job.”
• Equivalent statements have identical truth values in the final columns of Then, in symbolic form, the given sentence is
their truth tables. ∼ (𝑝⋁𝑞). By De Morgan’s law,
• The notation 𝑝 ≡ 𝑞 is used to indicate that the statements p and q are ∼ (𝑝⋁𝑞) ≡∼ 𝑝⋀ ∼ 𝑞.
equivalent. Thus, the given sentence is equivalent to
“I did not graduate and I did not get a job.”
Example 3.2.3 Show that ∼ (𝒑 ⋁ ∼ 𝒒) and ∼ 𝒑⋀𝒒 are equivalent
statements. TAUTOLOGIES AND SELF-CONTRADICTIONS
We construct the two truth tables and compare the results. Definition 3.2.2
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒒 𝒑 ⋁ ~𝒒 ~(𝒑 ⋁ ~𝒒) • A tautology is a statement that is always true.
T T F T F Definition 3.2.3
T F T T F • A self-contradiction is a statement that is always false.
F T F F T
F F T T F Example 3.2.5 Show that 𝒑 ⋁(∼ 𝒑⋁𝒒) is a tautology.
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ∼ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 𝒑 ∨ (∼ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒)
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 T T F T T
T T F F T F F F T
T F F F F T T T T
F T F T T F T T T
F F T F • The final column of the table shows that the statement 𝑝⋁(∼𝑝⋁𝑞) is
always true. Thus, 𝑝 ⋁ (∼𝑝⋁𝑞) is a tautology.
• Since the truth tables show that ∼(𝑝⋁∼𝑞) and ∼𝑝⋀𝑞 have the same
truth values for all possible truth values of their simple statements, we CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
conclude that ∼(𝑝⋁∼𝑞) ≡ ∼p⋀q. • Conditional statements can be written in if p, then q form or in if p, q
form. For instance, all the following are conditional statements.

11
1. If we order pizza, then we can have it delivered. Now consider the truth value of p → q for each of the following four
2. If you go to the movie, you will not be able to meet us for dinner. possibilities.
3. If n is a prime number greater than 2, then n is an odd number
• In any conditional statement represented by “If p, then q” or by “If p,
q,” the p statement is called the antecedent and the q statement is
called the consequent.
Example 3.3.1 Identify the antecedent and consequent in the following
statements.
a. If I have plenty of money, I will watch BTS concert in South Korea.
Antecedent: I have plenty of money
Consequent: I will watch BTS concert in South Korea
b. If you love me, obey my commands. THE TRUTH TABLE FOR THE CONDITIONAL 𝒑 → 𝒒
Antecedent: You love me
Consequent: Obey my commands Row 1: Antecedent T, Consequent T
c. If you strike me down, I shall become more powerful than you can • You can use a word processor, and you can create a webpage. In this
possibly imagine case the truth value of the advertisement is true. We place a T in place
Antecedent: You strike me down of the question mark in row 1.
Consequent: I shall become more powerful than you can possibly Row 2: Antecedent T, Consequent F
imagine • You can use a word processor, but you cannot create a webpage. In
this case the advertisement is false. We put an F in place of the
• The conditional statement, “If 𝑝, then 𝑞" can be written using the arrow question mark in row 2
notation 𝑝 → 𝑞 the arrow notation is read as “if 𝑝, then 𝑞” or as “𝑝 Row 3: Antecedent F, Consequent T
implies 𝑞” • You cannot use a word processor, but you can create a webpage.
Because the advertisement does not make any statement about what
THE TRUTH TABLE FOR THE CONDITIONAL p → q you might or might not be able to do if you cannot use a word
• To determine the truth table for 𝑝 → 𝑞, consider the advertising slogan processor, we cannot state that the advertisement is false, and we are
for a web authoring software product that states, “If you can use a compelled to place a T in place of the question mark in row 3
word processor, you can create a webpage.” Row 4: Antecedent F, Consequent F
• This slogan is a conditional statement. • You cannot use a word processor, and you cannot create a webpage.
Once again, we must consider the truth value in this case to be true
• The antecedent is p, “you can use a word processor,” and the because the advertisement does not make any statement about what
consequent is q, “you can create a webpage.” you might or might not be able to do if you cannot use a word
processor. We place a T in place of the question mark in row 4

12
 THE NEGATION OF THE CONDITIONAL
The truth table for the conditional p → q • Because 𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ ~𝑝⋁𝑞, an equivalent form of ~(𝑝 → 𝑞) is given
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 by~(~𝑝⋁𝑞), which by one of De Morgan’s laws, can be expressed as
T T T the conjunction 𝑝⋀ ∼ 𝑞.
T F F • Hence, ∼ (𝒑 → 𝒒) ≡ 𝒑⋀ ∼ 𝒒.
F T T Example 3.3.4 Write the negation of each conditional statement.
F F T a. If I get high grades, my parents will buy me an Ipad.
• The conditional 𝑝 → 𝑞 if false if 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false. It is true in all I get high grades and my parents will not buy me an Ipad.
other cases b. If the lines are parallel, then they do not intersect.
The lines are parallel and they intersect.
Example 3.3.2 Construct a truth table for [𝒑⋀(𝒒 ⋁ ∼ 𝒑)] →∼ 𝒑.
BICONDITIONAL
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 𝒒 ⋁ ~𝐩 𝒑⋀(𝒒 ⋁ ~𝐩) [𝒑⋀(𝒑 → 𝒒⋁~𝒑)] → ~𝒑 Definition 3.3.1
T T F T T F
• The statement (𝑝 → 𝑞) ⋀ (𝑞 → 𝑝) is called a biconditional and is
T F F F F T
F T T T F T denoted by 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 which is read as “𝒑 if and only if 𝒒”
F F T T F T • Hence, 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ⋀ (𝑞 → 𝑝)]

AN EQUIVALENT FORM OF THE CONDITIONAL 𝒑 𝒒 𝒑↔𝒒

• The truth table for ~𝒑⋁𝒒 T T T
T F F
• The truth values in this table are identical to the truth values
F T F
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑⋁𝒒 𝑝 𝑞 𝒑→𝒒
F F T
T T T T T T
True Table for 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞
T F F T F F
F T T F T T Example 3.3.5 State whether each biconditional is true or false.
F F T F F T a. x + 4 = 7 if and only if x = 3.
• Hence, the conditional p → q is equivalent to the disjunction ~𝑝⋁𝑞. That Both equations are true when x = 3, and both are false when x ≠ 3.
is, ~𝑝⋁𝑞 ≡ p → q. Both equations have the same truth value for any value of x, so this is a
true statement.
Example 3.3.3 Write each of the following in its equivalent disjunctive form. b. 𝑥 2 = 36 if and only if x = 6.
a. If I could play the guitar, I would join the band. If x = – 6, the first equation is true and the second equation is false.
I cannot play the guitar or I would join the band. Thus, this is a false statement.
b. If Thirdy Ravena cannot play, then his team will
lose.
Thirdy Ravena can play or his team will lose.

13
 THE CONDITIONAL AND RELATED STATEMENTS → The CONTRAPOSITIVE of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is ~𝑞 → ~𝑝
• The converse of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is formed by interchanging the
EQUIVALENT FORMS OF THE CONDITIONAL • antecedent p with the consequent q.
• Every conditional statement can be stated in many equivalent forms. It • The inverse of p 𝑝 → 𝑞 is formed by negating the
is not even necessary to state the antecedent before the consequent. antecedent p and negating the consequent q.
• For instance, the conditional “If I live in Luzon, then I must live in Manila” • The contrapositive of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is formed by negating both the antecedent
can also be stated as I must live in Manila, if I live in Luzon. p and the consequent q and interchanging these negated statements.
Every conditional statement 𝒑 → 𝒒 can be written in the following forms Example 3.4.2 Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of
𝐼𝑓 𝑝, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑞. Every 𝑝, is a 𝑞 a. If I get the job, then I buy a new house.
𝐼𝑓 𝑝, 𝑞. 𝑞, if 𝑝 Converse: If I buy a new house, then I get the job.
𝑝 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑞. 𝑞 is provided that 𝑝. Inverse: If I do not get the job, then I will not buy a new house.
𝑝 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑞. 𝑞 is a necessary condition for 𝑝 Contrapositive: If I did not buy a new house, then I did not get the job.
𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞. 𝑝 is a sufficient condition for 𝑞

Example 3.4.1 Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form. STATISTICS
a. The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by 2. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
The statement, “The number is an even number provided that it is
divisible by 2,” is in “q provided that p” form. THE ARITHMETIC MEAN
The antecedent is “it is divisible by 2,” and the consequent is “the • Statistics involves the collection, organization, summarization,
number is an even number.” presentation, and interpretation of data.
Thus its “If p, then q” form is • The branch of statistics that involves the collection, organization,
If it is divisible by 2, then the number is an even number. summarization, and presentation of data is called descriptive statistics.
b. Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday. • The branch that interprets and draws conclusions from the data is
The statement, “Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday,” called inferential statistics.
is in “p only if q” form. The antecedent is “today is Friday.” • One of the most basic statistical concepts involves finding measures of
The consequent is “yesterday was Thursday.” Its “If central tendency of a set of numerical data.
p, then q” form is • We will consider three types of averages, known as the arithmetic
If today is Friday, then yesterday was Thursday. mean, the median, and the mode. Each of these averages is a measure
of central tendency for the numerical data.
THE CONVERSE, THE INVERSE, AND THE CONTRAPOSITIVE • In statistics it is often necessary to find the sum of a set of numbers. The
• Every conditional statement has three related statements. They are traditional symbol used to indicate a summation is the Greek letter
called the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive. sigma, . Thus, the notation x, called summation notation, denotes the
• Statements Related to the Conditional Statement sum of all the numbers in a set.
→ The CONVERSE of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is 𝑞 → 𝑝
→ The INVERSE of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is ~𝑝 → ~𝑞

14
DEFINITION 4.1.1 The mean using the 𝑛 numbers 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑛 is the sum of DEFINITION 4.1.2
the numbers divided by 𝑛, i.e,., • The median of a ranked list of 𝑛 numbers is:
• The middle number if 𝑛 is odd
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 • The mean of the two middle numbers if 𝑛 is even
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = .
𝑛 𝑛
Example: Find the median of the data in the following lists
Statisticians often collect data from small portions of a large group in order a. 4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12
to determine information about the group.
1, 3, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14, 21
• In such situations, the entire group under consideration is known as the The middle number is 9. Thus 9 is the median.
population, and any subset of the population is called a sample
• It is traditional to denote the mean of a sample of 𝑥̅ (read as “x bar”) b. 46, 23, 92, 89, 77, 108
and to denote the mean of a population by the Greek Letter 𝜇
(lowercase mu) 23, 46, 77, 89, 92, 108
The two middle numbers are 77 and 89. The mean of 77 and 89 is 83.
𝑥̅ – Sample Mean Thus 83 is the median of the data
𝜇 – Population Mean
THE MODE
EXAMPLE 4.1.1 Six friends in a Biology Class of 20 students received test • A third type of average is the mode
grades of 92, 84, 65, 76, 88, and 90
The 6 friends are a sample of the population of 20 students. Use 𝑥̅ to DEFINITION 4.1.3
represent the mean • The mode of a list of numbers is the number that occurs most frequently
∑𝑛 𝑥𝑖
𝑥̅ = 𝑖=1 Example: Find the mode of the data in the following lists
𝑛 a. 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21
92 + 84 + 65 + 76 + 88 + 90
𝑥̅ = Mode: 15
6 Number 15 occurs more often than the other numbers
495
𝑥̅ = = 82.5 b. 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23
6 Mode: None
The mean of these test scores is 82.5 No numbers occurs more often than the others
THE MEDIAN THE WEIGHTED MEAN
• Another type of average is the median. • A value called the weighted mean is often used when some data values
• Any list of numbers that is arranged in numerical order from smallest to are more important than others.
largest or largest to smallest is a ranked list.
DEFINITION 4.1.4

15
• The weighted mean of 𝑛 numbers 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 … 𝑥𝑛 with the respective Data that have not been organized or manipulated in any manner are
assigned weights 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 … 𝑤𝑛 is called raw data.
∑𝑛 (𝑥𝑖 ∙ 𝑤𝑖 ) A large collection of raw data may not provide much readily observable
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑖=1𝑛 information.
∑𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 A frequency distribution, which is a table that lists observed events and the
(𝑥𝑖 ∙ 𝑤𝑖 ) + (𝑥2 ∙ 𝑤2 ) + ⋯ (𝑥𝑛 ∙ 𝑤𝑛) frequency of occurrence of each observed event, is often used to organize
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
𝑤1 + 𝑤2 + ⋯ 𝑤𝑛 raw data.

Example 4.1.4 For instance, many professors determine a student’s course THE RANGE
grade from the student’s tests and the final examination. • To measure the spread or dispersion of data, we introduce statistical
Consider the situation in which a professor counts the final examination values known as the range and the standard deviation.
score as 2 test scores. To find the weighted mean of the student’s scores, the
professor first assigns a weight to each score. Definition 4.2.1 The range of a set of data values is the difference
between the greatest data value and the least data value.
In this case the professor could assign each of the test scores a weight of 1
and the final exam score a weight of 2 Example 4.2.1 Find the range of the numbers of ounces dispensed by
A student with test scores of 65, 70 and 75 and a final examination score Machine 1 in Table 4.2.1.
of 90 has a weighted mean of Machine 1 Machine 2
(65 ∙ 1) + (70 ∙ 1) + (75 ∙ 1) + (90 ∙ 2) 390 9.52 8.01
= = 78
5 5 6.41 7.99
10.07 7.95
Example 4.1.5 Table 13.1 shows Alma’s first semester course grades. Use 5.85 8.03
the weighted mean formula to find Alma’s GPA for the first semester. 8.15 8.02
Course Course Numerical Course Units 𝑥̅ = 8.0 𝑥̅ = 8.0
Grade Equivalent
English B 3 3 The greatest number of ounces dispensed is 10.07 and the least is 5.85. the
Rizal A 4 3 range of the numbers of ounces dispensed is
Chem Lecture D 1 3 10.07 − 5.85 = 4.22 𝑜𝑧
Chemistry Laboratory C 2 2
Calculus A- 3.5 5 THE STANDARD DEVIATION
Philosophy B- 2.5 3 • The range is a measure that depends only on the two most extreme
values, and as such it is very sensitive. A measure of dispersion that is
(3)(3) + (4)(3) + (1)(3) + (2)(2) + (3.5)(5) + (2.5)(3) 53 less sensitive to extreme values is the standard deviation.
= = 2.79
3+3+3+2+5+3 19 • The standard deviation of a set of numerical data makes use of the
Alma’s GPA for the first semester is 2.79 amount by which each individual data value deviates from the mean.
These deviations, represented by (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ), are positive when the data

16
 value 𝑥 is greater than the mean 𝑥̅ and are negative when 𝑥 is less In those cases, in which we do work with a population, we designate the
than the mean 𝑥̅ . The sum of all the deviations (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ) is 0 for all sets standard deviation of the population by , which is the lowercase Greek
of data letter sigma.

This is shown in Table 4.2.3 for the Machine 2 data of Table 4.2.2. We can use the following procedures to calculate the standard deviation of
Machine 1 Machine 2 𝒙 𝒙−𝒙 ̅ 𝑛 numbers.
9.52 8.01 8.01 8.01 − 8 = 0.01
6.41 7.99 7.99 7.99 − 8 = −0.01 The procedure for computing a Standard deviation
10.07 7.95 7.95 7.95 − 8 = −0.05 1. Determine the mean of the n numbers
5.85 8.03 8.03 2. For each number, calculate the deviation (difference) between the
8.03 − 8 = 0.03 number and the mean of the numbers
8.15 8.02 8.02 8.02 − 8 = 0.02 3. Calculate the square of each of the deviations and find a sum of these
𝑥̅ = 8.0 𝑥̅ = 8.0 Sum of deviations = 0 squared deviations
Soda Dispensed (ounces) Machine 2: Deviations from the Mean 4. If the data is a population, then divide the sum by 𝑛. If the data is a
sample, then divide the sum by 𝑛 − 1.
Because the sum of all the deviations of the data values from the mean is 5. Find the square root of the quotient in Step 4
always 0, we cannot use the sum of the deviations as a measure of
dispersion for a set of data. Instead, the standard deviation uses the sum of EXAMPLE: The following numbers were obtained by sampling a population
the squares of the deviations. 2, 4, 7, 12, 15
Find the standard deviation of the smaple
STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES 2 + 4 + 7 + 12 + 15
If 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 … 𝑥𝑛 is a population of 𝑛 numbers with a mean of 𝜇, then the 𝑥̅ =
standard deviation of the population is 5
40
=
∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 5
𝜎=√ (1) =8
𝑛
Step 2: For each number, calculate the standard deviation between the
If 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 … 𝑥𝑛 is a population of 𝑛 numbers with a mean of 𝑥̅ , then the number and the mean
standard deviation of the population is 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥̅
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 2 2 − 8 = −6
𝑠=√ (2) 4 2 − 8 = −4
𝑛−1
7 7 − 8 = −1
12 12 − 8 = 4
Most statistical applications involve a sample rather than a population,
which is the complete set of data values. Sample standard deviations are 15 15 − 8 = 7
designated by the lowercase letter s.
STEP 3: Calculate the square of each of the deviations in Step 2 and find
the sum of these squared deviations

17
 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 𝑠 2 = (√29.5)2 = 29.5
2 2 − 8 = −6 36
4 2 − 8 = −4 16 z-SCORES
7 7 − 8 = −1 1 • The number of standard deviations between a data value and the mean is
12 12 − 8 = 4 16 known as the data value’s 𝑧 − 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 or standard score
15 15 − 8 = 7 49
Sum of the squared deviations: 118 DEFINITION 4.3.2
• The z-score for a given data value 𝑥 is the number of standard deviations
STEP 4: Because we have a sample of 𝑛 = 5 values, divide the sum 118 by that 𝑥 is above or below the mean of the data. The following formulas
𝑛 − 1, which is 4 show how to calculate the 𝑧 − 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 for a data value 𝑥 in a population
118 and in a sample
= 29.5
4
POPULATION
STEP 5: The standard deviation of the sample is √20.5. To the nearest 𝑥−𝜇
hundredth, the standard deviation is 𝑠 = 5.43 𝑧𝑥 =
𝜎
THE VARIANCE SAMPLE
A statistic known as the variance is also used as a measure of dispersion 𝑥 − 𝑥̅
𝑧𝑥 =
DEFINITION 4.2.2 𝑠
The variance for a given set of data is the square of the standard
• We use a student’s z-scores for two tests to determine how well the student
deviation of the data
did on each test compared to the other students
The following chart shows the mathematical notations that are used to
EXAMPLE: Raul has taken two tests in his chemistry class. He scored 72 on
denote standard deviations and variances
the first test, for which the mean of all scores was 65 and the standard
deviation was 8. He received a 60 on a second test, for which the mean of
Notations for Standard Deviation and Variance
all scores was 45 and the standard deviation was 12. In comparison to the
𝜎 Standard deviation of a population other students, did Raul do better on the first test or the second test?
𝜎2 Variance of a population
𝑠 Standard deviation of a sample We solve for the z-score for each test
𝑠2 Variance of a sample 𝑧72 =
72−65
= 0.875 and 𝑧60 =
60−45
= 1.25
8 12
Raul scored 0.875 standard deviation above the mean on the first test and
EXAMPLE: Find the variance for the sample given earlier in
1.25 standard deviations above the mean on the second test
The standard deviation which we found in the sample earlier is 𝑠 = √29.5 These z-scores indicate that, compared to his classmates, Raul scored better
The variance is the square of the standard deviation. Thus, the variance is on the second test than he did on the first test

18
 PERCENTILES 576
• Most standardized examinations provide scores in terms of percentiles, = ∙ 100
900
which are defined as follows. = 64
And so, Elaine’s score of 602 places her at the 64 th percentile
DEFINITION 4.3.2
• A value 𝑥 is called the 𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 of a data set, provided p% of the QUARTILES
data values are less than x DEFINITION 4.3.4
• The three numbers, 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , 𝑄3 that partition a ranked data set into four
Example 4.3.2 In a recent year, the median annual salary for a physical (approximately) equal groups are called the quartiles
therapist was $74,480. If the 90th percentile for the annual salary of a • The quartile Q1 is called the first quartile. The quartile Q2 is called the
physical therapist was $105,900, find the percent of physical therapists second quartile. It is the median of the data. The quartile Q3 is called the
whose annual salary was third quartile.
a. more than $74,480.
The median is the 50th percentile. Therefore, 50% of the physical The following method of finding quartiles makes use of medians.
therapists earned more than $74,480 per year.
The median procedure for finding the Quartiles
b. less than $105,900. 1. Rank the data
Because $105,900 is the 90th percentile, 90% of all physical therapists 2. Find the median of the data. This is the second quartile, 𝑄2
made less than $105,900. 3. The first quartile, 𝑄1 , is the median of the first half of the data values;
and the third quartile 𝑄3 , is the median of the second half of the data
c. between $74,480 and $105,900. values
From parts a and b, 90% – 50% = 40% of the physical therapists earned
between $74,480 and $105,900 Example 4.3.4. The following table lists the calories per 100 milliliters of
25 popular sodas. Find the quartiles for the data.
The following formula can be used to find the percentile that corresponds
to a particular data value in a set of data.

DEFINITION 4.3.3 Given a set of data and a data value x

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = ∙ 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 Calories per 100 milliliters for selected sodas
Step 1: Rank the data as shown in the following table.
Example 4.3.3 On a reading examination given to 900 students, Elaine’s
score of 602 was higher than the scores of 576 of the students who took
the examination. What is the percentile for Elaine’s score?
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 = ∙ 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

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 Construct of a Box-and-Whisker Plot:
1. Draw a horizontal scale that extends from the minimum data to the
maximum data value
2. Above the scale, draw a rectangle with its left side at 𝑄1 and its
right side at 𝑄3 .
3. Draw a vertical line segment across the rectangle at the median 𝑄2
4. Draw a horizontal line segment, called a whisker, that extends
Step 2: the median of these 25 data values has a rank of 13. Thus, the from 𝑄1 to the minimum data value and another whisker that
median is 43. The second quartile is the median of the data, so 𝑄2 = 43 extends from 𝑄3 to the maximum data value
Step 3: There are 12 data values less than the median and 12 data values Example 4.3.5. Construct a box-and-whisker plot for the data set in
greater than the median. The frist quartile is the median of the data values Example 4.3.4.
less than the median. Thus, 𝑄1 is the mean of the data values with ranks 6 For the data set in Example 5, we determined that
and 7, that is, Q1 = 39, Q2 = 43, and Q3 = 51.5.
39 + 39 The minimum data value for the data set is 26, and the maximum data
𝑄1 = = 39
2 value is 73. Thus, the box-and-whisker plot is shown below.
Step 3: The third quartile is the median of the data values greater than the
median. Thus, 𝑄3 is the mean of the data values with ranks of 19 and 20,
that is,
50 + 53
𝑄3 = = 51.5
2

BOX-and-WHISKER PLOTS
• A box-and-whisker plot (sometimes called a box plot) is often used to
provide a visual summary of a set of data.
• A box-and-whisker plot shows the median, the first and third quartiles,
and the minimum and maximum values of a data set. See the figure
below.

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