SECTION 7.

The Decibel, Sound Level,

ANC Related Items
7.1 WhatisA
Decibel?
Bel, it can be mathematically ex-
Numerous attempts have been made pressed by the equation:
to explain one of the most common, yet
confusing terms in audio, the “dB.” dB = 10 log (P,+P,)
“dB” is an abbreviation for “decibel,”
and it need not be all that difficult to
To make it clear that the above is
grasp, if properly presented. If you’re
one of the many people who is “a little 10 times the log of P,/P,, we may some-
fuzzy” about decibels, the following
times add a dot (*) to indicate multipli-
cation... ie.:
explanations should clear things up for
you.
dB = 10 « log (P,+P,)
3.1.1 A Mathematical
(This is the same as the previous
Definition of the dB equation)

The dB always describes a ratio of If you are not familiar with logs, it
two quantities... quantities that are may not make much sense to you
most often related to power. The that the right half of the Bel equa-
reason that the dB is used is that it is tion is multiplied by 10 to get a
logarithmic*, and therefore smaller value that’s supposed to be
numbers can be used to express values Yo of a Bel. This is correct, though.
that otherwise would require more It’s not really important for you to
digits. Also, since our ears’ sensitivity grasp the logarithm concept just now...
is “logarithmic,” dB values relate to it’s simply important that you realize
how we hear better than do absolute that a logarithm describes the ratio of
numbers or simple ratios. Thus, the dB two powers, not the power value them-
was intended to simplify things, not to selves. To demonstrate this, let’s plug
complicate them. in some real values in the dB equation.
The decibel is actual Yio of a Bel (a
unit named after Alexander Graham PROBLEM: What is the ratio, in
Bell, which is why the “B” of dB is dB, of 2 watts to 1 watt?
upper case). What’s a Bel?
A Bel is defined as the logarithm of dB = 10 ¢ log (P,+P,)
an electrical, acoustic, or other power
=10 ¢ log (2+ 1)
ratio. (We are describing the ratio of
watts — this ratio does not refer to = 10° log 2
raising numbers to a power, although = 10° .301
that, too, is part of log math.) To ex- = 3.01
press the relationship of two power x
values, P, watts and P, watts, in Bels:
so the ratio of 2 watts to 1 watt is 3 dB.
Bel = log (P,+P,)
NOTE: If you don’t have a calcula-
The decibel is more convenient to tor that gives log values, or a book
use in sound systems, primarily with log tables, then you need to
YAMAHA because the number scaling is more know that the logarithm of 2 is .301
natural. Since a decibel (dB) is “io of a in order to solve the above equation.
Sound ReinforCcEMENT
A calculator that can perform log
Handbook calculations helps a lot.
* “Logarithmic” pertains to “logarithms,”
Page 19 which are explained in the Appendix.
 SECTION 3

PROBLEM: What is the ratio, in GB ite = 10 © log (P,+P,)

dB, of 100 watts to 10 watts?
= 10 © log (100+10)
dB = 10 * log (P,+P,) = 10° log 10
=10e¢1
= 10 ® log (100+10)
= 10dB
= 10 ¢ log 10
=10¢1
What is the ratio of 100 volts to 10
= 10 volts, in dB?

so the ratio of 100 watts to 10 watts is GB. its = 20 * log (E,+E,)

10 dB.
= 20 © log (100+10)
The two previous problems point out = 20 * log 10
interesting aspects of using the dB to = 20 dB
express power ratios:
A) whenever one power is twice
Now, why is 10 times the power a
another, it is 3 dB greater (or if it is 10 dB increase, but 10 times the
half the power, it is 3 dB less), voltage a 20 dB increase? Let’s calcu-
B) whenever one power is ten times late the actual power delivered into an
another, it is 10 dB greater (or if it 8 ohm load by the 10 volt and 100 volt
is “10 the power, it is 10 dB less). outputs. The equation for power is:
One can begin to see the reason for
using dB by expressing a few other P=EF?:R
power values. For instance, how much
greater than 100 watts is 1,000 watts? That is, power in watts = voltage
That’s a 10:1 ratio, so, again, it is squared divided by the resistance in
10 dB. What is the relationship of one ohms. We see that power is propor-
milliwatt to /10 watt? One milliwatt is tional to voltage squared; double the
1/1000 watt, and that’s 1/100 of 10 watt, voltage, you get four times the power.
which means it is 10 dB below '/10 watt. Armed with this knowledge, let’s plug
The dB can be used to express the two values for E (voltage) of 10 and
voltage ratios, as explained below. The 100 volts into the above equation:
decibel relationship of power ratios is P =107+8
not the same as that for voltage ratios.
Power is proportional to the square =100+8
of the voltage. Without going into = 12.5 watts
detail here, this means that where
voltage is concerned, the dB relation- = 1007+8
ships are doubled relative to power. = 10,000 + 8
That is...
= 1,250 watts
dB, ,,,, = 20 log (E,+E,)
volts
As you can see, using ten times the
voltage produces a power output that is
where E, and E, are the two voltage
100 times as great. Now let’s take the
values. Consider what this means. power ratio of the two output powers
While twice the power is a 3 dB in- obtained using 10 and 100 volts (.e.,
crease, twice the voltage is a 6 dB 12.5 watts and 1,250 watts)...
increase. Similarly while 10 times the
power is a 10 dB increase, 10 times the
voltage is a 20 dB increase. The follow-
= 10 © log (1250 + 12.5)
ing equations should clarify this
relationship: = 10 * log (100)
=10°2
What is the ratio of 100 watts to
10 watts, in dB? = 20 dB YAMAHA
As you can see, while 100 volts is ten Sound Reinforcement
times 10 volts, when we refer back to Handbook
the power values from which the dB is Page 20
 The Decibel, 3.1.2 Relative Versus
Sound Level, Absolute Levels
& Related Items derived, we find this represents a The key concept is that “dB,” in
20 dB power ratio. This is why voltages itself, has no absolute value. However,
have twice the multiplier before the log when a standard reference value is
in the dB equation. The same holds used for “0 dB,” then any number of dB
true, by the way, for current relation- above or below that implied or stated
ships (i.e., dB in current uses the 20 zero reference may be used to describe
log equation). a specific quantity. Well give several
If we use a reference value of 1 watt examples of “specifications” to illus-
for Po then the dB = 10 log (P,+P,) trate this concept.
equation yields the following relation- EXAMPLE A: “The console’s
ships: maximum output level is +20 dB.”

That statement is meaningless

because the zero reference for “dB” is
not specified. It’s like telling a stranger
“I can only do 20,” without providing a
clue as to what the 20 describes.
EXAMPLE B: “The console’s
maximum output level is 20 dB
above 1 milliwatt.”

Example B makes a specific claim. It

actually tells us that the console is
capable of delivering 100 milliwatts
(0.1 watt) into some load. How do we
know it can deliver 100 milliwatts? Of
the 20 dB expressed, the first 10 dB
represents a tenfold power increase
(from 1 mW to 10 mW), and the next
10 dB another tenfold increase (from
10 mW to 100 mW). Of course, the
above statement is awkward, so more
Table 3-1. Large power ratios “compact” ways of expressing the same
(expressed in dB) idea have been developed, as explained
in the next subsection.
The value of using dB to express
relative levels should be apparent here,
since a mere 50 dB denotes a 100,000:1
ratio (one hundred thousand watts in
this case). For finding smaller dB
values (i.e., for power ratios between
1:1 and 10:1), the following chart may
be helpful:

YAMAHA
Sound ReinfoRCEMENT
Handbook Table 3-2. Small power ratios
Pace 21 (expressed in dB)
 2.2 Relating the 3.2.2 dBu SECTION 3
Decibel to Electrical
Signal Levels Most modern audio equipment
(consoles, tape decks, signal processors,
etc.) is sensitive to voltage levels.
Power output isn’t really a considera-
3.2.1 dBm tion, except in the case of power
amplifiers driving loudspeakers, in
The term dBm expresses an electri- which case “watts,” rather than any
cal power level, and is always refer- “dB” quantity, is the most common
enced to 1 milliwatt. That is, 0 dBm = term.
1 milliwatt. dBm has no direct rela- The term “dBm” expresses a power
tionship to voltage or impedance. ratio so how does it relate to voltage?
The dBm was actually set forth as Not directly, although the voltage can
an industry standard in the Proceed- be calculated if the impedance is
ings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, known.* That complicates things, and,
Volume 28, in January 1940, in an as we said earlier, the whole concept of
article by H.A. Chinn, D.K. Gannett the dB is to simplify the numbers
and R.M. Moris titled “A New Stan- involved. For that reason, another dB
dard Volume Indicator and Reference term was devised... dBu.
Level.” dBu is a more appropriate term for
The typical circuit in which dBm expressing output or input voltage.
was measured when the term was first This brings up a major source of
devised was a 600 ohm telephone line. confusion with the dB... the dB is often
In the IRE article, the reference level used with different zero references;
was 0.001 watts, which is one mil- dBm implies one zero reference, and
liwatt. It so happens that this amount dBu implies another. We'll go on to
of power is dissipated when a voltage explain these and show the relation-
of 0.775 V_. is applied to a 600 ohm ship between several commonly used
“dB” terms.
line.* For this reason, many people
mistakenly believe that 0 dBm means The voltage represented by dBu is
equivalent to that represented by dBm
“0.775 volts,” but that is only the case if, and only if, the dBm figure is
in a 600 ohm circuit. 0 dBm does,
derived with a 600 ohm load. However,
however, always means one milliwatt.
the dBu value is not dependent on the
load: 0 dBu is always 0.775 volts.
EXAMPLE C: “The console’s
The dBu was specified as a standard
Maximum output level is +20 dBm.”
unit in order to avoid confusion with
another voltage-related dB unit, the
Example C tells us exactly the same
dBV, as explained in Section 3.2.5.
thing as Example B, in Section 3.1.2,
but in fewer words. Instead of stating
EXAMPLE E: “The console’s
“the maximum output level is 100
maximum output level is +20 dBu
milliwatts,” we say it is “+20 dBm.”
into a 10k ohm or higher impedance
load.”
EXAMPLE D: “The mixer’s
maximum output level is +20 dBm
Example E tells us that the console’s
into 600 ohms.”
maximum output voltage is 7.75 volts,
just as we calculated for Example D,
Example D tells us that the output but there is a significant difference.
is virtually the same as that expressed The output in Example D would drive
in Examples B and C, but it gives us
600 ohms, whereas Example E speci-
the additional information that the
load is 600 ohms. This allows us to
calculate that the maximum output * In fact, about the only time that “dBm” is
voltage into that load is 7.75 volts rms, appropriate these days is when the equip-
even though the output voltage is not ment is driving very long cables, like those
given in the specification. used in large sound reinforcement systems
or multi-studio broadcast production YAMAHA
complexes, where true 600 ohm balanced Sound ReinfoRCeEMENT
*The term “RMS” is an abbreviation for circuits are essential to reduce susceptibil-
Root Mean Square, as explained in Section ity to induced noise and high frequency Handbook
3.4. losses. Pace 22
 The Decibel, 3.2.3 dBV and dBv
Sound Level,
& Related Items fies a minimum load impedance of The dBu is a relatively recent
10,000 ohms; if this console were voltage-referenced term. For many
connected to a 600 ohm termination, years, dBV denoted a voltage-refer-
its output would probably drop in ence, with 0 dBV = 1 volt rms. During
voltage, increase in distortion, and that period, it became common practice
might burn out, to use a lower case “v,” as adopted by
How can we make these assump- the National Association of Broad-
tions? One learns to read between the casters (NAB) and others, to denote the
lines. Example D refers the output voltage value corresponding to the
level to power (dBm), so if a given power indicated in dBm (that is, dBv
power level is to be delivered, and the was a voltage-related term with 0 dBv
load impedance is higher, then a = 0.775 volts). “dBv” with the lower
higher voltage would have to be deliv- case “v” was convenient because the dB
ered to equal that same power output. values would tend to be the same as
Conversely, Example E states a mini- though “dBm” were used provided the
mum specified load impedance, and “dBm” output was specified to drive 600
connection to a lower impedance load ohm loads, making it easier to compare
would tend to draw more power from dBu specs with products specified in
the output. Draining more power from dBm. The convenience factor here only
an output circuit that is not capable of makes sense where a voltage sensitive
delivering the power (which we imply (read “high impedance”) input is
from the dBu/voltage specification and involved, and can lead to serious errors
the minimum impedance) will result in elsewhere.
reduced output voltage and possible
distortion or component failure. EXAMPLE F:
1) “The nominal output level is
+4 dBv.”
2) “The nominal output level is
+4 dBV.”

The above two statements, (1) and

(2), appear to be identical, but upon
closer scrutiny, you will notice the
former uses a lower case “v” and the
latter an upper case “V” after the “dB.”
This means that the first output

Level in dBu (or dBm across 600 ohms)

-20 -10 0 +10 +20 +30

06.08 .1 15 2253 456 8 1 15 2253 45678 10 15 2025

EMF in Volts

Level in dBu (or dBm across 600 ohms)

-70 -60 -50 -40 -40 -20

15 2.253 456 8 1 15 2253 4 5678 10 15 20 30 5060 80

YAMAHA EMF in Millivolts (= 10° volts)
Sound ReinfoRCEMENT
Handbook Figure 3-1. Nomograph relating level in dBu
Pace 23 (or dBm across 600 ohms) to voltage
 Section 3

specified will deliver a nominal output NOTE: If you are familiar with
of 1.23 volts rms, whereas the second older Yamaha manuals, you will
mixer specified will deliver a nominal recognize the dBu as being the same
output level of 1.6 volts rms. unit Yamaha formerly described
Unfortunately, people often did not “dBu” (with a lower case “v”) or just
distinguish clearly between “dBv’” (a as “dB.”
0.775 volt zero reference — if one
assumes a 600 ohm circuit) and “dBV”
(a 1 volt zero reference without regard
3.2.4 Converting dBV to
to circuit impedance). To avoid dBu (or to dBm across 600
confusion, the capital “V” was then
made the 1-volt zero reference
ohms)
standard by the International So long as you’re dealing with
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), voltage (not power), you can convert
while the NAB agreed to use a small dBV to dBu (or dBm across 600 ohms)
“w” to denote the voltage value that by adding 2.2 dB to whatever dBV
might be obtained when the customary value you have. To convert dBu (dBm)
600 ohm load is used to measure the to dBV, it’s just the other way around
dBm (although the load itself must be — you subtract 2.2 dB from the dBu
minimal). The “u” in “dBu” thus stands value.
for “unloaded,” a term engineers use to Table 3.3 (below) shows the relation-
describe an output which works into no ship between common values of dBV
load (an open circuit) or an and dBu, and the voltages they repre-
insignificant load (such as the typical sent.
high impedance inputs of modern
audio equipment).
3.2.5 Relating dBV, dBu
EXAMPLE G: and dBm to Specifications
1) “The nominal output level is
+4 dBv.”
In many products, you may see
2) “The nominal output level is
phono jack inputs and outputs rated in
+4 dBu.”
dBV (1 volt reference) because that is
the standard generally applied to such
The two statements, (1) and (2), are equipment, while the XLR connector
identical, although the latter is the
output levels and some phone jack
preferable usage today. Both indicate output levels are rated in dBm (1 milli-
the nominal output level is 1.23 V rms. watt reference) or dBu (0.775 volt
To recap, the only difference be- reference).
tween dBu (or dBv) and dBV is the Typically, line level phono jack
actual voltage chosen as the reference inputs and outputs are intended for
for “0 dB.” 0 dBV is 1 volt, whereas
use with high impedance equipment,
0 dBu and 0 dBv are 0.775 volts. which is basically sensitive to voltage
rather than power, so their nominal
levels may be specified as “-10 dBV.”

YAMAHA
Sound Reinforcement
Handbook
Table 3-3. Conversion factors for dBV and dBu Pace 24
 The Decibel, 9.2 Relating the
Sound Level,
Decibel to Acoustic
& Related Items This standard is the one which has
been used for many years in the Levels
consumer audio equipment business.
Typical line level XLR connector inputs
and outputs are intended for use with The term “sound level” generally
low or high impedance equipment. refers to the sound pressure level,
Since older low impedance equipment although it may refer to sound power.
was sensitive to power, XLR connector While sound power is a rarely used
nominal levels were often specified as term, be sure you make the distinction.
“+4 dBm” or “+8 dBm,” levels charac- The sound power is the total sound
teristic of sound reinforcement and energy radiated by a louspeaker (or
recording, or of broadcast, respectively. other device) in all directions. The
(while dBu values would probably sound pressure is the level measured
suffice today, old practices linger and per unit area at a particular location
the dBm is still used.) Phone jack relative to the sound source.
inputs and outputs are usually speci-
fied at the higher levels and lower im- 3.3.1 dB SPL
pedances characteristic of XLRs,
though exceptions exist. The dB may be used to describe
A low impedance line output gener- sound pressure levels. Another term
ally may be connected to higher imped- for voltage is electromotive Fforce
ance inputs, without much change in (EMF). The force of air pressing
level. Be aware that if a high imped- against the resistance of an eardrum is
ance output is connected to a low analogous to the force of a battery
impedance input, that output may be pushing electrons against the resis-
somewhat overloaded (which can tance in a circuit. Therefore, when a dB
increase the distortion and lower the describes a sound pressure level ratio,
signal level), and the frequency re- the “20 log” equation is used:
sponse may be adversely affected. In
dB,,,,, = 20 log (p,/p,)
some cases, the equipment could be
damaged, so check the specifications where p, and p, are the sound pres-
carefully.
sures, in dynes per square centimeter
or Newtons per square meter.
3.2.6 dBW This equation tells us that if one
SPL is twice another, it is 6 dB greater;
We have explained that the dBm is a if itis 10 times another, it is 20 dB
measure of electrical power, a ratio greater, and so forth.
referenced to 1 milliwatt. dBm is How do we perceive SPL? It turns
handy when dealing with the miniscule out that a sound which is 3 dB higher
power (in the millionths of a watt) in level than another is barely per-
output of microphones, and the modest ceived to be louder; a sound which is
levels in signal processors (in the 10 dB higher in level is perceived to be
milliwatts). One magazine wished to about twice as loud. (Loudness, by the
express larger power numbers without way, is a subjective quantity, and is
larger dB values... for example, the also greatly influenced by frequency
multi-hundred watt output of large and absolute sound level.)
power amplifiers. For this reason, that Does SPL have an absolute refer-
magazine established another dB ence value, and therefore do “SPLs”
power reference: dBW. have quantifiable meaning? Yes,
0 dBW is 1 watt. Therefore, a 100 generally 0 dB SPL is defined as the
watt power amplifier is a 20 dBW threshold of hearing (of a young,
amplifier (10 log (100+1) = 10 log (100) undamaged ear) in the ear’s most
= 10° 2 = 20 dB). A 1000 watt ampli- sensitive range, between 1 kHz and
fier is a 30 dBW amplifier, and so 4 kHz. It represents a pressure level of
forth. In fact, if we are referring to 0.0002 dynes/em?, which is the same as
YAMAHA amplifier power, the dB values in 0.000002 Newtons/m?. Rather than
Sound Reinforcement Tables 3-1 and 3-2 can be considered merely relate various SPLs to various
Handbook “dBW” (decibels, referenced to 1 watt of pressures, it is perhaps more meaning-
Page 25 electrical power). ful to relate SPLs to common sources of
 Section 3

.45 ACP Colt Pistol (25 feet)

50 HP Siren (100 feet)
Threshold of Pain
Typical Recording
Rock Music (10 feet)
Studio Control Room
Monitors for: Film Scoring (20 feet)

Loud Classical Music

Heavy Street Traffi (5 feet)
Cabin of Jet Aircraft (Cruise Configuration)

Average Conversation (3 feet)

Average Suburban Home (night)

Quiet Auditorium
Quiet Recording Studio
Quiet Whisper (5 feet)
Extremely Quiet Recording Studio
NOTE: Sound may be audible
Rustling Leaves
below 0 dB SPL. This Value
Anechoic Chamber*
was based on limited research.
Threshold of Hearing

* Note that some anechoic chambers may be very __ external sounds from entering. Negative SPLs,
noisy; the fact that a chamber does not reflect while possible, are not given since, by definition,
sound internally does not mean it effectively blocks they are below the threshold of audibility.

Table 3-4. Typical sound pressure levels of various sources

(at indicated distances to ear, where appropriate to specify)

sound, as is done in the following more common to use dB SPL because

chart. Naturally, these figures are ap- the sound pressure is more directly
proximations. related to perceived loudness (and is
easily measured).
3.3.2 dB PWL
If, instead of electrical watts, we use
acoustic watts in Tables 3-1 and 3-2,
Acoustic power is expressed in
then those dB values can be considered
acoustic watts, and can be described
“dB PWL” (decibels, sound power).
with a dB term, dB PWL. This term
Incidentally, there is no set
shares the same “10 log” equation as
relationship between dB PW L and
other power ratios:
dBW; the former expresses acoustic
dB ow, = 10 log (P,/P,) power, and the latter electrical power.
If a loudspeaker is fed 20 dBW, it
might generate as little as 10 dB PWL.
Acoustic power and dB PWL come In English... feed 100 watts into a
into play when calculating the reverb loudspeaker, it might generate as little
time of an enclosed space, or the as 10 watts acoustic power. This would
efficiency of a loudspeaker system, but YAMAHA
indicate a conversion efficiency of 10 Sound ReinfoRCEMENT
they are seldom seen on specification percent, which is high for a cone
sheets and seldom used by the average Handbook
loudspeaker in a vented box!
sound system operator. It is much Page 26
 The Decibel, 24 What is RMS?
Sound Level,
& Related Trems depends largely on the nature of the
program source. The rms value of any
“RMS” is an abbreviation for Root program will pretty much reflect the
Mean Square. This is a mathematical energy content of that source. There is
expression used in audio to describe just one minor problem: the term “rms
the level of a signal. RMS is particu- power” is meaningless.
larly useful in describing the energy of Why? Power is the product of
a complex waveform or a sine wave. It voltage times current. Typically, in a
is not the peak level, nor the average, power amp, one is measuring the rms
but rather it is obtained by squaring value of the output voltage and multi-
all the instantaneous voltages along a plying it by the rms value of the output
waveform, averaging the squared current. This does not result in the rms
values, and taking the square root of power because the voltage and current
that number. For a periodic signal, are not in phase, and hence the rms
such as a sine wave, the peak value values do not multiply to form a
can be multiplied by a constant to mathematically valid value. The intent
derive the rms value of that wave. of an rms power rating is valid, but not
However, for an aperiodic signal such the term itself. Manufacturers are still
as speech or music, the rms value can driving amplifiers with sine wave test
only be measured using a specialized signals and connecting the amp out-
meter or detector circuit. puts to dummy loads. They obtain the
The rms value of a sine wave is rms value of the sine wave output
0.707 times the peak value of the wave, voltage, and calculate a value for the
as indicated in Figure 3-2. power output based on that voltage
+1V
ALA and the load resistance or impedance.
PEAK-TO-PEAK

.707V
Those who wish to be technically
o

PEAK
RMS

correct list this rating as “continuous

AMPLITUDE

9
average sine wave power,” rather than
“rms power.”
C

~1V
RMS values are not the exclusive
Figure 3-2. The rms value domain of power amplifiers. In most
of a sine wave (but not all) cases, when you see a
voltage listed for input sensitivity on a
You may recall that many power preamplifier or line amp, it is the rms
amplifier manufacturers used to boast voltage. For example, you may recall
their amps delivered “X watts rms that 0 dBm is 1 milliwatt which equals
Power,” and that this was supposed to 0.775 volts rms across a 600 ohm
be much better than “X watts music circuit, and 0 dBV is 1 volt rms.
power.” In this context, the rms value RMS values have another benefit in
of the audio signal was correlated to audio measurements. They are similar
the equivalent power that would be to, but not the same as, average values.
dissipated by a DC signal. For ex- The average value of a signal does not
ample, consider an amplifier rated at change much even when there are very
200 watts rms into 8 ohms. Such an high level transient peaks. Conversely,
amp should deliver 40 volts rms into the peak level can vary wildly without
an 8 ohm load. Remember that E=VPZ, a major effect on average level. When
or Voltage = Square Root of Power x we wish to evaluate the loudness of a
Impedance (E = V200 © 8 ohms = ¥1600 signal (the perceived level by a human
= 40 volts). If a 40 volt DC source were listener), the rms value corresponds
dissipated by an 8 ohm resistive load, more closely with the sensitivity of our
it would produce the same amount of ears to audio energy. Hence, many
heat in that load as the 40 volt rms compressors, noise reduction systems,
sine wave (or other audio signal). and other signal processors employ rms
Why is the rms value of a signal detector circuitry. One notable excep-
used? For one thing, the rms value tion is the broadcast limiter, where
YAMAHA correlates well with the real work even momentary transient peaks can
Sound ReinforCceEMENT being done by the amplifier. When so- cause overmodulation and consequent
called “program” or “music” power signal splatter (spurious emissions), so
Handbook
ratings are employed, the actual work peak detectors are often used in this
Pace 27 being done is highly subjective — it application.
2.2 Volume, Level and SECTION 3
Gain
ae
you need to know the power dissipated
at the input to the amplifier, and at the
Three of the most often misused or loudspeaker. To know this, you need to
carelessly used terms in audio are know the impedances.
volume, level, and gain. It’s important
to have a clear understanding of these EXAMPLE: An amplifier having
terms, and to agree on how they will be 600 ohms actual input impedance is
used. fed a 0.775 volt rms signal. It
VOLUME is defined as power level. delivers 0.775 volts rms to an 8 ohm
In terms of audio equipment, then, if loudspeaker. What is the gain of the
you turn up the volume, you are amplifier?
increasing the power. Unfortunately,
the term is loosely used to describe First, we calculate the input power:
sound intensity or the magnitude of an
electrical signal. Of course, volume also P =E?+Z
refers to the cubic dimension of a = 0.7757 + 600
space. Our favorite approach is to
avoid the term altogether, since there = 0.600625 + 600
are better terms that are far less am- = 0.001
biguous. = 1 milliwatt
LEVEL is defined as the magnitude
of a quantity in relation to an arbitrary You already knew this, because
reference value. Sound Pressure Level, 0.775 volts across 600 ohms is 0 dBm,
for example, expresses level in dB or 1 milliwatt.
relative to 0.0002 dynes per square Next, we calculate the power deliv-
centimeter. The audio level in a signal ered to the loudspeaker load:
processor, for example, may be ex-
pressed in dBm, which is referenced to P=E’?+Z
1 milliwatt. = 0.7757 + 8
GAIN has several definitions. If not
specified, it is usually assumed to be
= 0.600625 + 8
transmission gain, which is the power = 0.075 watts
increase of a signal, usually expressed = 75 milliwatts
in dB. Sometimes, the increase in
voltage is expressed as voltage gain, Now, we calculate the ratio, in dB, of
but one must be careful here because a the output power to the input power:
voltage gain may represent a power
loss... depending on the relative imped- dB ower = 10 log (P, +P)
ances involved. A common area where = 10 log (75 + 1)
this very confusion reigns is with = 10 log 75
voltage and power levels between
signal processors and loudspeakers. = 10 © 1.875061263
= 19dB
EXAMPLE: The output voltage of a
given signal processor is measured We now see that even though the
to be 0.775 volts rms. This signal is input and output voltages are the
fed to a power amplifier, and then same, the amplifier has a gain of
to a loudspeaker. The voltage 19 dB. In fact, since the reference value
applied to the louspeaker is 0.775 at the input is 0 dBm, the 75 mW
volts rms. What is the gain of the output is, in fact, +19 dBm.
amplifier?

The answer... you don’t have enough

information to give an answer. On
first glance, you might guess “0 dB” or
no gain, since the voltage is the same
at the amplifier’s input and output. If
YAMAHA
you specified “0 dB voltage gain,” you’d Sound ReinfoRCEMENT
be safe, but that wouldn’t really Handbook
express anything of meaning. Instead, Page 28
 The Decibel, 2.6 LoudNESS
Sound Level,
& Related tems described this phenomenon with a set
of so-called equal loudness contours.
The concepts of sound pressure Others obtained more accurate repre-
level, the dB, and frequency response sentations, such as the Robinson &
have been treated in previous sections. Dodson curves shown in Figure 3-2.
Loudness is related to these items. They show how much sound pressure a
Some people use the term “loudness” representative sample of people needs
interchangeably with “SPL” or “vol- at various frequencies in order to feel
ume.” This is incorrect since “loudness” that the sound is of the same intensity
has a very distinct, and not so simple, they hear at 1 kHz. In general, it takes
meaning. more sound pressure at lower frequen-
cies, and at very high frequencies, for
3.6.1 Equal Loudness us to believe a sound is equally loud as
a sound at 1 kHz. The lower the
Contours and Phons absolute sound levels involved (the
lower curves on the chart), the less
One can use a sound level meter to sensitive we are to low frequencies.
measure the sound pressure in dB Another term, the phon, was
SPL. Ifa test signal with flat frequency coined to specify loudness. As you can
response across the audio bandwidth see in Figure 3-3, the numerical value
(noise or sine wave), is fed through an of a phon is always identical to the
amplifier with flat response, and toa sound pressure level in dB SPL at
theoretically ideal loudspeaker with 1kHz. At other frequencies, the scales
perfectly flat response, to a listener differ. Follow the top line, for example.
outdoors, the result should be uniform At 1 kHz, it coincides with the horizon-
sound pressure at all frequencies. A tal line representing 120 dB SPL (scale
sound level meter set to flat response on left side of chart). We call this the
(linear scale, or, lacking that, a “C” 120 phon contour. At about 3.5 k Hz,
weighted scale) would indicate the the 120 phon contour dips to about
same number of dB SPL as the test 105 dB SPL. At the two extremes of the
signal is swept across the audio range line, 45 Hz and 9,500 Hz, it reaches
(or as the meter’s filter is swept across 130 dB SPL. (There are a number of
a broadband noise signal). different families of equal loudness
You can be certain, however, that contours, measured under varying
the listener will not perceive this theo- conditions; all look something like this
retically “flat” sound system to be so. one, however.)
Indeed, over the years it has been dem- What this tells us is that a loud-
onstrated that human hearing itself speaker must generate 130 dB SPL at
does not have flat frequency response. 45 Hz or at 9.5 kHz in order for us to
Two scientists, Fletcher and Munson, perceive the sound to be as loud as a
120 dB SPL sound at 1 kHz;
our ears are less sensitive
200 at the extremes. However,
at 3.5 kHz, the same loud-
=

speaker would have to

oa
N

generate only 105 dB SPL

(Dynes/sq.cm)
PRESSURE LEVEL (in dB)

for us to perceive the sound

as being as loud as a 1 kHz
so
N

sound at 120 dB SPL; our

ears are more sensitive.
°
NR

PRESSURE
o
8
SOUND

0.002

0.0002
YAMAHA
20 1
Sound ReinfoRCEMENT 20K
FREQUENCY in Hz
Handbook
Page 29 Figure 3-3. Equal loudness contours
3.6.2 What We Can Deduce SECTION 3
From Equal Loudness
Contours
tivity beyond 6 kHz. This is roughly
the inverse of the 40 phon equal
If you examine the whole set of loudness curve illustrated in Figure
equal loudness contours, you'll see that 3-3.
peak hearing sensitivity comes be- Given the sensitivity characteristic
tween 3 and 4 kHz. It turns out that of the ear, the “A weighted” curve is
this is the frequency range where the most suitable for low level sound
outer ear’s canal is resonant. If you measurement (see Figure 3-4). Remem-
realize how small the ear drum is, you ber that 40 dB SPL (at 1 kHz) is
can also see why it has difficulty equivalent to the sound of a very quiet
responding to low frequency (long auditorium or of the average quiet
wavelength) sound, which is why the residence. In the presence of loud
equal loudness contours sweep upward sounds, such as rock concerts, the ear
at lower frequencies. The mags of the has a “flatter” sensitivity characteris-
eardrum and other constitutents of the tic. This can be seen by comparing the
ear limit high frequency response, 100 or 110 phon equal loudness curves
which can be seen in the upward trend (which are the typical loudness at such
of the contours at higher frequencies, concerts) to the 40 phon curve. In order
but here we see some anomalies — for the measured sound level to more
perhaps due to physiological limita- closely correspond to the perceived
tions in the cochlea (the inner ear) as sound level, one would want a flatter
well as localized resonances. The fact response from the SPL meter. This is
that all the contours have slightly the function of the B and C weighting
different curvatures simply tells us our scales. In apparent conflict with this
hearing is not linear... that is, the common-sense approach, O.S.H.A. (Oc-
sensitivity changes with absolute level. cupational Safety & Health Admini-
The fact that the ear is not linear stration) and most government agen-
guided the makers of sound level cies that get involved with sound level
meters to use a corrective filter — the monitoring continue to use the A scale
inverse of the typical equal loudness for measuring loud noises. Since this
contour ~ when measuring SPL. The causes them to obtain lower readings
filter has a so-called “A weighting” than they otherwise would, the inap-
characteristic, as indicated in Figure propriate use of the A scale works in
3-3. Notice that the “A curve” is down favor of those who don’t want to be re-
30 dB at 50 Hz, and over 45 dB at stricted.
20 Hz relative to the 1 kHz reference,
then rises a few dB at between 1.5 and
3 kHz, and falls below the 1 kHz sensi-
wn
+
o
4
(in dB)
oo
— _
l
RELATIVE RESPONSE
ea
So g 3
&

50 100 200 1000 = 2000 5000 10,000 20,000 YAMAHA

FREQUENCY (in Hz) Sound ReinfoRCEMENT
Figure 3-4. Filter curves for sound level meter Handbook
weighting characteristics Page 30
 The Decibel, 3.6.3 Loudness
Sound Level, Compensation
& Related tems You may see weighting expressed in Many hi-fi preamplifiers and car
many ways: stereo systems are equipped with
loudness switches or controls. In
“dB (A)” means the same as essence, such features are designed for
“dB SPL, A weighted.” use at low SPL listening levels. The
simple loudness switch will generally
“dB (A wtd.)” means the insert a fixed amount of bass boost at
same as above. lower frequencies. More elaborate
circuits will also add some high fre-
“dB SPL (A weighted)” ditto... quency boost, and the most elaborate
same as above. circuits provide continuously variable
controls that simultaneously lower the
Incidentally, when the loudness overall level while boosting lows and
exceeds 120 phons, most people become highs (actually, they probably just dip
uncomfortable. The threshold of pain the midrange). You'll recognize this as
for most of us lies somewhere between the creation of a response characteris-
120 dB SPL and 130 dB SPL at 1 kHz. tic akin to the inverse of the equal-
Children and women tend to be loudness contours in Figure 3-2. This
more sensitive than adult men, as a makes the music seem more natural at
group. less than earsplitting levels.
Use of the loudness feature on such
CAUTION: The levels which systems is probably not a good idea at
may cause permanent hear- high levels, unless you like exagger-
ated response, You can take a hint
ing damage vary with indi- from this approach and use corrective
viduals, and with the length equalization to boost low and high end
of exposure to the sound. response in any sound system when
Sometimes a “temporary overall listening levels are low. If
you're setting up a system for rein-
threshold shift” will occur, forcement of an all— acoustic instru-
reducing one’s sensitivity to ment group in a small club, you may
sound for anywhere from a wish to set the sound level meter on
NTI ccm CoML mel)coe the A scale (which will automatically
oT Mita ame LiNam litem clan give you the desired contour when you
equalize for flat response on the
damage. Repeated exposure weighted meter)... or even a little extra
to a given level of sound, boost at the lew and high ends. Just
however, may prodtice per- watch out for feedback, and remember
manent threshold shift (or to get rid of that EQ weighting if the
next act is a high energy rock group.
other physiological damage)
that would not be caused by
an isolated exposure to that
same level of sound. It is
beyond the scope of this
book to detail the “danger”
levels, but. anyone respon-
sible for sound reinforce-
ment should be cautious
about delivering levels above
95 dB(C) SPL to an audience.
for any prolonged period. In
addition, government regula-
YAMAHA tion in some locations may
Sound ReinforCcEMENT
Handbook
Stipulate the maximum peak
and/or average sound levels.
Pace 31