Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic

Properties
F ELEC 2 - Abstract Algebra 2

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math

Cebu Technological University - Main Campus

Cebu City, Philippines

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
In high school algebra, one of the key objectives is to learn how to
solve equations. Even before learning algebra, students in elementary
school are given problems like 4 + x = 9 and 3x = 5 in high school
algebra. Let us closely examine the steps we use to solve these
equations:

4+x=9 (given)
−4 + (4 + x) = −4 + 9 (adding -4)
(−4 + 4) + x = −4 + 9 (associative law)
0 + x = −4 + 9 (computing -4+4)
x = −4 + 9 (property of 0)
x=5 (computing -4+9)

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Strictly speaking, we have not shown in the previous slide that 5 is
a solution, but rather that it is the only possibility for a solution.
To show that 5 is a solution, one merely computes 4 + 5. A similar
analysis could be made for the equation 3x = 5 in the rational
numbers with the operation of multiplication:

3x = 5 (given)
 
1 1 1
(3x) = (5) multiplying by
3 3 3
 
1 1
·3 x= (5) (associative law)
3 3
 
1 1
1 · x = (5) computing · 3
3 3
1
x = (5) (property of 1)
3  
5 1
x= computing (5)
3 3
John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Now suppose that we have a set with a binary operation ∗. What
properties does the operation need to have in order to solve an
equation of the form a ∗ x = b where a and b are fixed elements
of S? Both equations 4 + x = 9 and 3x = 5 have this form; the
first uses the operation +, and the second uses the operation ×. By
examining the steps used we can see what properties of the operation
∗ are required as summarized in the table below.
Property + ×
1
= 13 · 3 x


Associative Property −4 + (4 + x) = (−4 + 4) + x 3
(3x)
Identity Element 0: 0 + x = x 1: 1 · x = x
1
Inverse Element −4: −4 + 4 = 0 3
: 13 · 3 = 1

If S is a set with an operation ∗ satisfying these three properties,

then an equation of the form a ∗ x = b could be solved for x using
exactly the same steps used to solve 4 + x = 9 or 3x = 5. These
three essential properties are all that is required in order to have a
group. We are now ready to present the precise definition.

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Groups

Definition 2.1 (Groups)

A group (G, ∗) is a non-empty set G, closed under a binary operation
∗, such that the following axioms are satisfied:

i. (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c), ∀a, b, c ∈ G (associativity)

ii. ∃e ∈ G s. t. a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a, ∀a ∈ G (existence of identity)
iii. ∀a ∈ G, ∃a0 ∈ G s.t. a ∗ a0 = a0 ∗ a = e (existence of inverses)

Definition 2.2 (Abelian Group)

A group (G, ∗) is called abelian group if it is commutative, that is,

a∗b=b∗a ∀a, b ∈ G

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Groups

Example 2.1
The set Z, Q, R, and C under addition are abelian groups.

Example 2.2
The set of all m × n matrices with real entries under addition is
also abelian group.

Example 2.3
The set Z+ under multiplication is not a group.

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Groups

Example 2.4
The set of all invertible 2 × 2 matrices is a non-abelian group
under the usual matrix multlipication.

i. (AB)C = A(BC)
 
1 0
ii. e =
0 1
iii. Since the set consists of all invertible matrices all elements
have an inverse.

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Groups

Example 2.5
Let G = {e, a, b, c} with operation ∗ is defined by the following
table is called Klein’s four group

∗ e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e

Note, that the Klein’s four group is Abelian group.

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Groups

Definition 2.3 (Units Modulo n)

For a given integer n > 1, let m be an integer such that 1 ≤ m < n
and gcd(n, m) = 1. Then the set of all such integers m denoted by
U (n) is called the units modulo n.

Example 2.6
U (10) = {1, 3, 7, 9}

Remark 2.1
U (n) is a group under multiplication modulo n.

Remark 2.2
If n is a prime, then U (n) = {1, 2, 3, · · · , n − 1}.

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Groups

Example 2.7
For all integers n ≥ 1, the elements of the set
     
2πk 2πk
Un = cos + i · sin : k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1
n n

are called the nth root of unity. Then the set Un is a group under
multiplication.

Example 2.8

 U1 = {1} U2 = {−1, 1}
U3 = 1, − 21 + 32 i, − 21 − u 32 i

U4 = {1, i, −1, −i}

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Groups

Example 2.9
ab
Let * be defined on Q+ by a ∗ b = 2. Show that (Q+ , ∗) is an
abelian group.

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Groups

Proof:
i. Associativity:
Let a, b, c ∈ Q+ . Then,
ab
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = ∗c
2
( ab )c
= 2
2
( abc )
= 2
2
a( bc
2)
=
2
bc
=a∗
2
= a ∗ (b ∗ c)

Hence, ∗ is associative.

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Groups

Proof (continuation):
ii. Existence of Identity:
Scratch work:

a∗e=a
ae
=a
2
ae = 2a
e=2

We set e = 2 ∈ Q+ . Then, ∀a ∈ Q+ .
2a
a∗2=2∗a= 2 =a

Hence, the identity exists

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Groups

Proof (continuation):
iii. Existence of Inverses:
Scratch work:

a ∗ a0 = 2
aa0
=2
2
aa0 = 4
4
a0 =
a
∀a ∈ Q+ , set a0 = 4
a
∈ Q+ . Then,
4)
a( a
a ∗ a0 = 2
= 4
2
=2

Hence, the inverses exist

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Group

Proof (continuation):
iv. Commutativity:
Let a, b ∈ Q+ . Then,
ab
a∗b=
2
ba
=
2
=b∗a

Hence, * is commutative
Therefore, (Q+ , ∗) is an abelian group.

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Basic Properties of Groups

Theorem 2.1 (Left and Right Cancellation Laws)

Let (G, ∗) be a group. For any a, b, c ∈ G, if a ∗ b = a ∗ c, then
b = c and if b ∗ a = c ∗ a, then b = c.

Proof.
We will proof only the left cancellation law and left as an exercise the
proof for right cancellation law.

Suppose, a ∗ b = a ∗ c, ∀a, b, c ∈ G Then,

a0 ∗ (a ∗ b) = a0 ∗ (a ∗ c)
(a0 ∗ a) ∗ b = (a0 ∗ a) ∗ c
e∗b=e∗c
b=c

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Basic Properties of Groups

Theorem 2.2 (Uniqueness of Identity)

The identity element in group (G, ∗) is always unique.

Proof.
Suppose that there are two identities say e1 and e2 . (WTS:
e1 = e2 )
Then, a ∗ e1 = a and a ∗ e2 = a. Now,

a ∗ e1 = a ∗ e2
a ∗ (a ∗ e1 ) = a0 ∗ (a ∗ e2 )
0

(a0 ∗ a) ∗ e1 = (a0 ∗ a) ∗ e2
e ∗ e1 = e ∗ e2
e1 = e2

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Theorem 2.3 (Uniqueness of Inverses)
The inverse of each element in group (G, ∗) is always unique

Proof.
Exercise !!

Theorem 2.4 (Sock and Shoe Property)

Let G be a group. If for all a, b ∈ G, then (a ∗ b)0 = b0 ∗ a0

Proof.
Exercise !!

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Basic Properties of Groups

Theorem 2.5
Let (G, ∗) be a group. If a, b ∈ G, then the linear equation
a ∗ x = b has a unique solution.

Proof.
Exercise !!

Theorem 2.6
If G is a group, for any g ∈ G, if g ∗ g = g, then g = e.

Proof.
Exercise !!

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
Problem Set
Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties

1. Show that (kZ, ∗) is group, where

kZ = {kn|n ∈ Z and k is an arbitary element of Z} and
a∗b=a+b
2. Show that if (a ∗ b)2 = a2 ∗ b2 , ∀a, b ∈ G, then G is an abelian.
3. Prove the right cancellation law.
4. Prove the Uniqueness of Inverses
5. Prove the Sock and Shoe Property
6. Prove Theorem 2.5
7. Prove Theorem 2.6
8. Let G be a group. If a1 , a2 , · · · , an ∈ G, show that
(a1 a2 · · · an )0 = a0n a0n−1 · · · a01 . [Hint: Consider (ab)0 = b0 a0 and
use the mathematical induction, then start with the base case
of n = 2]

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties
References

[1] Fraleigh, J. (2002). A First Course in Abstract Algebra, 7th

edition. Pearson.
[2] Sta. Maria, J. P. (2020). A First Course in Abstract Algebra
[Lecture Notes]. Department of Mathematics and Statistics,
PUP Manila.
[3] Lovett, S. (2015). Abstract Algebra: Structures and
Applications. CRC Press.
[4] Gallian, J. (2021). Contemporary Abstract Algebra. Chapman
and Hall/CRC.

John Kevin M. Padro, BS Math Lecture 02 - Groups: Definition and Basic Properties