PRACTICES IN CROP PRODUCTION

Prof. Jesus A. Osea

Site Selection for Crop Production

Bio-physical features of land and crop adaptation

Crops have acquired their adaptive mechanisms to specific factors of climate, soil and biotic
conditions through natural evolution and man's intervention. Therefore, crops with special adaptation
should match a given biophysical situation.
1. Submerged condition during most of the crop's life cycle. The adaptive species are rice and
taro. They are grown on paddy fields in the flood plains or river catchment areas. Most crops are
sensitive to waterlogging. While jute and sorghum can tolerate periodic waterlogged conditions, corn
cannot and is sensitive to even short periods (36 hours) of waterlogging. Rambutan, durian and papaya
are very sensitive to under-drainage or waterlogged conditions whereas mango can tolerate waterlogging
for a certain period of time.
2. Humid condition and where rainfall is more uniformly distributed. This is suitable to all
perennial crops but more so for mangosteen which grows well in Mindanao, and abaca which thrives in
Mindanao, Eastern Visayas and Bicol peninsula. Mango produces high quality and tasty fruits in areas
where there is a dry spell.
3. Cool temperature or mild climate in the highlands of Mt. Province, Mt. Kanlaon in Negros
Island and the Bukidnon - Lanao Plateau. The suitable vegetable species are white potato, cabbage,
sweet peas, carrots, head lettuce, asparagus, etc. Heat-tolerant varieties of cabbage and white potato
can now be grown commercially in mid-elevation and lowland areas. The suitable fruit species are litchi,
longgan, ponkan mandarin orange, strawberry, grape, and macademia nut. Apples have been grown
successfully in the highlands in Indonesia. Grape has been a highly successful crop in Thailand. Litchi
(also spelled "lychee") grows well in Mt. Province and some trees have borne fruits in Laguna province.
4. Coastal areas. Coconut, cashew, tamarind and "talisay" (Terminqiza catappa), a source of dye
for clothing materials, can thrive well since they can tolerate saline conditions. The limit in elevation for
coconut is 600 m, beyond which the plant may not exhibit reproductive development. Nipa palm (Nympha
fruticans) the sap of which is used as fermented beverage or vinegar; thrives well in saline riverine areas.
5. Partial shade. Ginger, black pepper, vanilla, lanzones, rambutan, mangosteen, cacao, coffee,
banana, arrowroot, pachouli and many other crops tolerate or require shade and can be grown under
coconut trees, ipil-ipil and madre de cacao (Gliricidia sepium).
6. Low pH (4.3 to 5) as in Bukidnon. The tolerant crops are rubber, pineapple, cassava, sweet
potato and Stylosanthes humilis, a forage legume that nodulates at pH 4.0 to 4.5. Acid-tolerant varieties
of crops have been developed in a number of research institutions: corn in CIMMYT, Mexico; Institute of
Plant Breeding (IPB), UPLB and Central Mindanao University; mungbean, peanut and cowpea in IPB,
UPLB; and rice in IRRI, Philippines and CIAT, Colombia.
7. Light-textured soils. Rootcrops, asparagus, legumes and corn are particularly adaptive to this
type of soil.
8. Poor and stony soils. Cashew and forage legumes can adapt to these soil types. "Kaong"
palm sugar (Areca pinnata) which has a commercial potential, would be a good candidate crop.
9. Drought-prone areas. Sorghum, cashew, pineapple, sweet potato, pigeon pea or kadios,
cowpea, mungbean, napier or elephant grass as forage crop are tolerant to such condition.
10. Photoperiod or daylength. Soybeans, winged beans, kenaf, coffee, pineapple,
chrysanthemum and some rice varieties are photoperiod responsive and will flower only when daylength
has become shorter than twelve hours. Bulb formation in onions is hastened by longer days. In yams
(ubi), long days favor vine development whereas short days hasten tuberization.
11. Problem soils. These include: rice-growing areas along the sea coasts in which the soil has
become saline; soils that are deficient in zinc, phosphorus and iron; and soils that are toxic due to high
concentration of iron, manganese and aluminum. Specific varieties of rice have been selected for
adaptation to these conditions.

Crops that have become dominant in certain areas

Setting up new production enterprises in areas where certain crops have become dominant would
be advantageous because of proven adaptation of the crop and experience of the farmers in the area.
Examples are:
 tobacco and garlic in Ilocos Region down to La Union and Pangasinan;
 peanut in Quirino Province, Cagayan Valley and Siquijor Island;
 sugarcane in Negros, Tarlac-Pampanga and Batangas;
 mango in Guimaras Island, Cebu and Central Luzon;
 pili nut in Albay and Camarines Sur Bicol;
 pineapple in Cavite, Laguna, Bukidnon and General Santos, Cotabato;
 abaca in Bicol, Leyte and Mindanao; massive planting was tried in the late 1800s to early 1900s
in Central Luzon but it failed;
 export banana in Davao and Bukidnon province;
 corn in Cagayan Valley and Mindanao.

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Selection of Location and Site
Location is a geographical position, given certain physical (climate and soil), biological and
socioeconomic factors at the macro-level. Site is the localized area with its microenvironments,
There are two possible cases in starting a crop production enterprise:
Case 1. The crop enterprise is first decided upon then a location is chosen.
Case 2. The area is an existing farm property or a chosen base of operation, then the most
suitable crops are identified. A matching of the potentials of the land with the suitability of certain crops is
involved.
In Case 1, the market objective is already set and the feasibility study for crop production and
processing may have been undertaken. A number of actual cases can be cited.
1. Setting up of a pineapple plantation and cannery mainly for export with the choice of Bukidnon
for one multinational company and General Santos, Cotabato, for the other company. The main
considerations at the time were the availability of large tracts of land for leasehold and access to port
facilities.
2. Banana for export by multinational and Filipino owned corporations through contract farming
arrangements with private growers. Davao and Bukidnon have become the preferred site. The. area is
typhoon-free, estate farms are available and port facilities are accessible.
3. Feedmills, corn and rootcrop based, in contract growing with farmers. There are many large,
medium sized and small feedmills which operate in this manner. It used to be that the major feedmills
located their mills around Metro Manila or Mandaue and Cebu City, far removed from the production
areas of Mindanao and Cagayan Valley Later, these feedmills located their operations in major corn-
growing areas in Bultidnon and Cotabato and other places. A large multinational firm is now operating in
Pangasinan and in due time the site will be an important corn growing area.
4. Tomato paste processing plant in Sta. Maria Pangasinan and Sarrat, Ilocos Sur. Fresh tomato
is supplied through contract-growing with farmers. In some farms, fresh yield of processing tomatoes has
reached 70 t/ha, exceeding the 40 t/ha goal, to be viable. Another processing plant has been set up in
Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon.
5. Growing of tomatoes in Claveria, Misamis Occidental and Bukidnon for shipment to Manila
during the wet season months when supply is very limited and prices are high. Small farmers in San Jose,
Nueva Ecija, Liliw, Louisiana and Majayjay, Laguna have learned to grow tomatoes along the hillsides
during the wet-season months and make a good business out of it.
6. Soybean production in Cotabato, Mindanao to supply the needs of a multinational food
company that processes soybean in combination with dairy products into instant beverage. Due to a
favorable price incentive, soybean yields of 1.5 t/ha to 2.0 t/ha at farmers' fields have been obtained. The
high yields broke the myth that soybeans can not be grown profitably in the Philippines.
7. A noodle processing plant which is sweet-potato based has been established by a foreign firm
in Pangasinan. Sweet potato growing may soon become an important industry in Pangasinan and Tarlac-
Pampanga area.
8. Development of a 2000-ha asparagus industry in General Santos, Cotabato, for export to
Japan through contract-growing arrangements with growers.
In identifying the suitable site, the prospectors looked at the physical aspects of climate, soil,
topography and elevation, the biological factors, the infrastructure like road networks and port facilities,
and the socioeconomic profile of the farmers in the community An entrepreneur embarked on white potato
growing in the highlands of Bukidnon but he had to bring in a few farmers from Mt. Province who were
experienced in growing the crop. Another migrant farmer from Benguet pioneered white potato cultivation
in Kapatagan, Davao Sur, along the slopes of Mt. Apo. Today, the area has about 1,000 ha of potato, the
second largest concentration of potato farms in the Philippines.
In Case 2, the site is given and suitable crops are identified taking into consideration a number of
factors.

Factors to consider in site evaluation

A. Technical Determinants (Bio-Physical)

1. Climate
a. Amount of rainfall (annual and monthly pattern); this should be checked with the nearest
agroclimatic station of PAGASA;
b. Frequency of typhoons passing in the area;
c. Wind velocity and direction.
d. Temperature range.
e. Solar radiation.
2. Physical factors
a. Depth of surface soil: for annuals, relatively shallow depths are all right but for perennials
greater depths would be advantageous;
b. Drainage: important for crops that are sensitive to waterlogging;
c. Topography and elevation
d. Land use pattern
e. Land size

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 f. Soil properties

Adequate amount of soil samples may be collected and sent to the Bureau of Soils for
determination of:
1) Texture - % of clay, silt and sand;
2) pH the ideal range is 5 to 8.5;
3) Mineral and nutrient composition;
4) Organic matter content. the range should be 1% to 5%
For fast colorimetric determinations of N, P K content of soil and pH, a soil test kit is
available at UPLB, College, Laguna. The farmer can make use of it by following the instructions.

3. Biotic factors
a. Cropping pattern being followed. One cannot deviate much unless the community, as a whole,
changes the pattern. The risks from pest damage in the field are greater if planting is not synchronized
with that of the community
b. Production practices in the area. There must be good reasons for adopting existing practices
in the area. Information on yields of the best farms in the area must be obtained and used as the standard
for upgrading operations.
c. Pest and disease problems in the area. A case in point is the widespread papaya ringspot
virus disease in Cavite, Laguna, Batangas and the adjoining provinces up to Bicol. Large-scale papaya
production should avoid these areas.
d. Varietal Selection.

Non-Technical Determinants (Human elements)

4. Economic factors
a. Off-farm income sources
b. Labor market
c. Market and credit
d. Transport facilities
e. Channels of market information
f. Land tenure status
5. Socio-cultural Determinants
a. Leadership and organization
b. Ethnicity and idiosyncrasies
c. Aspirations and attitudes
d. Intellectual and technical perspectives
e. Traditions and customs
6. Political determinants
a. Leadership
b. Policies and laws
c. International relations

Production Practices

A. Land Preparation
Land preparation is an operation that is necessary for the germination and subsequent growth of
the crop.
The operation is accomplished by the mechanical manipulation of the soil (tillage) and
transforming it into desired condition.
Land preparation is done in accordance with the requirements of crops, whether they grow under
dryland or wetland Systems. For instance, lowland rice is grown under a submerged condition in which
soil puddling is involved whereas dryland crops are cultivated on well-aerated soils.

Definition of Terms

1. Tillage – the practice of working the soil for the purpose of bringing about more favorable
conditions for plant growth.
2. Plowing – process of breaking the soil to a desired depth. Implements are moldboard plow,
disc plow rotavator and sub-soiler for deeper plowing operations.
3. Harrowing – breaking bigger soil clods into finer soil particles with the use of harrow
implements such as disc harrow, spike-tooth wooden harrow or bamboo harrow
4. Conventional tillage – tillage where primary and secondary tillage are employed
5. Minimum/reduced/economy tillage – only the necessary tillage operation is employed.

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Purposes of land/tillage preparation

Main reason: to provide good physical soil condition which promotes favorable biological soil
condition for optimum growth, that is, provide the crop the desired soil environment through soil tillage.
The tillage operation includes: a) cutting and loosening the soil, b) breaking up the soil clods into smaller
particles, and c) leveling the field (prior to planting operation).
1. To develop proper soil tilth (or desirable soil structure). Good tilth for uplands means a
granular or crumby structure with aggregates of 3 to 10 mm sizes in the vicinity of the seed. This is to
promote close contact between the seed and the soil. Corn and beans germinate best when the soil is
highly packed at 0.35 to 0.7 kg/cm2 pressure at seed level. For wetland method, the soil structure is
destroyed to convert the soil mass into mud.
2. To control weeds. Tillage tools expose the roots of weeds and bury foliage.
3. To aerate the soil (in the case of upland condition). Soil loosening and granulation permit air
to enter the soil and promote activity of microorganisms
4. To mix crop residues and fertilizer or other soil amendments with the soil.

Tillage operations
Plowing is the first step in the preparation of the seedbed. This should be done when the soil is
moist. If the soil is too dry when plowed, it is likely to break cloddy and the amount of pulverization will be
reduced. Soil when plowed too wet is likely to be greatly damaged by the puddling or breaking down of
soil granules.
The depth to the land to be plowed vary with the crops to be planted, the time of plowing and the
kind of soil.
For shallow surfaced, depth of plowing should not be less than 15 cm and for deep surfaced soil,
depth of plowing should not be less than 45 cm.
Harrowing is usually done at 7 – 10 days interval after plowing.

Tillage Direction

The right direction in plowing, harrowing and sub-soiling should be observed to reduce the over
all cost of farm operation. In flat lands, tilling following the longer side direction is done for faster
operation to minimize wear and tear of machineries and likewise reduce fuel and oil costs.
In slightly sloping areas, plowing along the contour of the land is done to prevent soil erosion.

Primary and secondary tillage

1. Primary tillage – includes hoeing, spading or plowing. The purpose is to cut or break the
soil.
2. Secondary tillage – breaking the soil into clods or granulation (as in upland culture) or
puddling (as in wetland culture). The purpose is to thoroughly mix the plant materials into
the soil and leveling the field.

Land Preparation Practices

a. The Conventional Method

Upland soil condition. The general method includes plowing followed by harrowing. There is no
recommendation as to the number but is dependent on the time of plowing, type of soil, type of crop, type
and density of prevailing weeds in the field. Interval is 2 to 7 days.
Characteristics of a well-prepared upland seedbed: a) granular and mellow, b) free of trash and
vegetation, c) contains sufficient moisture to germinate the seed and support subsequent growth, d) must
be level.
Wetland soil condition. Preparations vary depending upon the nature of the availability of
irrigation water. Forms: a) flooding the field from land preparation to maturity and drained before
harvesting, b) initial tillage is done before flooding while puddling, leveling and seeding are done at
varying levels of water, c) the land is prepared and the seed sown under dry condition and then the field
is flooded.
Characteristics of a well-prepared lowland ricefield: a) soil and water are thoroughly mixed, b)
weeds, straw and stubbles which have been plowed and mixed with the soil are thoroughly decayed, c)
land is well leveled.

b. Improved Methods
1. Use of heavy duty plow harrow. This type of equipment is sometimes used in preparing
light soils. One pass of the equipment represents the work of the combination of a plow
and a harrow.
2. Use of rotary tillers. The equipment chops and pulverizes the soil.
3. Minimum tillage. This method combines several operations into a one pass operation. The
plow plant method combines land preparation and planting operations. It minimizes soil
compaction and reduces time and cost of the pre-planting operations.

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 The two systems of land preparation and water management, that is, wetland and dryland, have
contrasting features in terms of the physical, biological and chemical nature of soils. These are
summarized below.

Lowland Upland (Dryland)

Plowing and harrowing are done under submerged or Plowing and harrowing are done in dry
flooded conditions which cause "puddling" of soil. (moist) condition and soil is "non-
puddled."

a. Flooding breaks soil clods into smaller aggregates a. No flooding is involved; tillage is
and particles and penetration resistance in plowing is convenient.
reduced.

b. Puddling destroys soil structure and particles are b. Soil structure and granulation are
densely packed and soil is compacted. maintained.

c. Macropores are lost and only micropores prevail. c. Macropores and micropores are
Upon drying of soil, bulk density is much increased. maintained.

d. Puddling results in high soil water retention capacity d. Downward movement of water is normal
Downward movement or percolation of water is sharply and water drains easily. Hard pan also
decreased by a factor of 100 to 1000 as compared to develops which prevents good drainage.
flooded but unpuddled soils. Sandy soils with high
permeability when puddled results in reduced water loss
and leaching. Plow sole or hardpan (impermeable layer)
further reduces water losses.
e. Tillage is easy.
e. Upon drying, puddled soils become denser; harder;
structureless, compared to unpuddled soil. Tillage without
water submergence is difficult.

Chemical changes (de Datta 1981)

Lowland Upland
a. There is an "oxidized" layer about 1 cm thick which a. Dry well aerated soil throughout the root
receives oxygen dissolved in water. This layer hosts zone. Aerobic organisms abound.
aerobic organisms.

b. The next layer is a "reduced" zone (due to b. No reduced layer unless the soil is poorly
submergence) which is occupied by plant roots. drained.

1. Molecular oxygen is depleted. 1. Molecular oxygen is present in

sufficient quantity.
2. Anaerobic microorganisms are solely present. 2. Aerobic organisms abound.

3. Decrease of "redox" potential (Eh). (It is a 3. Redox potential (Eh) is high and
measure of the ability of a reaction to furnish or takes a positive value.
remove electrons from a standard H2 gas-Pt electrode
reaction). If a reaction can take electrons away, the
potentials take a positive value; if it donates
electrons, the value is negative. The reduced layer
takes a value of 0.2 to -0.3V compared to 0.3 to 0.5V
at surface soil.

4. Increase in pH of acid soils in submerged soil 4. Soil pH is stable at either the low or
and decrease of pH of calcareous soils; convergence high side.
to pH 6 and 7.

5. Reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+ and Mn4+ to Mn2+ and 5. Iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) in the
increased supply. unreduced form and not readily
available.

6. Reduction of NO3- and NO2- to N2 and N20 6. Nitrification of NH4+ to NO; but none
(denitrification, a disadvantage) or little denitrifiction.

7. Reduction of S04= to S=. 7. No reduction of S4=

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 8. Increase in supply and availability of nitrogen. 8. Microorganisms are biologically
Even though organic matter is mineralized at a active and utilize a lot or nitrogen.
slower rate in anaerobic soils than in aerobic soils,
the net amount mineralized and available is greater
because less nitrogen is immobilized through
conversion by microorganisms.

9. Increase in availability of phosphorus, potassium, 9. Less availability of such elements to

silicon, and molybdenum. plants.

10. Increase in concentration of water-soluble zinc 10. Availability of zinc and copper is not
and copper affected.

11. Generation of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, 11. Generation of nitrous oxide and
much methane (CH4) and toxic reduction products methane is much less under an
such as organic acids (acetic, butyric, formic, oxygenated dryland system. Much
propionic and lactic) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) carbon dioxide is generated by organic
matter decomposition.

Land preparation for lowland rice

There are three systems of land preparation associated with the culture of lowland rice: 1) the
land is generally flooded from land preparation and throughout the growing period and is only drained
prior to harvesting; 2) initial tillage is performed before flooding (usually by tractor operation) while
subsequent operations of harrowing-puddling and leveling are done in submerged or wet state; 3) the
land is prepared and sown to seed in the dry condition (as in upland areas) and is flooded only after seed
germination and all throughout the growing season.

1. Land preparation under submerged conditions

This requires at least one plowing, two harrowings, and one leveling operation, all done in a
muddy or puddled condition.

1.1 Water requirements

For land operations alone, the requirements to soak up the land, with allowances for
evaporation and percolation, are about 725 mm for the wet season and 470 mm for the dry
season. In the wet season, it will take about two months to accumulate adequate amounts of
water from natural rainfall. The requirement for the dry season is less because the land still holds
much moisture from the previous wet season.

1.2 Power source and farm implements

1.2.1 For the traditional system, the source of power is the carabao or water buffalo.
The Philippine carabao is an excellent draft animal because it is gentle and has a good
temperament and is easily manageable. They are trained for draft work at an early age of
2 to 3 years. A draft carabao can perform satisfactorily for 15 to 17 years. A 3-year old
carabao costs about P12,000 to P15,000, whereas an adult one may cost around
P25,000 to P30,OO0. A 500-kg male carabac can provide a draft power of 0.5 to 1.3 hp.
A male carabao intended for draft is usually castrated. Female carabaos are, likewise
usable for draft.

The implements for tillage are: the moldboard plow; a comb-tooth harrow ("suyod")
with a handle bar or an animal-drawn single-gang type cono-puddler with 6 rotors or a
double-gang type with 12 rotors; a wooden leveler. The implements.

1.3 Labor requirement

Land preparation for one hectare using draft animal will require about 20 man-days.
A 4-6 hp diesel or 5-8 hp gasoline power tiller will require 0.61 liter/hr of diesel and 0,86
liter/hr of gasoline, respectively, and field capacity is 1 to 1-1/2 ha per 8-hr day of plowing and
harrowing operations.
Custom or contracted land preparation consisting of one rotavation, two harrowings and
one leveling at the Los Baños area can be had for P3,000.00 to P3,500.00 per hectare.
The main advantages of the wetland system of land preparation and rice culture are: good
weed control and increased water retention capacity of the soil. The disadvantages are: the delay
in planting the rice crop and the limitation in having a second crop; puddling renders the soil
difficult for fast till age for a second crop.

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2. Land preparation in the dry condition

In this system, plowing is done in the dry condition (non-flooded) usually by tractor operation but
the subsequent harrowings and puddling and leveling are done under flooded conditions. This system is
appropriate for light-textured soils.
The end-condition of the soil is the same as in strictly lowland rice culture but the preparation is
done within a shorter period of time.

3. Dryland tillage for dry-seeded rice (DSR) cultivation

Plowing and harrowing operations are done in the dry or non-puddled state of the soil, in the
same way that the upland fields are prepared. Direct seeding is employed and the early rains germinate
the seeds. Water is introduced after seedling establishment just like in ordinary lowland rice culture. This
practice is common in rainfed areas like Urbiztondo and adjoining municipalities in Pangasinan.
The advantages of the system are: early crop establishment and possibilities for a second crop
like mungbeans or peanuts. Water otherwise used for land soaking and puddling is conserved and utilized
for crop growth instead; labor associated with land preparation and transplanting is greatly reduced. Soil
structure is not disturbed and turn-around tillage is manageable. The disadvantages are: draft power
requirement is high and tractor operation may be required; weed control at the early stages of seedling
establishment is critical; percolation and seepage losses of water are high during crop growth.

4. Land preparation for upland (dryland) condition

The purposes of tillage are:

1. To develop a desirable soil structure for:
a) easy root development;
b) improving the infiltration of water and internal drainage;
c) enhancing the aeration of soil

2. To incorporate stubble and weed into the soil.

The operations involved in land preparation are:
a) Plowing: the purposes are:
i) to cut soil into "furrow slices"'
ii) to partly pulverize the soil (still in cloddy condition);
iii) to incorporate weeds and stubble underneath the soil.
Plowing is normally done once but a second one may be necessary.
b) Harrowing: the purposes are:
i) to pulverize the clods left after plowing;
ii) to level the field;
iii) to compact soil to a certain degree; and
iv) to destroy weeds as they start to grow

Harrowing is done 2 to 3 times.

c) The number of plowings and harrowings is dependent on:
i) soil type;
ii) weed densit~;
iii) moisture content;
iv) crop to be grown: a seedcrop will require a better seedbed than a crop normally
planted by cuttings.

An interval of 2 to 7 days between operations is observed to effect better weed control.

Over-pulverization should be avoided as it causes formation of a hard surface crust after
a heavy rain.

3. Use of rotary tillers (rota-tilling or rotavating). This is done after one plowing or is used as a
substitute to plowing in tilling light soils and where minimum tillage is practiced Rotary tillers are tractor-
mounted. They are not usually used in stony soil because of the high cost of tine replacement and
excessive machine wear.

Characteristics of a well-prepared upland field

1. Granular, mellow yet compact enough so that seeds are in close contact with the soil for better
germination;
2. Free of trash or vegetation;
3. Field is level, with minimum depressions where water may accumulate.

Soil moisture as a factor for good land preparation of upland fields

1. Tilling soil when it is too dry increases power requirements and the likelihood of implement
breakage.

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 2. Tilling soil when too wet promotes soil compaction, reduces soil granulation, lengthens land
preparation.
3. The ideal moisture content is at a level below field capacity (the moisture content after soil has
been saturated and allowed to drain for 1 to 3 days). Practical indicators are: a) soil should slide freely
from the moldboard; b) soil is friable and breaks easily; c) a freshly cut surface should not glisten with
moisture.

Tillage equipment for upland operations

1. Carabao or bullock drawn:

a. Moldboard plow which cuts at a depth of 9.8 to 15.2 cm.;
b. Native spike tooth harrow or "calmot" either made of bamboo (15 stumps, 1 m long with 40 to
50 teeth, 10cm long) or steel cross bars with 8 to 12 spikes or a total of 25,30, or 35 teeth.
2. Hand tractor drawn equipment
a. Moldboard or disc plow;
b. Rotavator for rota-tilling.
3. Tractor (four-wheeled) mounted implements at rear three-point hitches powered by hydraulic lift
devices:
a. Moldboard plow which cuts, inverts and breaks furrow slices and turns under surface weeds,
crop residues and trash. Depth of cut ranges from 15 to 30 cm. The number of bottoms (units) per
hitch is one to five. The type of moldboard plow shown in Fig. 13 is the uncommon reversible
plow
b. Disc plow which cuts without inversion of furrow slice. The disc rotates and friction is
reduced thereby requiring less draft power. The depth of cut is shallower at 15 to 20 cm. It is
more effective in tilling hard ground or newly opened land where small matted roots are plentiful.
The number per hitch is one to six. A four-bottom disc plow
c. Disc harrows which are slightly concave discs mounted on a common axle as either single
action (2 gangs) right-hand offset or tandem (4 gangs). The front edge of the discs cuts the soil
and crop residues while the trailing edge can raise soil and push it to one side.
d. Heavy duty 'disc plow and harrow" with 18 blades and one pass of the equipment
represents work of the combination of plow and harrow It is used in tilling light textured soils.
e. Rotovator which is a set of cutting knives or tines which are mounted oil a horizontal power
driven shaft which rotates vertically at high speed. The knives (of high quality metals) initially cut
the Soil and pulverize it by centrifugal force. The set may be as wide as 229 cm. Depth of cut
ranges from 10 to 15 cm.
f.Mower or flail type grass cutter for cutting into small pieces standing stubbles.
g. Subsoiler which is a strongly constructed ripper or chisel plow used for breaking deep hard
pans or compacted layers of soil to improve internal drainage. Penetration is 51 to 91 cm.
Number of bottoms is I to 3 and horsepower requirement is 60 hp and higher.
h. Furrower or ridger, a tillage equipment with a bottom resembling a double moldboard one
lefthand and one righthand, joined together at the middle. This is used for setting furrows where
seeding or planting of seedpieces is done manually It is used as a ridger (after primary and
secondary till age) to create multiridges or wider beds for planting vegetables, peanuts or maize
especially in irrigated farming. Disc ridgers and bedders are also available.

Sources of power for upland tillage

1. Animal - under upland condition the ox or bullock is preferable to use as draft than the carabao
because it can withstand heat better. Uncastrated bulls are strong but frequently unmanageable. Cows
are not as strong. One plowing with an animal requires from 36 to 72 man-hours per hectare.
In many Asian countries, the plow is usually pulled by a pair of draft animals, harnessed together
to pull as a team. To harness a single animal, a single shoulder yoke is used. To harness a pair of draft
animals, the use of double head yoke or double shoulder yoke is employed. Some countries are gradually
switching to the use of a single-animal drawn plow since it is more economical to maintain a fewer
number of animals.

2. Hand tractors. To provide good traction, steel upland cage wheels are used on pedestrian
tractors. For a single-axle tractor; the steel wheel is 75 cm in diameter and 20 cm wide, with 13 blades. A
6-hp hand tractor will require 8.8 to 12.5 machine hours to plow a hectare.

3. Four-wheeled tractors.
Tractors vary in size and engine power. The internationally accepted classification for 4-wheeled
tractors is based on the so-called 3-point hitch categories" and "drawbar power" range.
Drawbar horsepower (Dwb hp) is the net pull or draft to move the tractor and implement through or over
the crop or soil. It represents only about 0.75 overall efficiency compared to engine brake horsepower.
Catalogues from tractor manufacturers indicate the brake horsepower of the engine and the PTO (power
take-off) hp of the tractor. The PTO power may be about 20% lower than engine brake horsepower.
Sizes and the power class of tractors are considerable. Buyers can make their choice based on
their needs. The smallest riding tractors are the "compact" or often called garden tractors of less than 20

8
brake hp. They can be equipped with a single 12-in (30-cm) moldboard plow It could plow 1 ha in 11 to 14
hours. They can also be equipped with rotavators. In some models, the engine is at the rear and a load
platform is at the front.
A tractor should be considered as an "all-purpose" machine which can be used for almost any
kind of farm work including plowing, cultivation, seeding, harvesting, transport and stationary power-take-
off work. This is particularly true for small farms where one or two tractors are required to do everything.
Another major consideration is that the tractor must be equipped with a good hydraulic control system in
order to enable it to use tractor-mounted implements and machines. In large-sized lowland farms, a
combination of four-wheeled tractors and power tillers has satisfactorily met the requirements of farm
work.
Four-wheeled tractors and implements are manufactured by a number of reliable companies from
Japan, the USA, England, and Italy which have representative dealerships in the Philippines. Fann
implements are also now manufactured in the Philippines. With international standardization, many
mounted implements and machines are now designed for use for Category I and II tractors (20-45 and
40-100 drawbar hp) so that one make of tractor can be fitted with a set of implements of another make.
Four-wheeled tractors are quite costly to acquire and maintain and an 80-90 hp tractor with a set of
implements like a disc plow harrow ridger and rotavator will cost from P1.4 to P1.5 million. There are
many shops in Metro Manila which deal with second-hand reconditioned tractors for a much reduced
price.
As a general rule in mechanization, the size of the farm ahd power supply should follow a ratio of
one horsepower for every ha of farm. For small-sized farms, animal power is still the most efficient. As
farm size increases, partial to full mechanization becomes necessary. In some cases where there is
excess power availability in relation to the size of farm, owners extend the use of tractors to do custom job
work for other farms for a fee.

3. Planting Material Selection and Preparation

One of the important technological factors that determine the level of productivity of crops is the
variety and quality of seeds used. Great advances have been achieved worldwide through the
collaborative efforts of international agricultural centers and national research organizations if] the
development of superior varieties. Modern varieties have acquired a modified plant structure
(architecture) that makes the plant more efficient in the production of economic biomass yield. Also, the
grain-stover ratio has been significantly improved. The new varieties also carry built-in multiple resistance
factors against pests and diseases and obviate the need for high-level pesticide application. Genes have
also been incorporated to provide for tolerance to adverse or stress conditions such as high soil acidity;
high salinity, drought, element deficiency or toxicity in soils. Likewise, genetic factors have been infused
into the plants which enhance the quality of the farm product.
Hybrid technology (the use of F1 hybrid seeds in rice, maize and many other crops) which
provides for an added yield of 20-25% has been in use. The People's Republic of China grows F 1 hybrid
rice on 18 million hectares. In the Philippines about 15% of the total corn hectarage is grown to F 1 hybrid
maize. IRRI has developed a prototype of rice variety popularly known as super-rice all the tillers of which
produce panicles and the number of grains in the panicle is almost doubled.
In the Philippines, certified seeds and vegetative materials of rice, maize, vegetables, legumes,
sugarcane, rootcrops, and other crops are available but the supply is inadequate especially in remote
farming areas. Commercial production of certified seeds in the Philippines is one area that has high
business potential.
The success of plant breeding especially in meeting future needs and challenges will depend on how
man can conserve his arsenal of gene sources. Plant resistance to pests and diseases is usually
temporal as the organisms continually develop more virulent and infective strains. It is a constant struggle
between man and organisms and one who stays ahead wins. Fortunately, man now has a vast store of
genetic resources of indigenous varieties and wild relatives of many crop Species. These resources will
constitute the building blocks in the creation of new varieties. The advances in biotechnology have also
sharpened and widened man's capability to manipulate genes and use them to advantage.

Definition of Terms

1. Planting materials – seeds, setts, seedpieces

2. Seeding rate – number of seeds planted in a given hill or linear meter
3. Population Density – amount of seeds planted or required in a given area
4. Furrows – an opening in the soil where seeds are planted
5. Basal Fertilizer – fertilizer materials before the seeds are planted

Factors to Consider in the Selection of Planting Materials

1. Adaptability to soil and climate
2. Maturity
3. Yield
4. Disease resistance
5. Insect tolerance
6. Market demand

9
Important Characteristics of Good Seeds
1. Damage-free. – Injury of seed tissue will reduce seed vigor and germination depending on
the extent of damage.
2. Good germinating ability – Vigor and good germination can be achieved by proper growing of
the crop, harvesting at right maturity, careful processing, control of moisture and temperature
during storage and packaging in moisture-resistant containers.
3. Free from mixture with other varieties – Crossing has to be prevented to produce seeds of
specific varieties that are free from genetic mixture with other varieties.
4. Free from seed-borne diseases -

On rice culture, pre-germinated seeds are first soaked in running water or in big containers for 24
hours. Then, incubation from 36-48 hours follows. Pre-germinated seeds are either sowed on seedbed
to raise transplants or broadcasted over the puddle field. Seedlings are raised by a) wet-bed method
(pre-germinated seeds are sowed uniformly on seedbed and grown from 20 – 30 days, b) “Dapog
method”. (seedlings are raised from 9 to 14 days), c) Dry-bed method (this method is practiced in some
areas where water is not sufficient to warrant use of the seedbed. Seedlings are pulled 20 to 30 days
after sowing)
On corn, the planting material may be open pollinated variety (corn seed materials grown for long
period of time and maintained by natural cross pollination from generation to generation); corn synthetic
(an improved variety developed by combining good inbred lines from one or more varieties and allowing
at least one generation for stabilization. Seeds for planting could be taken from previous harvests); corn
hybrid (“corn made to order”. This is produced by crossing selected inbred lines. Only first generation
seeds are recommended for planting. Corn seeds are generally treated with fungicide before planting.
Legumes, are generally grown from seeds. Seed inoculation is a common practice on soybean.
On the other hand, planting materials for other field crops and vegetables are prepared from
seeds or vegetative parts. Vegetative propagation include separation and division, cuttage, layerage,
graftage and layerage. Micropropagation through embryo or tissue culture is also common.

a. Separation and division

Separation and division involve the use of specialized or modified stems, roots and plantlets as
propagating materials. The specialized organs are bulbs, bulblets, corms, cormels, tubers, tuberous
roots, rhizomes, bulbils, offsets, suckers, slips and crowns.
1. runners – slender specialized aerial stems that grow horizontally along the ground and
develop from the leaf axils at the base or crown of the plant.
2. slips – leafy shoots originating from axillary buds borne at the base of the plant or fruit such
as cabbage and pineapple.
3. suckers – secondary shoots that start below the ground from an underground stem, such as
that of banana, abaca, pineapple.
4. crown – shoot produced on top of a fruit, like pineapple.
5. bulblets – are small bulbs produced at the base of the mother plant.
6. bulbils – are aerial plantlets formed on the axil of the leaves or flower stalk.
7. plantlets or offset – are new plants arising from the stem of the original plant.

Cuttage or cuttings is a method of vegetative propagation involving regeneration of structural

parts in detached vegetative parts under favorable environmental conditions.
Layerage – plants are rooted while still attached to the parent plant.
Graftage – two plant parts (scion, the lower part; rootstock, the root system) are joined in such a
manner that they will unite and continue their growth as one plant.
Budding – use of buds (scion) inserted to a stock.
Embryo culture. The method involves excising the embryo, sterilizing it, implanting it in a nutrient
medium, usually agar ( a solid) and allowing it to grow, and finally transplanting it.
Tissue culture. The process consists of implanting disease-free tissues in a sterile artificial
medium, allowing them to divide and form a mass of undifferentiated tissue (a callus) dividing them to
increase in number, allowing them to differentiate, transplanting them when they become too crowded
and finally transplanting them outside the bottle.

Types of planting materials

I. Seed: all grain crops, vegetable crops; forage grasses and legumes; grain legumes; fiber
crops
2. Vegetative materials:
Stem cuttings sugarcane, sweet potato, cassava, forage grasses;
Tubers white potato
Bulbs multiplier Onion, garlic;
Corms taro (gabi);
Rhizomes ramie, ginger.

10
 In preparing the materials, one should know the amount or number of seeds to be used in a given
area.
Area (hectare)
Plant Population density = ----------------------------------------------------------
(DBR) X Hill spacing X Seeding rate

Row spacing X Recommended PPD

Plant Per Linear Meter = -------------------------------------------------------------------
Area (ha)

Recommended PPP
Adjusted Population Density = --------------------------------------------------------
Germination Percentage

Pre-germination treatment

1. Seed treatment with fungicides as protectants against fungal diseases which attack plants at
the seedling stage:
Vegetable and leguminous seeds - Captan, Arasan, Spergon, Semesan;
Corn seed - to provide protection against "downy mildew" disease Metalaxyl (Apron 35 SD),
applied in slurry at 100 gm per 15kg seed is used. This very effective method of chemical disease control
discovered by Dr. Ofelio Exconde, is a technological breakthrough for the corn industry in the Philippines.
2. Vernalization or cold treatment to enhance germination. In gladioli, the corm is vegetative and
dormant. In newly harvested corms, high temperatures at 35 oC prolong the dormancy period to 12 to 18
months; a period of storage of 4 to 6 months at below 40oF at high humidity is required. Early flowering is
also hastened. As a substitute to vernalization, gladiolus corms can be treated with gibberellic acid by
soaking them in a solution at 500 to 2,500 ppm for 12 hours.
To induce cabbage, onion and radish to flower for seed production purposes, vernalization or
subjecting seeds to refrigeration temperatures before planting will help.
3. Seed inoculation
In soybeans, peanut and mungo, commercial inoculants of Rhizobia (bacteria) which fix nitrogen
from the atmosphere are available. Seeds are coated with the inoculant by wetting the powder first and
then mixed thoroughly with the seeds. The process is done just before planting. Exposing inoculated seed
to direct sunlight should be avoided.
4. Preparation of vegetative plant material
Cassava - mature portion of the stem, at least seven months old, is used and cut into 20 to 25 cm
length. Cut stalks remain viable for 5 months provided they are properly stored,
Sugarcane - top portion of the stalk is used. Seed pieces (called "lalas") should have 3 nodes.
Sweet potato or kangkong - vine cuttings 25 to 30 cm long from tip portion are used. In white
potato, tuber is cut into seedpieces, each having a bud.
To prevent infection of seedpieces by fungal diseases, they should be treated with methoxyethyl
mercury chloride (MEMC).

C. Planting Methods
There are several methods of planting and establishing annual crops, based on traditional
practices.
1. Direct seeding of the field:
Broadcast - this is the usual method employed by farmers in establishing mungo after rice; upland
and lowland rice may also be broadcast as many farmers do;
- Drilling seeds in rows;
- Hill method within rows; and
Dibbling seeds of secondary crops on unplowed paddy field after the primary rice crop.

2. Transplanting - done for lowland rice, vegetables, and tobacco. Seeds are sown on specially
prepared seedbed or seedboxes. Seedlings are nursed for sometime before they are transplanted to the
final site. The advantages are: a) less wastage of valuable seed; b) seedlings are more properly cared for;
c) the transplanted crop will stay for a shorter period of time to allow for succession croppings as in
vegetable production.

Planting methods for lowland rice

1. Transplanting. This is most widely practiced in the Philippines and Asia. It is suitable for rainfed
("palagad") or adequately irrigated lowlands. The advantages are: a) plants have a headstart in growth
over weeds; b) the crop stays for a shorter time in the field; c) ease in weeding operations.
1.1. Wetbed method of raising seedlings. Puddled plot 1 to 1.5 m wide and of convenient length
is prepared. A total of 400 sq m is needed to sow a bag of pal ay seeds of 50 kg to plant one
hectare. Soil is fertilized with 4 kg of (14-14-14) fertilizer. Seeds are pregerminated (24 hours

11
 of soaking and 24 to 48 hours of incubation) then sown at 1 kg per 10 sq m bed. Seedlings
are continuously irrigated, protected from insect pests by applying Carbofuran at 1.5kg for the
entire seedbed. The seedlings are ready for transplanting in 25 to 30 days.
1.2. Dapog method. Pre-germinated seeds are sown on cement or puddled soil covered with
banana leaves or plastic sheet or heavy coarse paper at 60 kg seed on 40 sq m plot to plant
1 hectare. Seedlings are ready for transplanting in 10 to 14 days.
1.3. Dry-bed method. This is used for rainfed areas where the frequency and amount of rainfall
are unpredictable during the planting season. The seedbed is 1.5 m wide of convenient length.
Fifty (50) kg of seed are sown on 500 sq m to plant a hectare. Unlike the wetbed method, the
nursery bed is not submerged in water but kept moist for most of the time. The seedlings are
ready for transplanting in 20 to 42 days.

Transplanting distances:
- Square method from 182 cm to 252 cm with 2 to 3 ordinary seedlings or 4 to 6 dapog raised seedlings
per hill. This is the most common method.
- Wide rows, closer hills - 40 cm x 5 cm, one seedling per hill or 30 cm x 13 cm with 2 seedlings per hill.
This is employed where azolla culture between the rows is intended.
- Double row method - alternation of 20 cm and 40 cm row spacing with hills 10 cm apart and 2 seedlings
per hill.
Transplanting is usually done by a team of planters. Row markers using a rake-like implement of
13 pegs or an implement with a set of 6 rolling wheels are employed by running them on mud in two
cross-wise directions. Mechanical transplanters, either hand-pushed or tractor-mounted, can be
fabricated and are available. A model is shown in Fig. 33. Mechanical transplanters work well only if the
paddy is leveled well. Otherwise, there will be many skips.

2. Direct seeding on puddled field

This has the advantage of less labor requirement in planting. However; the crop is vulnerable to
weed problems, Use of pre-emergence herbicide may be necessary.
Seeds are pre-emerged. Seed requirement i~ 100 to 125 kg/ha.

Methods:
a. Broadcasting as done by farmers but the system is not desirable in terms of weed
management. In Nueva Ecija, direct seeding of rice on puddled soil by broadcasting is
becoming a practice during the dry season under irrigated condition but it is accompanied by
herbicidal application.
b. Drilling the pre-germinated seeds in rows at 25 to 30 cm spacing, A mechanical implement,
the "rice drum seeder", is used and rate of seeding is low at 50 to 100kg/ha. It is
advantageous in terms of better weed control since a weeder can be passed between the
rows.
c. Dibbling: pre-germinated seeds are dibbled in straight rows and in hills at 15 cmx 15 cm to 25
cm x 25 cm with 5 to 8 seeds per hill. This will allow cross passings of the rotary weeder. Labor
requirement will be the same as straight-row transplanting. A mechanical implement can be
fabricated to do this operation.

3. Dryland seeding of lowland rice. The field is prepared dry (unpuddled) and the operations are
usually started by plowing immediately after harvesting the preceding rice crop. Harrowing is done prior to
planting and furrows are laid out using the "lithao" method. With this method, seeds (non-germinated) are
broadcast, then a spike-tooth harrow is passed obliquely to the direction of the furrows to dislodge the
seeds on the ridges and bring them into the furrows. Another equipment, the "Inverted-T seeder", may be
used which can drill the seeds in straight rows. In can be operated by one person. A model is shown in
Fig. 36. A tractor-mounted grain drill can also be employed.
In the USA and other countries where lowland rice is grown on large tracts of land for export
purposes, dryland seeding is employed using tractor-mounted grain drills. For very large areas, sowing is
done by airplane. Irrigation water is first introduced into the field, then pre-germinated seeds are sown.
This system of growing lowland rice is accompanied by the use of herbicides for effective weed control.
The advantage of the dryland system of seeding is that the soil structure is maintained in good
condition and can be tilled easier for a second crop. The system will allow a second crop of say,
mungbean, even on rainfed irrigated farms, which normally can be planted only once. The biggest
disadvantage is in keeping the weeds under control.
Sowing methods:
a. broadcasting in unfurrowed field – suited where normal rainfall is adequate and weed
population is low or can be chemically controlled.
b. broadcasting or drilling on fields with deeper furrows - (20-25 cm apart and 10 cm deep) -
Suitable in areas where onset of strong rains for germination is hard to predict.
c. broadcasting or directing in fields with shallow furrows - (25-30 cm apart and 5-7 cm deep) -
makes use of the wide-toothed harrow (lithao). This is applied when there is no expected
water shortage for good germination but there is a need to use mechanical cultivator for
weed control.

12
 d. dibbling - exclusively done in a kaingin where the field is plowed nor harrowed and in the
upland with steep slopes. Holes are made at 15-25 cm apart at 3 cm depth.

Planting methods for vegetables

Vegetable seeds are expensive; many vegetables are small-seeded and seed germination and
seedling establishment are slow Seedlings are susceptible to damping-off disease and cricket attack.
Thus, it is advantageous if seedlings are first grown where they can be properly cared for and then
transplanted later in the field. Transplanting will also shorten the duration of the crop in the field.
Growing of seedlings is usually practiced for vegetable crops like onion, leek, lettuce, broccoli,
cabbage, cauliflower; mustard, pechay, Chinese cabbage, tomato, eggplant, sweet pepper; celery, etc.

Growing of transplants can be done in two ways:

a. Seedbed method. A seedbed is an outdoor area fully exposed to sunlight set aside for growing
the seedlings. Seedlings grown in full sunlight are hardier and are able to withstand sun damage after
transplanting. The seedbed is thoroughly worked over and surface-sterilized by borning rice straw over or
by chemical sterilization with the use of a liquid drench such as 40% formaldehyde.
Row spacing is 5 to 7 cm and within 5 to 7 cm of row length, 2 to 3 seeds are planted.

b. Seed box method: the dimension is usually 50 cm x 33 cm x 7 cm. Seedlings are grown close
together and some are transferred once to another seed box before they are brought to the field through a
process called "pricking".
- Soil should be a mixture of equal proportion of sieved sand, compost and garden soil.
- Soil mix is sterilized by heat or chemical such as 40% formaldehyde. Sterilization by heat is
done by using two halves of a 50-gallon metal barrel which are filled with soil and placed over a pit of
burning material.
- Fertilizer is applied at the rate of Y4 liter of (12-24-12) and 1 liter of 20% superphosphate for
each cubic meter of soil mixture.
- Use of a "dibble" or "spotting board" in seeding is employed. Rows are spaced 7 to 8 cm and 2
to 3 seeds are planted per linear cm of row. A 5 cm x 5 cm spacing or having 48 seedlings per box will not
require pricking.

There are other procedures in the care of seedlings

1) Pricking – process of thinning the seedlings by transplanting them into plot or bed to give them
more and equal space before final planting. It can be done when the seedlings have already two pairs of
leaves including the cotelydonary leaf.
2) Blocking - a process done 7 to 10 days before the seedlings are transplanted in which the full
depth of soil is cut with a knife into blocks of 5 cm x 5 cm to confine the roots in separate blocks.
Destruction of the root systems at transplanting time is minimized.
3) Hardening - a process which is started at 7 to l0 days before transplanting in which the
seedlings are exposed to full sunlight. Gradual withholding of water from seedlings is made as
transplanting time draws near. Plants may suffer from temporary wilting and tissues become thicker and
less succulent but they become hardy and less prone to wilting after transplanting.
Age of seedlings for transplanting for pechay and lettuce is 3 weeks; for cabbage, broccoli and
cauliflower, 4 to 5 weeks; for tomatoes, pepper, eggplants, 5 to 7 weeks.
Transplanting should be done in the afternoon and during cloudy days. Before putting a plant into
a hole, a cup of starter solution is applied. Solution is prepared by dissolving 24 gm of 12-24-12 fertilizer
for every 10 liters of water, prepared a few days earlier before transplanting time.

D. Water Supply and Management

Methods of Irrigation Water Application

1. Overhead Irrigation.
a. Watering can. The simplest piece of overhead irrigation equipment is the watering can
commonly used in small-scale farming. Since the water is carried by hand, this method is limited to small
plots with easily accessible source of water.
b. Hose pipe. This method is being practiced in tobacco, cotton, garlic, and onion plantations of
the Ilocos region. The water is pumped from shallow ells with the use of portable pumps connected to a
2-inch pipe, 50 to 100 m long.
c. Sprinkler Irrigation. This method is the application of water to the surface of the soil in the
form of spray, simulating that of rain. The spray is produced by the flow of water under pressure through
small nozzles. The pressure is provided by pumping.

2. Furrow irrigation
Accomplished by running water through small channels (furrows) while it moves down or across
the slope of the field. Row crops planted on beds, ridges, or nearly level land, such as vegetables,
sugarcane, corn, cotton, sorghum, and other field grains can be irrigated by furrow method.

13
3. Flooding
Flooding can be accomplished in areas which have uniform and gentle slopes.
a. Ordinary flooding. Water is applied from ditches to guide its flow.
b. Border-strip flooding. A field is divided into a series of strips, 5 to 10 meters wide and 75 to
300 m long, by borders or ridges running down the predominant slope or on the contour.

4. Subirrigation

5. Drip Irrigation
The application of water to the soil through small orifices or emitters. This is ideal for young
orchards, vineyards, close-spaced perennials, and other crops of high value and in areas where water is
scarce or has a high salt content.

Small Water Impounding Project (SWIP)

A structure (small dam) serving as reservoir to impound part of the excess rainwater for
supplemental irrigation during periods of low water supply. Aside from irrigation, SWIP offer other uses
like source of water for fish and livestock production, and even for recreation.

E. Soil Nutrient Management

Fertilizer is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin which is added to a soil
to upgrade its fertility to a level required by a crop.

Sources of Plant Nutrients

1. Organic fertilizers – organic fertilizers are either commercially prepared or in the form of farm
and green manures and composts. Organic fertilizers generally contain low amount of major
plant nutrients; there is slow availability of nutrients; promote good soil physical condition if
used in large quantities; if applied when not fully decomposed, they tend to induce nutritional
deficiency in plants.
2. Farm Manures – mixtures of animal excreta and solid beddings that accumulate in stables
and barns. If applied in large quantities, farm manures improve soil structure, stimulate the
microorganisms decomposing organic residues and aid in the extraction of plant nutrients
from minerals in the soil.
3. Composts – made from animal manures, crop residues, tree leaves, wood residues, coconut
husks, ash, human excreta, garbage, kitchen refuses, saw dust, wood shavings, and grasses.
4. Crop residues – plant parts left after harvest such as rice straw, corn stovers, hay and other
crop remains.
5. Green manures – are leguminous crops plowed under as fertilizer. They contain nitrogen
from the atmosphere through the nodules.
6. Guano – droppings of bats and seabirds. Guano is rich in phosphorous.
7. Inorganic fertilizers
Nitrogen carriers. – Ammonium sulfate (21-0-0), Urea (46-0-0), Anhydrous ammonia (82-0-0),
Ammonium chloride (26-0-0). Biuret from urea could be toxic to some plants if present in
large amounts. Safe ranges from 0.3-0.5%.
Phosphate or Phosphorous Carriers. – Ordinary superphosphate (18-20% P 2O5), Triple
superphospphate (45-46% P2O5)
Potassium Carriers.- Muriate of potash (0-0-60), Sulfate of potash (0-0-53).
Ammonium Phosphate Fertilizers.- Diammonium phosphate (18-46-10); ammonium
phosphate (16-20-0).
Chemically or Physically Combined NPK Fertilizers.-
8. Legume Seed Inoculants. – Popular form of rhizobial culture available because it assures
because it assures good rhizobial survival both in the package and on the seeds and in is
very easy to handle.

Recommended Practices in Soil Fertility Management

Fertilization. Since the fertility of the soil is depleted continuously with cropping, no soil
management is complete and successful without replenishing the soil supply of nutrients through fertilizer
application. The general recommendations in the use of fertilizers for crop production are: (a) know the
nutrient requirement of your crop, (b) choose the right kind of fertilizer considering the nutrient contents
and their comparative costs, (c) know the amount of fertilizers to apply.
Methods of Application
a. Broadcast application. – fertilizer is applied uniformly over the surface of the land. Ideal for
rice, pastures and lawns. Top dressing is the term used when fertilizer is broadcast over the
growing plant.
b. Sidedressing – method of placing fertilizer to or between the rows of crops such as
vegetables and corn, or placed around the plants or trees. The purpose of which is to insure

14
 availability of plant food, particularly nitrogen during the critical growth period when plants are
feeding on nutrients rapidly.
c. Band, row or localized treatment – In this method, fertilizer is applied in bands to one or both
sides of the seed or plant.
d. Foliar application – involves dissolving the fertilizer material in water and then applying it as
spray to the plant.
e. Application with the seed – done either by broadcasting together with the seed or coating the
seed (pelleting) with the fertilizer (phosphate fertilizer) by means of an adhesive such as
Cellofas A or gum Arabic.

Time of application
a. early vegetative
b. maximum tillering (rice)
c. panicle initiation (rice)
d. onset of fruiting (fruit trees/plantation crops)
e. early whorl (corn)

Organic Matter Maintenance. The supply of organic matter or humus (decomposed or partly
decomposed animal and plant residues) can be maintained by the liberal use or application of farm and
green manures to the soil. Organic matter supplies some of the nutrient requirements of the crop and it
promotes favorable soil properties such as granulation and good tilth for efficient aeration, easy root
penetration and improved water holding capacity.
Crop Rotation. The systematic planting of different crops in succession is generally employed by
planting a grain crop such as upland rice or corn, followed by a legume, such as soybean, mungbean,
peanut or cowpea.
Crop rotation builds up and maintains the organic matter content thereby improving soil structure
and promoting rapid infiltration of water. It is imperative then not to fallow the field. That is, the field
should not be plowed and left unplanted.
Cover cropping. Raindrops that disperse soil particles seal soil pores that leads to reduced
infiltration or water-soaking. Thus, run-off water results which carries soil particles and organic matter.
The best way to prevent this is to have a full cover of the land throughout the year. This can be done by
crop rotation and cover cropping.
Cover crops such as legumes do not only reduce erosion but they also prevent leaching of
nitrogen and potassium and some elements from the soil. They improve the soil’s physical properties
such as aggregation, porosity and permeability to water. Also they contribute to the storage of organic
matter in the soil.

Proper tillage. A desirable soil structure is maintained with proper tillage. That is, soil
compaction must be avoided through timely plowing and proper use of tillage implements. Compact soil
conditions restrict root growth and reduce spaces for water and air thus limiting high production yields.
Some specific measures to avoid compaction of the soil are: (a) plowing operation should not be done
when the soil is too wet (upland condition); (b) use harrow or rotary hoes to destroy crusts and shallow
compaction; (c) use subsoilers or plow deeply to break plow sole developed by continues plowing at the
same depth; (d) after plowing the field, do not drive the tractor across it to avoid compaction.

Liming
Lime requirement refers to the quantity of lime applied to neutralize the acidity of a given soil. It
also refer to the quantity of lime needed to bring a soil to a pH which is considered practical to the system
of cropping being followed. Lime or agricultural lime is defined as any calcium or magnesium compound
which is capable of neutralizing soil acidity. Limestone is the main liming material used.
Liming material should be mixed uniformly with the surface layer or plow layer (15-30 cm deep).
It should be applied at least a month before planting. Sandy soils should be limed frequently but in lighter
amounts. Fine textured soils should be limed less often.

Practices for Soil Erosion Control

Soil erosion is a process that washes up our lands resulting in loss of surface soils, loss of
nutrients, low productivity, low farm income, and big floods Soil erosion in the Philippines is very
pronounced owing to high rainfall intensities, improper land use and poor soil and farm management
practices.
1. Cover cropping – involves growing of grasses or legumes to cover the surface of the ground
with a dense foliage. Cover crops protects the surface of the soil from being splashed away by raindrops,
builds up soil organic matter and improves its physical properties, suppresses weed growth and
minimizes changes in the micro-climate. Ex. Centrosema, calopogonium, siratro
2. Crop rotation - is the systematic planting of different crops in succession on the same piece of
land. Grain crop followed by legumes; shallow-rooted crops followed by deep-roote.
3. Contour strip cropping – farm crops are planted in relatively narrow strips laid out on the
contour or across the incline. Strips of erosion-permitting crops like corn, upland rice or peanut are
separated by erosion-preventing crops like mungbean, soybean, and other legumes.

15
 4. Contouring – contour farming refers to any tillage practice applied across the slope or along
the contour.
5. Terracing – construction of earthen embankments adjusted to soil and slope (2%) to control
run-off.
6. Grassed waterways – are natural depressions or channels constructed to provide safe outlets
for run-off water.
7. Reforestation – replanting hillsides and mountainous areas with permanent vegetation such
fuelwood trees, orchards, nut trees, wood trees and leguminous trees.

F. Pest Management

Pest – any living organism which, by its presence in, on or near a plant may endanger, damage or destroy
it (e.g., insects, rodents, birds, weeds, fungi, bacteria, virus, mollusks, etc).

Integrated Pest Management (DA Special Order No. 495 s of 1997) – a concept of crop production
incorporating the effective and economical crop protection methods that minimize he undesirable effects
of a single pest control action and reduce pest populations at levels that will not significantly reduced
yield.

Use of pesticides
Pesticides are classified as fungicides, insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides and mollucicides.
They may be organic (with carbon) or synthetic (without carbon) according to their chemical composition.
One of the principles of pest management is that the pesticides are used for the alleviation of some
particular pest problems, but the compounds used or the dosage applied must, if possible, be sufficiently
selective so that beneficial or non-harmful parasites and predators are left substantially unharmed.
Pesticides is the ultimate weapon of pest management.

Considerations of an Effective IPM Program

a. know the crop
b. know the key pests
c. verify the existence of biological control agents (BCAs)
d. develop control methods which conserve or augment existing BCAs
e. sound monitoring system
f. crop sanitation and diversification
g. non-reliance to only one method for a long time

Economic Threshold Level (ETL) – the pest population above which significant yield reductions will be
observed

Common Pests
a. Insects – arthropods with three pairs of legs and with bodies divided into three segments
(head, thorax, abdomen)
Effective Management of Insect Pests:
1) the biology of the insect (identify stage when they are most vulnerable to control)
2) sound cultural management practices coupled with the use of improved varieties
3) synchronous planting and time of planting
4) plant population density regulation
5) water and fertilizer management
6) sound monitoring system (basis for the spray of insecticides)

b. Diseases – injurious physiological processes brought about by the continued irritation of a

primary causal factor, exhibited through abnormal cellular activities and expressed in a pathological
condition called symptom. Symptom indicates the presence of disease.
Management Strategies:
1) sanitation
2) cultural management (rouging of diseased plant parts; crop rotation)
3) physical methods (heat treatment, irradiation)
4) chemical methods
5) biological methods

c) Weeds – unwanted plants which compete with the crop for nutrients, water and sunlight.
Integrated Weed Management – the utilization of all possible methods of prevention and control
in a harmonious condition, including the maximization of mortality factors to keep weed population below
critical threshold level (CTL).
Components of the Weed Management Program:
1) preventive methods – use of clean seeds; quarantine; control of weeds before
flowering, use of wire mesh in irrigation inlets, etc.

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 2) Eradication – total elimination of live plants and plant parts, including weed seeds in
the soil
3) Physical/mechanical Methods – hand weeding, inter-row cul;tivation, mowing,
mulching, etc.
4) Cultural methods – proper land preparation, flooding, closer plant spacing, etc.
5) Biological control – use of natural enemies, ducks, fishes, etc.
6) Chemical control – only when necessary

d. Rodents –
Control Strategies
1) Chemical use (rodenticides)
2) Cultural (sanitation, reduction dike size and number, synchronized planting)
3) Physical/mechanical – excavation of rat holes, flaming, flooding

e. Mollusks – Golden apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata)

Control measures
1) Handpicking
2) Construction of shallow canals around the ricefields
3) Transplanting older seedlings
4) Pasturing ducks in the ricefields
5) Installation of screen wires
6) Use of molluscicides

Pesticide Use and Safety

Pesticide – any chemical use to control or limit the population of pests
Fungicides – kill fungi Bactericides – kill bacteria
Insecticides – kill insects Herbicides – kill weeds
Rodenticides – kill rats Molluscicides – kill snails
Nematicides – kill nematodes

Active Ingredient (a.i.) – component which is responsible for the phytotoxic effect
Recommended rate (RR) – amount of a.i. in the pesticide that needs to be applied per unit area to effect
adequate pest control
Adjuvant/Surfactant – surface active agent intended to aid in the application and/or effect of the pesticide
Formulation – any mixed or unmixed product intended to be used for controlling any pest
Knapsack sprayer – the most widely-use application equipment in Asia
Calibration – the process of determining the amount of spray solution delivered by a sprayer
Pesticide Calculation – the process of determining the required amount of pesticide to be applied to a
given area
Amount of pesticide = RR (a.i./ha) in the formulation X 100
+Toxicity – the innate property of a pesticide to produce harm
Hazard – the risk or likehood of an adverse effect
Acute Toxicity – rapid killing action
Chronic Toxicity – slow killing action
Selective Pesticides – toxic only to certain species
Non-selective Pesticides – pesticide kills all

G. Specialized Management Practices

1. Wind/Shelter Breaks. Are rows of trees and shrubs that protect crops from strong winds. If the farm is
located in open wind-swept section or typhoon prone areas, wind breaks should be established around
the farm. Mango, tamarind, mabolo and bamboo make good windbreaks.
A windbreak can reduce windspeed up to 20X its height
Windbreaks should have deep root system and dense canopy (ipil-ipil
Natural physical barriers:
Mountains, shade trees, tree species for soil and water conservation
Artificial:
Greenhouses – cold frame, hotbeds, pit greenhouse, shadehouse. A green house is a
structure with transparent roof that utilizes solar energy to grow plants.
Shading - Shades can be in the form of bamboo slats, fish nets, plastic sacks, coconut
fronds, etc.

2. Physical and Chemical Control of Growth and Development

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 Physical:
1. Pruning – is the judicious removal of plant parts. Pruning operations can be classified as
heading back or thinning out. Heading back consists of cutting back the terminal portion
of the plant. Thinning out consists of complete removal of the branch.
2. Rejuvenation -
3. Training/Trellising – a general term for techniques that direct the growth of the plants in
terms of shape, size and direction.

Chemical. Use of growth regulators/hormones. A plant growth regulator (PGR) is an organic

compound, whether naturally occurring or synthetic, other than nutrients, which in minute
amounts promote, inhibit or qualitatively modify plant growth and development. The naturally
occurring PGR are referred to as phytohormones. They are formed in certain parts of the plant
and are usually translocated to other sites where they evoked special biochemical, physiological,
and/or morphological effects. Actions of phytohormones: Control of plant and/or organ size;
regulation of flowering and fruit set; control of fruit development, control of pre-harvest drop,
control of bulbing; control of fruit ripening; control of yellowing in leafy vegetables; control of
sprouting; latex stimulation; aids to breeding; weed control.

- Auxins: rooting, ground tuber formation, prevent fruit formation, defoliation, prevent
abscission of leaves and fruit (ex: IBA, NAA, 2,4-D)
- Gibberellins: stem elongation, breaks dormancy of seed, buds and tubers, induce
flowering, etc.
- Cytokinins: works with light to increase cell division and enlargement
- Growth retardants: A-Rest, B-Nine, Bonzi, Sumagie and Cycocel
- Pinching Agents: used to kill terminal vegetative buds and promote branching
-Vitamins(particularly B vitamins): stimulants for plant growth for use after planting

H. Specialized Production System

1. Landscaping
Landscaping or landscape gardening is the growing or arranging of plants in a specified area for
beauty, convenience, privacy and pleasure. It is also concerned with giving people emotional satisfaction
and pleasant sensory emotions in a garden. Human beings are stimulated by pleasant surroundings,
which should be kept interesting and beautiful by changes in color, line or form, so the garden becomes a
harbor of surprises and a haven to soothe the physical well-being.
Landscape architecture is a more advanced form of sound design involving all aspects of land
use. The emphasis has switch from planting to planning. It is concerned with the relationship between
man and his landscape (arrangement of land, water and plants). A landscape architect’s work ranges
from site development to building arrangement, paving, grading, designing plants and gardens,
playgrounds, pools, etc. It may also include individual homes, whole communities, parks and highways.
Therefore, he must not only be an artist but must be an engineer and a horticulturist.

Elements of Landscape
1. Form. Refers to the shape and structure of an object. When several plants are grouped
together, they constitute a delineating form or shape that should be harmonious. Vertical form
lead the eye upward; horizontal forms pull vision to ground forms.
2. Color. Visible feature of the design. It is the visual sensation produced by the different
wavelengths of light. The color of the foliage as well as the flowers must be taken into account
when making a choice. You can have color in your garden the whole year round, but too much
variety of colors will create visual confusion. Flowering plants can be jewels of the landscape if
we plant them in clumps or drifts rather than in a random fashion.
3. Line. Function of two landscape materials such a path and a border plant. Straight lines give a
feeling of formality. Curved lines are less formal and radiate a feeling of gracefulness and
softness.
4. Texture. Visual effects of surface quality. Difference in texture is mainly produced by differences
in leaf sizes. For instance, the effect of the large leaves of gabi, would be vastly different from
that of the small leaves of the Palawan cherry tree. The fine texture of the latter gives an illusion
of distance while the coarse texture of the former gives an illusion of closeness.

Principles of Design
Design refers to the manner in which the objects are arranged to achieve a particular purpose. The
application of the principles of design varies, depending on the imagination and sensitive of the artist.

1. Unity or Harmony. Refers to the pleasing relationship of objects making each component a part
of a unified whole. Grouping, arranging or placing the different parts of the design so that they
appear as a single unit achieves a sense of oneness or harmony. Unity is achieved by using
similar plant textures, forms or colors and by planning noticeable repetition and transition from

18
 one group to another. Unity is violated when walks, buildings and other areas are not logically
related to the overall plan when many plants and flower beds are placed in the front lawn in
competition with the house and when many plants of different striking colors or shapes are used
in the same place. The structural materials of paving or seats should harmonize the plants
selected. A mermaid ornament in the middle of a lawn would look awkward, but it will look
attractive if it is used in a pool or near it.
Group plants of the same kind for unity.
Planting some low growing shrubs in front of the house to frame windows and doors well
beyond the corner gives a feeling of unity between the house and the garden.
A unified landscape is all of one piece, rather than disjointed groupings and scattered
features. No one element stands out; instead, all the parts – plants and hardscape – work
together.
Strong, observable lines and the repetition of geometric shapes contribute significantly to
the unity of your landscape, as does simplicity – for example, using just a few harmonious colors
and a limited number of plant varieties. Be prepared to give up the idea of having everyone of
your favorite plants around you and avoid designing too many distinct units that will have to be
tied together.

2. Scale and Proportion. Denotes the relative size of objects and plants. It gives a sensation of
bigness or smallness within a space. Plants, walls, and decorative feature should bear a
pleasing relationship to the dimensions of the house and the area. If we can make a garden so
that it looks bigger, more open, richer and more interesting, then there is a pleasing relationship
of the planting and the house. Therefore, properly handled scale creates an illusion of greater
space. If any part seems much smaller or bigger in the comparison with the others, it will not
give complete satisfaction. Many large leafed plants are out of scale in a small garden, as would
be large and heavy looking flowers, for they tend to make a space seem much smaller. A
preponderance of small leaves will make a garden seem large. A very big tree beside a small
bungalow would make it seem even smaller. A very wide path would not look nice in a small
area.
In a well-designed landscape, the various structural and plant elements are in scale with
one another. Start with your house; it will determine proportion in your landscape.
When choosing trees and shrubs, keep together their ultimate sizes and shapes in mind.
Though a tree when young may suit your favorite front yard, it could overwhelm your house as it
matures.

3. Balance. Connotes stability by giving an illusion of equilibrium around a real or imaginary

central axis. A mass of plants on one side must be balanced by another on the other side.
Balance of weight, color, and height or texture may be symmetrical or formal when two parts are
identical. A formal garden is laid out in geometric patterns and every pant is neatly trimmed. It
is symmetrical or informal when two parts do not have the same size or shape. An informal
garden creates a natural atmosphere.
To balance a landscape is to use mass, color, or form to create equal visual weight on
either side of a center of interest. In formal landscape, balance may mean simply creating one
side as “mirror image” of the other.
In informal styles, balance is just an important, but more subtle: a large tree to the left of
an entryway can be balanced by a grouping of smaller trees on the right. Likewise you can
balance a concentration of color in a small flowerbed on one side of a patio with a much larger
and more diffuse mass of greenery on the other side.

4. Rhythm. Refers to repeating pattern that the eye follows in a design. For example, plantings of
a ground cover or a hedge can be grown in several sections of a landscape; stepping-stones
should have the same general pattern. When the eye jumps from form to form and color to color
and when there is no gradual repetition of pattern or color, there is no rhythm. Uniformity
throughout, however, produces monotony.

5. Emphasis. Focuses the attention of the eye on some dominant feature of the design and help
make the garden personal and interesting. This is achieved by accents in the form of bright
colors, an unusual object, an attractive plant which draws the eye to the design. One good rule is
to make certain that the line of sight ends in an interesting structure, plant or feature.

6. Variety. Break you a monotonous landscape by selecting plants in variety of shapes, shades,
and textures. Or add interest by juxtaposing different hardscape materials.
Visualize the combined appearance of plants and structural elements. Careful plants and
structural elements. Careful planning will help you avoid color clashes, the monotony of uniform
leaf colors or textures, or a jumbled appearance resulting from a haphazard assortment of plant
shapes and sizes.

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 Consider also the landscape views inside the house. Perhaps you’ll want a focal point
outside the window of a favorite sitting room. Or you may want to choose low-growing plants in a
certain area in order to preserve an especially striking view from a window.
7. Color. Although color is a consideration when you’re striving for unity, balance, and variety,
there are some special waterwise guidelines for using color.
When planning try to select permanent plants – generally the less thirsty ones – that have
varied and interesting foliage, bark, or blossoms.
Include in your plan ways to make the most of any annual color – likely to be high-water-
use plants – which you may want to add. Give those few well-chosen plants center stage by
planting them where you’ll enjoy them most, such as beside an entryway or garden path, in a
patio bed, or outside a window.
Clustering plants of the same color is another way to get the greatest impact from them.

Types of Plants for Landscaping

1. Ground covers.- Any plant used to cover the soil thereby reducing maintenance, weed
population, and erosion. They also provide a background against which shapes and color of
flowers are displayed to best advantage. Ex: Wandering Jew, Inch plant, Rose moss, sun
plant, variegated philodendron leaf, trailing watermelon, begonia, mondo grass, trailing
begonia.

2. Edging.- Plants used to define pathways or flower beds. Ex: Purple-leaved spiderwort, boat
lily, shaggy garden, purslane, kitchen garden, flame violet, Japanese grass.

3. Accent or focal point.- One or more plants used as a prominent feature in a garden. They
can be used in pairs on either side of a formal doorway or gate or at the beginning or end of a
walk. Ex:

4. Borders or hedges or screens.- Continuous planting of any shrub or tree in which

individual; plants are close together to define an area or screen off an unattractive view. The
height and thickness of the screen will depend on how much of the view you want shut off. If
the next door is ugly, plant a tall screen. If you want to separate the street from your house,
you may only need a low hedge.
Hedges may be trimmed flat or according to their natural shape. The latter belongs to
an informal garden and the former to a formal one. Ex: (For Screens) Bird catcher tree,
Geranium-leaf, Chenille plant, Red cattail, Philippine Medusa, Jacob’s coat, Copper-leaf,
Beefsteak plant; (For Borders/Hedges) Santan, Rosal, Gumamela, Tapeworm plant, Mock
orange, Dragon-bones tree, Zigzag plant, Devils-backbone, ‘Paper-bark’, Weeping tea tree,
Lemon, orange, etc.

5. Specimen plant.- A plant of special beauty grown to exhibit alone. A specimen plant
allowed to develop into full natural beauty demands space to be effective. It is charming in
big gardens and usually out of place in small ones. Ex: Staghorn fern, Pitogo, Junifer,
Chinese fan palm, pony-tail, amapola, traveler’s palm, crape myrtle, pride of India,
kalachuchi, frangipani, orchid tree, sea grape, coral plant, barbados nut, kapok, red palm,
sealing-wax palm, blue palm, dap-dap, golden shower, fire tree, royal palm, peacock flower,
poinsettia, African tulip tree

6. Foundation plants. - Shrubs of dense growth grown near or along a building. They make
the transition from ground to house gradual so that the house may seem tied and part of the
house.
Foundation plants serve different purposes depending on their location. At corners
they soften vertical lines; near a door they act as a frame; and in front of the house they hide
its base and minimize its height. When planting foundation plants, see to it that they do not
crowd the side of the house once they reach maturity.
If foundation plants are used along the front part of a house, it would be better to
plant in curved lines.

2. Ornamentals

Are plants used for their aesthetic or decorative value. Ornamentals are commonly divided on
the basis of industry, such as floriculture (cut flowers, potted plants and greenery); landscape (bulbs,
ground covers, evergreen shrubs and trees) and turfs (blue grass, bermuda grass, carpet grass, etc.).
1. Cutflowers or florist crops are plants grown for their flowers. Examples are gladiolus, rose,
daisy, calla lily, chrysanthemum, anthurium, sampaguita, orchid.
2. Cut foliage or florist greens are plants whose foliage provides background in floral
arrangement. Examples are fern, dracaena, palm, cycas, asparagus, kamuning.
3. Flowering pot plants are grown in containers for their beautiful flowers, usually used for display
purposes. Examples are chrysanthemum, poinsettia, kalanchoe, santan, Mussaenda, and bougainvillea.

20
 4. Landscape plants are plants for landscaping purposes. Almost all ornamentals fall under this
category.
5. Foliage plants are grown for their attractive foliage. Many of these are used as indoor plants
because they can tolerate low light intensities since they have no demanding inflorescence to support.
Examples are begonia, philodendron, raphis, parlor palm, red palm.
6. Turf grasses are used for lawns or greens (grass for golf). They significantly fall under
landscape plants but have grown in importance to be in a class by themselves. Example is Manilla grass.

3. Plantation crops
Are plants usually perennial in growth which require minor changes in the structure of the product
before utilization. They are generally grown on large scale and intended for industrial purposes.
Example: Young coconut is considered fresh but coconut is considered plantation crop since it is primarily
used in its processed form.
1. Oil crops are grown for their oil content. Examples are coconut, African oil palm, castor bean,
lumbang.
2. Fiber crops are grown for their fibers which are used for textiles, cordage, pulp, paper, sacks,
bags, mats, decors. Examples are abaca, buri, sisal, cabo negro, and kapok.
3. Beverage crops are used for brewing non-alcoholic drinks. Examples are coffee, cacao and
tea.
4. Spices, condiments and essences are used to provide special flavors, scents, and colors for
food, perfumes, soaps, and body dressings (sprays, splashes, rubbing ointments). Examples
are black pepper, vanilla, citronella, canella (or cinnamon), turmeric and patchouli.
5. Latexes and resins are crops where products of the sap tap[[ped from the bark are obtained.
Example is rubber. (The others are chico, pili, rimas, and papaya, which are classified under
fruit crops).
6. Medicinal and botanical pesticides are crops with curative, laxative or pesticidal properties.
Examples are bunga, lagundi and neem.

I. Harvesting and Post Production Practices

Harvesting is a crucial step in handling crop products because it is the first or the initial operation
among the interdependent steps in postharvest handling, from the farm to the market and to the
consumer. It has always been emphasized that no amount of treatment can improve the quality of
produce, that the quality can only be preserved but cannot be improved, hence a poor product at harvest
will be of inferior quality no matter how good it was handled after harvest.

The three important considerations in harvesting are: 1. Maturity 2. Method 3. Time

1. Maturity
There are two types of maturity: the physiological and commercial maturity
Physiological maturity – based on stage of growth or development, where maximum quality
attributes are realized. These usually corresponds to the time when climacteric rise commences.
Climacteric is a dramatic physiological event marking the end of maturation and the beginning of
senescence in fruits.
Commercial maturity – refers to the state of a plant when it is acceptable to the market.

Ways of determining maturity:

a. Visual – 1) skin color; 2) size; 3) shape; 4) drying of plant part or body
b. Physical means – 1) firmness; 2) ease of separation from the plant; 3) snapping; 4)
flotation; 5) exudation of milk when pierced with finger; 6) tenderness; 7) dull hollow
sound when tapped
c. Chemical methods – sugar to acid ratio and oil content
d. Computation – days from planting to harvest; days from flowering to harvest
e. Physiological – respiration rate of the commodity accurately express the age especially
the stage of ripening.

2. Methods of harvesting
a) Manual – 1) pulling or twisting; 2) picking holes; 3) severe trunk; 4) mechanical

3. Time of harvesting
Time for harvesting includes not only the proper maturity stage but also the actual time of the day
or condition of the environment at the time of harvest.

Primary processing (ph handling) – refers to the different processes of ensuring the quality and
shelf life of agricultural commodities after harvest prior to sale or use without changing their basic
appearance. It covers cleaning, sorting, fumigating, packaging, storing and transporting.

Quoted Literature:
1. Bert Visser. 2001. Biotechnology: A basket of Options. LEISA. Vol. 17 No. 4. December 2001.
2. Ofelia K. Bautista, Helen I. Valmayor, Panfilo C. Tabora and Rene Rafael C. Espino. 1983. Introduction to Tropical Horticulture.
Dept. of Horticulture, UPLB, Laguna.

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3. Ofelia K. Bautista, Helen I. Valmayor, Panfilo C. Tabora and J. B. Sangalang. 1994. Introduction to Tropical Horticulture. Dept.
of Horticulture, 2nd ed. UPLB, Laguna.
4. Stephen R. Chapman and Lark P. Carter. 1976. Crop Production: Principles and Practices. W. H. Freeman and Company.
National Bookstore, Inc. Manila.
5. Hudson T. Hartmann and dale E. Kester. 1975. Plant Propagation: Principles and Practices. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey.
6. Robert M. Devlin. Plant Physiology. 3rd Edition.
7. Jules Janick. 1972. Horticultural Science. 2nd Edition. W. H. Freeman and Company. National Bookstore, Inc. Manila.
8. MASIPAG. 2000. Genetic Engineering and Genetically Modified Organisms in Agriculture.
9. Frank B. Salisbury and Cleon Ross. 1969. Plant Physiology. National Bookstore, Inc. Manila.
10. Ulysses S. Jones. 1979. Fertilizers and Soil Fertility. National Bookstore, Inc. Manila.
11. PCARRD. 1979. The Philippines Recommends for Soil fertility Management.
12. IRRI. 1970. Rice Production Manual.
13. Young people’s Encyclopedia. 1991.
14. Rolly O. Torres. 1987. Factors to Consider in the Design of Cropping Pattern. Hand-out. Cropping Systems Training
Program.
15. Teodoro C. Mendoza. 1994. Introduction to Farming Systems. Dept. of Agronomy. UPLB, Laguna.
16. Ricardo M. Lantican. 2001. SEAMEO-SEARCA and UPLB. The Science and Practice of Crop Production.

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