WAKE TURBULENCE

Vortex studies have led to RECAT

New rules categorize aircraft ahead & behind, labeled A thru F, to
give ATC ability to provide accurate distances for safe separation.

Wake turbulence

Up to 5 miles

500–900 ft
Vortices spread laterally from
the rear of the aircraft

Viewed from behind the generating aircraft, the left vortex rotates
clockwise and the right vortex rotates counter-clockwise. They spread
laterally away from the aircraft and descend 500 to 900 ft at distanc-
es of up to 5 miles behind it. Vortices tend to descend 300 to 500 ft
per minute during the first 30 seconds.

By Shannon Forrest
President, Turbine Mentor S` LUJV\U[LY [OL [LJOUPX\L ^OLU P[»Z VM Å`PUN L_WLYPLUJL·JHU WYVK\JL
ATP/CFII. Challenger 604/605 applied to the takeoff, approach and feelings of uneasiness and discomfort,
Gulfstream IV, MU2B SHUKPUNWOHZLZ:PNUPÄJHU[[PTLZWLU[ inducing pilots into inadvertently or
in the terminal environment allows pi- deliberately altering spacing provided

U
tter the phrase “heavy, clean and lots to build a mental model and de- by ATC. Engaging in the practice can
slow” to a pilot and the response velop expectations regarding spacing reduce landing rates, the very thing the
to the stimulus will likely be the on departure and more importantly, controllers are trying to avoid by em-
retort “wake turbulence.” It’s an action on landing. In turn, pilots often sup- ploying RECAT.
brought on by continuous repetition plement ATC clearances with their
[OH[ ILNPUZ LHYS` PU [OL ÅPNO[ [YHPUPUN own tools for situational awareness Physics, history and studies of wake
process. Conditioning the verbal re- VY H]VPKHUJL LN KV\ISLJOLJRPUN turbulence separation
sponse to occur automatically is one KPZ[HUJLZ\ZPUN;*(:VYÅ`PUNZSPNO[S`
thing but without practical correlation HIV]L[OLHJ[\HSNSPKLWH[O Wake turbulence is an unavoid-
the phenomenon is largely academic. In 2014 the FAA embarked on a able byproduct of lift that originates
Although wake turbulence is ad- WYVJLZZ JHSSLK 9,*(; [V HS[LY SVUN because of the pressure differential
dressed in regulatory documents, standing wake turbulence separation above and below an airfoil. Higher
pilot exams and safety reports, the practices. The impetus for the change pressure on the underside of a wing
implications remain elusive until an was a combination of 3 factors: exerts a roll-up effect on the air mass,
occurrence takes place. Those who ‹ ;OL ILSPLM [OH[ ^HRL [\YI\SLUJL culminating in 2 symmetrical count-
OH]LLZJHWLKMYVTHZPNUPÄJHU[^HRL constrains airport capacity. er-rotating vortices. Except for direc-
turbulence upset have the experience ‹ ;OL YLHSPaH[PVU [OH[ TVKLYU HPY- [PVU [OL SLM[ ZWPUZ JSVJR^PZL HUK [OL
indelibly etched in their memory. Sad- craft designs have disparities from his- YPNO[JV\U[LYJSVJR^PZL[OLHUH[VT`
ly, some events are fatal and can be torical models. and behavior of each vortex is theoret-
attributed to the inability of the aircraft ‹;OLH]HPSHIPSP[`VMYLZLHYJORUV^S- ically identical; they trail downstream
to overpower the effect of the wake, edge that provides new insight into the of the wingtips and descend below the
late recovery efforts, or improper pilot behavioral characteristics of aircraft ÅPNO[WH[OVM[OLHPYJYHM[>OLUKL]LS-
action during or after the encounter. wake. oping lift, all aircraft produce vortices
Whether through self-study, personal 9,*(;ÄYZ[HWWLHYLKH[4,44LT- of some magnitude. The historical re-
experience, narratives of others, or an- WOPZ ;5 HUK :+- 3V\PZ]PSSL 2@ cord shows a rudimentary mention of
alyzing accidents, the majority of pi- and will eventually be deployed sys- the concept by the aerodynamicist FW
lots maintain a healthy respect for the tem-wide at US airports. Under the Lancaster as early at 1917 but serious
dangers posed by wake turbulence. new paradigm, pilots might notice the study was not initiated until widebody
(PY;YHMÄJ *VU[YVS (;* PZ YLX\PYLK distance between aircraft is different transports began to enter service.
to apply wake separation minimums than what they’re used to. Lack of fa- 0U  [OL5(:(+Y`KLU-SPNO[9L-
to aircraft operating under instrument miliarity with the new standards—and search Center spearheaded a testing
ÅPNO[ Y\SLZ 0-9 HUK WPSV[Z JVTTVU- the fact that they may contradict years effort—at times partnered with other

62 PROFESSIONAL PILOT / July 2016

NASA facilities, the FAA, USAF Lock- Table 1: Current FAA wake separation standards (at the threshold)
OLLK HUK 4J+VUULSS +V\NSHZ·^P[O
the purpose of analyzing the physics Follower (nautical miles)
of wake turbulence on mixed aircraft
types. Researchers were most interest- Super Heavy B757 Large Small
ed in studying the impact of the Boeing Super 2.5 6 7 7 8
747 and the Lockheed C5 Galaxy on

Leader
smaller civilian and military aircraft, Heavy 2.5 4 5 5 6
including the Cessna 210, Learjet 23,
B757 2.5 4 4 4 5
Lockheed F104, and Cessna T37. Oth-
LYPUX\PYPLZL_WSVYLK[OLK`UHTPJZVM Large 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 4
larger aircraft entering the wake of a
similarly sized leader. Small 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
5V[HISL[LZ[ÅPNO[ZPU]VS]LK[OL)VL-
PUN)+V\NSHZ+* HUK+*HUK related to wake turbulence—2 involv- and thus, overly conservative. When
the Convair 990. Results indicated that ing corporate aircraft, a Citation and the basic groundwork behind the
although vortices from light aircraft a Westwind—attracted the attention methodology was developed, a small
have a negligible effect on an aircraft of the FAA and NTSB. The cases had number of airframe types were used in
immediately behind it, large transport one thing in common: The preceding commercial service. Now, diverse ar-
category jet can produce a dramatic HPYJYHM[^HZH)VLPUN+PZJ\ZZPUN rays of designs operate within the same
KPZY\W[PVUMVYZTHSSLYZ\IZLX\LU[[YHM- vortex issues as they apply to the 757 airspace, from airliners to high ca-
ÄJ,_WLYPTLU[HSS`]HSPKH[LKZJLUHYPVZ is a controversial topic that polarizes pacity turboprops to large long-range
involved roll rates of 200 degrees per debaters. Factually, the aircraft made business jets. The range of weights and
ZLJVUKHNNYLZZP]L`H^HUKZPNUPÄJHU[ use of a supercritical wing, a design ÅPNO[JOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZYLUKLYZHUV]LYHSS
altitude loss. This clearly proven haz- that had been around since the 1960s NLULYPJ JSHZZPÄJH[PVU [VV IYVHK [V IL
ard forced regulators to enact a mitiga- but was new to the airline industry and LMÄJPLU[ 0U HKKP[PVU \ZPUN ^LPNO[ HZ
tion strategy in the rapidly growing air differed aerodynamically from a con- a parameter fails to account for other
[YHMÄJZ`Z[LTVM[OL Z([ÄYZ[[OL ventional airfoil. One test did show MHJ[VYZ[OH[PUÅ\LUJL^HRLPUJS\KPUN
747 and C5 were given an arbitrarily a vortex velocity 50% greater than wing dynamics, approach speeds, the
wide berth—10 miles minimum dis- the wingtip vortices associated with ability to withstand a wake turbulence
tance for the follower. the Boeing 767. However, correla- encounter and the decay rate of vor-
Although NASA’s data concluded tion does not imply causation as the tices based on ambient atmospheric
[OH[ JOHUNPUN SPM[ JVUÄN\YH[PVU \Z- 757 operated into airports that bigger conditions. A 747 trailing behind a
PUN ZWLLK IYHRLZ HUK ÅHWZ KPK HMMLJ[ aircraft could not access, statistically 767 might have a milder encounter
vortices, employing them strictly as a increasing the exposure rate to gen- than if the positions in line were re-
[LJOUPX\L [V YLK\JL ^HRL [\YI\SLUJL LYHS H]PH[PVU [YHMÄJ )VLPUN JVU[LUK- versed. Even though the 747 may be
was deemed impractical. Instead, all LK JSVZL ZJY\[PU` ^HZ \UQ\Z[PÄLK HUK substantially heavier than the 767,
known aircraft were categorized based [OL HPYMVPS ^HZ UV[ \UPX\L PU YLNHYKZ any combination of the 2 would be
VUTH_PT\TJLY[PÄLK[HRLVMM^LPNO[! to wake turbulence. Regulators had afforded the same separation under
/LH]`SIZVYNYLH[LY another idea and eschewed the estab- the weight-based rules since both are
 3HYNL NYLH[LY [OHU  I\[ lished separation rules in favor of plac- JSHZZPÄLK HZ OLH]` ([ ÄYZ[ NSHUJL H
SLZZ[OHUSIZ ing the 757 with its critical airfoil wing non-airline pilot might dismiss these
:THSSSIZVYSLZZ into a category by itself. Both sides of hypothetical airline scenarios as irrele-
ATC separation distances were de- the argument had merit and the end vant. That’s an inaccurate assumption.
veloped based on the designation of result—intended or otherwise—was In the aforementioned case study, if
the lead aircraft and under the premise that the “caution wake turbulence, the separation distance closes, busy
that wake vortices were proportional following a Boeing 757” admonition airports can process more arrivals and
to aircraft size. It made sense at the JH\ZLK[OLWPSV[UL_[PU[OLZLX\LUJL KLWHY[\YLZ;OL PUJYLHZL PU LMÄJPLUJ`
[PTL,_PZ[PUNHPYJYHM[Ä[[OLZJOLTH[H to exercise extreme vigilance. JV\SK PTWHJ[ ,+*; [PTLZ HSSL]PH[L
and closure distances were uniformly In 2008 the huge Airbus A380 add- holding and eliminate the need for
applied based on the categorical des- ed more complexity to the system. The ATC ordered speed reductions. Ac-
ignator. Somehow the mantra “heavy, ( OHZ H 4;6> VM V]LY  cording to an FAA fact sheet dated
clean and slow” entered the lexicon million lbs. Technically it’s a heavy (WYPS4,4:+-*=.*PUJPU-
as a convenient way to remind pilots but there’s a wide disparity between a UH[PHUK(;3([SHU[HZH^ZPNUPÄJHU[
of the aggregated variables that deliver lightly loaded aircraft at the low end PTWYV]LTLU[Z PU VWLYH[PVUHS LMÄJPLU-
[OL ^VYZ[ JHZL ZJLUHYPV PYVUPJ ZPUJL of the heavy scale and a maxed out cy as a function of RECAT. There’s
this combination represents an abnor- A380. Few airports have the capabil- certainly an airline and freight carrier
THS JVUKP[PVU PU HU` ÅPNO[ YLNPTL MVY ity to support it, but wake turbulence ZSHU[ [V [OL JOVPJL VM HPYWVY[Z -LK,_
H[YHUZWVY[JH[LNVY`QL[:WLJPÄJZ[YH[- JVUJLYUZ NYHU[LK [OL ( H \UPX\L reported a 20% increase in capaci-
egies for avoiding wake turbulence can designator: Super. [` ZPUJL 9,*(; HWWLHYLK PU 4,4 PU
ILMV\UKPU(* .HUK[OL(04 I\[JVYWVYH[LÅPNO[KLWHY[TLU[Z
New information from detailed that utilize these terminal areas should
Special case aircraft and their wakes studies reveals that separation stan- YLHWILULÄ[ZHZ^LSS
dards have been overly cautious <UKLY9,*(;[OLVSKLY4;6>TL[O-
The takeoff weight model was in- odology is supplanted with an analysis
corporated into all aircraft types until There’s no doubt that weight-based of takeoff weight combined with wing-
[OL  Z +\YPUN [OL LHYS` WHY[ VM separation metrics work, but the latest span. But this change didn’t come light-
that decade, a handful of accidents research shows it to be a bit myopic ly. After years of research and collabora-

64 PROFESSIONAL PILOT / July 2016

 Table 2: RECAT wake separation standards 757 aircraft operating on the parallel.
Alerts are provided to controllers if
RECAT separation matrix the wind changes, compromising the
Follower wake-free zone.
A B C D E F
Headwinds cause vortices to
A MRS 5.0 6.0 7.0 7.0 8.0 dissipate more rapidly
B MRS 3.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 7.0
Leader

What happens to wake turbulence in

C MRS MRS MRS 3.5 3.5 6.0 a headwind is a critical tool in main-
D MRS MRS MRS MRS MRS 5.0 [HPUPUN LMÄJPLUJ` H[ 3/9 /LH[OYV^
3VUKVU<20U4HYJO[OL5H-
E MRS MRS MRS MRS MRS 4.0 [PVUHS(PY;YHMÄJ:LY]PJLZ5(;:[YHU-
F MRS MRS MRS MRS MRS MRS sitioned to a time-based separation
;): Z[HUKHYK MVY HYYP]HSZ;OL PTWL-
Separation was increased for some or all aircraft pairs
[\Z^HZ[OH[\ZPUNHÄ_LKKPZ[HUJLIL-
Separation remained the same for some or all aircraft pairs tween aircraft during strong headwinds
concomitantly drops groundspeed and
Separation was decreased for some or all aircraft pairs
reduces the number of landings per
MRS Minimum radar separation (3 nm, or 2.5 nm when existing requirements are met) hour. Without an intensive study, com-
mon knowledge would dictate that re-
[PVU^P[OPUK\Z[Y`L_WLY[ZPUJS\KPUN[OL TPSLZ\UKLYJLY[HPUJYP[LYPH duced distances would exacerbate the
40;9, *VYWVYH[PVU HUK ,\YV*VU[YVS Parallel runways are susceptible to wake hazard.
the FAA believed current wake turbu- wake hazards because vortices move 0UJVSSHIVYH[PVU^P[O3VJROLLK4HY-
lence separation distances were overly laterally when sinking into ground ef- tin, the NAT conducted a 5-year anal-
JVUZLY]H[P]L=VY[PJLZHSZVWYLZLU[LKHU fect, potentially drifting into the path `ZPZPU]VS]PUNÅPNO[ZHYYP]PUN
impediment to the NextGen philosophy of another aircraft from the side. This is into LHR. As it turns out, headwinds
of maximizing capacity. one reason why the FAA has rejected cause vortices to dissipate more rapid-
Å`PUN 03: HWWYVHJOLZ [V WHYHSSLS Y\U- ly, allowing reduced separation under
ways with less than 2500ft between certain conditions. The system works
Practical application of RECAT by taking actual wind data from all air-
them. There are exceptions such as
The practical application of RECAT CLE, SEA and STL. In order to utilize JYHM[VU[OLÄUHSHWWYVHJOHUK[YHUZ-
is that all aircraft are now assigned parallel ILS operations, the airport TP[ZP[]PH[OL4VKL:YHKHYKV^USPUR
a letter that ranges from A though F. must meet very stringent approach pa- to ATC. The computers derive solu-
The beginning of the alphabet is rep- rameters including a staggered landing tions based on an assumption of a 5 to
resentative of a greater wake turbu- threshold or a glidepath angle differ- R[ OLHK^PUK PYYLZWLJ[P]L VM HJ[\HS
SLUJL[OYLH[HUKZ\IZLX\LU[SL[[LYZHYL ence. Pilots that gloss over the notes and provide a time interval to establish
indicative of a gradually decreasing on the chart may miss the remarks, IL[^LLUHPYJYHM[+PNP[HSPUKPJH[VYZZ\-
hazard. Combining 2 letters in the A–F “simultaneous approach authorized perimposed on the display help con-
ZLX\LUJLHUK[OLVYKLYPU^OPJO[OL` ^P[O[OLWHYHSSLSY\U^H`¹0[»ZHUPT- trollers manage the situation. Pilots are
HWWLHY SLHKLY HOLHK VM MVSSV^LY KL- portant reminder that wake turbulence PUZ[Y\J[LK [V Å` ZWLJPÄJ ZWLLKZ HUK
ÄULZHPYJYHM[ZLWHYH[PVU might be present. ATC does not apply everything is business as usual with 1
;OLYL»ZHT\S[P[\KLVMZJLUHYPVZPU- the 6 RECAT categories during paral- L_JLW[PVU!=PZ\HSS` HUK VU ;*(: [OL
tersection departures, low approach- lel ILS operations but instead reverts to aircraft appear closer. From a purely
LZ JYVZZPUN Y\U^H`Z;V ZPTWSPM` [OL the historical small, large, and heavy distance standpoint, this is accurate.
concept, consider 2 aircraft landing model. Separation is based on a 1.5 )\[ H JVUÅPJ[ PZ H MHSZL WYL[LUZL IL-
on a single runway. For example, a mile staggered alignment and the lead- cause the separation is using time as a
.\SMZ[YLHT=.VUÄUHSHWWYVHJO er must not be a heavy. metric. NATS suggests that TBS has the
ILOPUK H )VLPUN  H[ 1-2 [YH- The fact that smaller separation dis- potential to be deployed throughout
ditionally would be provided 5 miles tances are being enacted is indicative Europe and may eventually appear in
ZLWHYH[PVUHSHYNLHPYJYHM[MVSSV^PUNH that our knowledge about wake tur- the US as well.
OLH]`\UKLYOPZ[VYPJHSY\SLZ/V^L]- bulence behavior has changed sub- 2UV^SLKNL VM 9,*(; HUK ;7: JHU
LY 9,*(; N\PKLSPULZ KLÄUL [OL .\SM- stantially over the last 40 years. This LUOHUJL VWLYH[PVUHS LMÄJPLUJ` H]LY[
Z[YLHT=.HZJH[LNVY`+HUK[OL is evident in the Wake Turbulence an unnecessary go around, or make for
767 as category C. The standard for a 4P[PNH[PVU MVY +LWHY[\YLZ >;4+ a happy controller because, although
+ MVSSV^PUN H * PZ  TPSLZ ^OPJO program that was successfully demon- things look a bit off, you’re probably ex-
HSSV^Z[OL.\SMZ[YLHT[VÅ`TPSLZ Z[YH[LKH[:-6PU4H`0MJVUKP- actly where you’re supposed to be.
closer to the 767 than it was previously [PVUZ^HYYHU[[OL>;4+HSSV^ZJVU-
allowed. The RECAT scale eliminates trollers to depart aircraft on closely
[OLZWLJPHSPaLKKPZ[HUJLYLX\PYLTLU[Z spaced parallel runways without wait- Shannon Forrest is
placed upon the 757, and instead iden- ing the usual minimum of 2 minutes a current line pilot,
[PÄLZP[HZH+·[OLZHTLHZ[OL.\SM- VYYHKHYTPSLZMVY^HRL[VKPZZPWH[L CRM facilitator and
Z[YLHT=.0M[OL.\SMZ[YLHT^HZ Technologically, the system measures aviation safety con-
U\TILYILOPUK[OL+MVSSV^PUN actual and predicted winds at intervals sultant. He has 9400
H+[OLKPZ[HUJLIL[^LLU[OLTJV\SK up to 1200 ft AGL and based on that hours and holds a
be reduced to minimum radar separa- information determines if a runway is degree in behavioral
[PVU UVYTHSS`  I\[ YLK\JPISL [V  free of wake from a heavy or Boeing psychology.

66 PROFESSIONAL PILOT / July 2016