Consolidation of soils

Introduction
• Consolidation is a process associated with the property of compressibility of soil mass.
To recapitulate, compressibility is an engineering property by virtue of which a soil
mass is capable of undergoing compression or reduction in volume under pressure.
• Consolidation is defined as the process in which gradual reduction in volume of soil
mass occurs under sustained loading and is primarily due to expulsion of pore water.
• In the analysis of this process both water and soil particles are assumed to be relatively
incompressible so that the decrease in volume is due entirely to the change in relative
positions of soil particles with the particles coming closer to each other.

According to Terzaghi “Every process involving a decrease in the water content of a

saturated soil without replacement of the water by air is called a process of
consolidation”.
When a compressive load is applied to a laterally confined layer of
sand, rapid vertical deformation occurs. The rate at which this
deformation can take place depends upon permeability of soil and
upon the distance the water must travel to reach a drainage surface.
The compressibility of clays may also be caused by three factors:
1.The expulsion of double layer water between the grains
2.Slipping of the particles to new positions of greater density
3.Bending of particles as elastic sheets
The permeability of clay being very small, time is an important factor
in the consolidation of clays.
Terzaghi’s mass spring analogy of consolidation
• The figure shows a spring with a piston on its top. Let the length of the spring be z0 under a pressure of 10
units.
• If 12 units of pressure are added to its top, the spring will be compressed immediately to a length of z1. A
further application of load will result in a further decrease in the length of the spring. Within the elastic
limit, the load-deflection curve may be assumed to be straight.
• If this spring and piston are placed in a cylinder containing water up to the bottom of the piston, and a
valve at its bottom, water will be free of stress since the whole load is carried by the spring alone. If the
pressure on the piston is increased to 12 units, and the valve is closed, the spring cannot deform since
water is incompressible.
• Hence the additional pressure of 2 units is entirely borne by water. If σ the pressure is spring and 𝑢ത is the
pressure in water (i.e., pore pressure), the governing equation in fig (d) is given by
 𝜎 = 𝜎 ′ + 𝑢ത
12 = 10+2
Now let the valve be opened slightly so that some water escapes and then the valve is closed. Due to the escape of some
water, the piston moves down, the spring is compressed and hence some pressure, out of the pressure of 2 units entirely
borne by water, is now transferred to the spring. Thus, at any intermediate stage, the pressure equation becomes:
12 = (10 + Δ𝜎 ′ ) + 2 − Δ𝜎 ′
Where, Δ𝜎 ′ is the transfer of pressure from water to the spring corresponding to a given amount of expulsion of water. If
the valve is fully opened, sufficient water will escape till the length of spring is reduced to a height of z1. Thus,, the whole
of 2 units of pressure is transferred from water to the spring, the water becomes free of pressure and the spring carries the
whole pressure. The pressure equation at this stage becomes:
12 = 12 + 0 or 𝜎 = 𝜎 ′ + 𝑢ത
Thus, we see that when there is a pressure increment, the whole of pressure is first taken by water. As the water escapes
out of the system, the load transfer takes place from water to the spring till the spring is deformed by the full amount
corresponding to the applied stress increment. Thus analogy can be applied to the consolidation process of a soil mass
consisting of soil water system. The grain structure represents the spring while voids filled water represent the cylinder.
The valve opening is represented by the permeability of the soil mass, and the rate of load transfer from water to soil
depends upon the permeability and the boundary conditions (i.e. the drainage faces available).
• The pressure that builds up in pore water due to load increment on the soil is
termed excess pore pressure or excess hydrostatic pressure or hydrodynamic
pressure 𝑢,ത because it is in excess of the initial pressure in water under static
conditions.
• The excess hydrostatic pressure forces the water to drain out of the voids. As the
water starts escaping from the voids The excess hydrostatic pressure in the water
gets gradually dissipated and the pressure increment and the pressure increment
is shifted as an increase in effective pressure on the soil solids and the soil mass
decreases in volume.
• When the while id the pressure increment is shifted as an increase in effective
pressure on the soil solids and the soil mass decreases in volume.
• When the whole of the pressure increment or the consolidation pressure is
carried as an increase in the effective pressure on the solids, no more water
escapes from the voids and a condition of equilibrium is attained.
• Under different applied pressures, soil attains a different equilibrium or final
voids ratio, and under each equilibrium condition the whole of the applied
pressure is carried as an increase in the effective pressure on the solids, no more
water escapes from the voids, and condition of equilibrium is attained.
• Under different applied pressures, soil attains different equilibrium or final voids ratio,
and under each equilibrium condition, the whole of the applied pressure is carried by the
solids as an effective pressure. The delay caused in consolidation by the slow drainage of
water out of a saturated soil mass is called hydrodynamic lag.
• The reduction in the volume of soil is due to principally to a squeezing out of the water
from the voids termed primary consolidation, primary compression, or primary time
effect.
• Even after the reduction of all excess hydrostatic pressure is zero, some compression of
soil takes place at a very slow rate. This is known as secondary consolidation, secondary
compression, or secondary time effect. During the secondary compression, some of the
highly viscous water between the points of contact is forced out from between the
particles.
• Consolidation of Laterally Confined Soil Specimen (One-Dimensional
Consolidation)
If a soil specimen is laterally confined and subjected to vertical pressure, compression or consolidation takes place in the
vertical direction. In the laboratory, consolidation tests can be conducted both on remoulded soil specimen and
undisturbed soil specimen. The drainage condition in the field is simulated by using two porous plates for double drainage
condition, and one porous plate and a non-porous plate for single drainage condition. The soil specimen is sandwiched
between the two plates and pressure applied in increments on the top plate. Under any applied pressure, excess pore
pressure builds up and as the pore water drains out compression in vertical direction proceeds and after sometime when
excess pore pressure is fully dissipated i.e., 𝑢ത = 0 the equilibrium state is reached. At this stage the effective stress 𝜎 ′ in
soil specimen becomes equal to applied pressure. The final equilibrium void ratio, e can be computed. During the
progress of test the equilibrium void ratio attained under different applied pressures are found. The void ratio e is plotted
as ordinate against effective stress ' as abscissa to obtain the relation between the two.
In Figure typical curves illustrating the relation between void ratio and effective stress for a laterally confined remoulded
soil specimen are shown. The curve AB is obtained by increasing the applied pressure in increments allowing AB DE
Virgin compression curves equilibrium stage to be reached under each pressure. If at a stage corresponding to point B,
the applied pressure is completely removed, the soil specimen expands as indicated by curve BC. However, BC CD
Expansion curve Recompression curve B D the soil specimen will not attain 0.6 again the original void ratio corresponding
to beginning of test because it will have undergone some permanent compression which can be attributed to irreversible
orientation undergone by soil particles. If the specimen is recompressed and the test continued the curves CD and DE are
obtained. The curves AB and DE
Where e0 = initial voids ratio corresponding to the initial pressure 𝜎0′
e = voids ratio at increased pressure 𝜎 ′
𝐶𝑐 = compression index (dimensionless)
The compression index represents the slope of the linear portion of the pressure-
voids ratio curve, and remains constant within a fairly large range of pressure
𝒆𝟎 −𝒆 𝜟𝒆
Therefore 𝑪𝒄 = 𝝈′
= ′
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝜟𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟏𝟎 𝝈
𝝈′𝟎
𝝈′𝟎 + 𝜟𝝈′
𝜟𝒆 = 𝑪𝒄 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎
𝜟𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝝈′
The expansion curve is also a fairly straight line on the semilog plot and is expressed
𝝈′
by 𝒆𝟎 = 𝒆 + 𝑪𝒔 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ′
𝝈𝟎
Where C = expansion or swelling index. It is a measure of the volume increase due to
the removal of pressure.
Coefficient of compressibility, av
The coefficient of compressibility denoted by a v is defined as the decrease in void ratio
per unit increase in pressure
−∆𝒆 −(𝒆−𝒆𝟎 )
𝒂𝒗 = =
∆𝝈′ 𝝈′ −𝝈′𝟎
e0 = void ratio under pressure 𝜎0′
e = void ratio under pressure 𝜎 ′
Coefficient of volume change, mv
The coefficient of volume change, also known as coefficient of volume
compressibility, is denoted by mv and is defined as the decrease in volume of
soil mass per unit volume due to unit increase in pressure
−Δ𝑉 1
𝑚𝑣 = . ′
𝑉0 Δ𝜎
𝑉𝑣
𝑒=
𝑉𝑠
𝑉 𝑉 +𝑉 𝑉
Adding 1 on both sides, 1 + 𝑒 = 𝑣 + 1 = 𝑣 𝑠 =
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝑉 = 1 + 𝑒 𝑉𝑠
𝑉0 = 1 + 𝑒0 𝑉𝑠
𝑉1 = 1 + 𝑒1 𝑉𝑠
Δ𝑉 = 𝑉0 − 𝑉1 = 1 + 𝑒0 𝑉𝑠 − 1 + 𝑒1 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑒0 − 𝑒1 𝑉𝑠
Δ𝑉 = Δ𝑒 − 𝑉𝑠
By substitution for V0 and Δ𝑉
−Δ𝑒 1 1 −Δ𝑒
𝑚𝑣 = . ′=
1 + 𝑒0 Δ𝜎 1 + 𝑒0 Δ𝜎 ′
𝒂𝒗
𝒎𝒗 =
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎
When the soil mass is laterally confined, the decrease in volume Δ𝑉 is proportional to decrease in thickness
Δ𝐻 and the initial volume V0 is proportional to initial thickness H0. Therefore we can write

Δ𝐻 1
𝑚𝑣 = .
𝐻0 Δ𝜎 ′
The compression Δ𝐻 due to pressure increment Δ𝜎 ′ is given by
Δ𝐻 = 𝑚𝑣 𝐻0 Δ𝜎 ′
Computation of consolidation settlement
When a soil stratum of initial thickness H0 has fully consolidated under a pressure increment ', the final
consolidation settlement f can be computed as
𝜌𝑓 = Δ𝐻 = 𝑚𝑣 𝐻0 Δ𝜎 ′
assuming that the pressure increment Δ𝜎 ′ is transmitted uniformly over the thickness H0 . However, in
practice, one should note that the vertical stress due to finite surface loading decreases non linearly with
depth. Hence we should apply Eq. for computing the settlement of a thin layer dz and then integrate over
total thickness H.
Δ𝜌𝑓 = 𝑚𝑣 Δ𝜎 ′ 𝑑𝑧
𝐻

𝜌𝑓 = න 𝑚𝑣 Δ𝜎 ′ 𝑑𝑧
0
𝑯 𝝈′𝟎 + 𝜟𝝈′
𝝆𝒇 = 𝑪𝒄 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝝈′𝟎
where H = initial thickness of consolidating layer e0 = initial void ratio of the layer Cc = compression index
𝜎0′ = initial effective pressure at the middle of layer Δ𝜎 ′ = effective pressure increment at the middle of layer
Final settlement by voids ratio:
The final settlement 𝜌𝑓 can also be computed from the following
relationship
𝜟𝑯 𝒆𝟎 − 𝒆 𝒆𝟎 − 𝒆
= 𝒐𝒓 𝝆𝒇 = 𝜟𝑯 = 𝑯
𝑯 𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎
• Depending on the state of consolidation soil deposits are divided into three types: (i)
Preconsolidated deposit
• (ii) Normally consolidated deposit and
• (iii) Underconsolidated deposit
• A soil deposit is said to be preconsolidated, pre-compressed or overconsolidated if it has
in the past been fully consolidated under a pressure greater than the present overburden
pressure acting on the soil.
• The pre-consolidation may have been caused by a geologic overburden in the past or a
structural load that has been subsequently removed. A soil deposit is said to be normally
consolidated if it has never been subjected to a pressure greater than the present
overburden pressure and has been fully consolidated under the presently acting pressure.
An under-consolidated soil deposits one that is still not fully consolidated under the
existing overburden pressure.
• A soil may have been pre-consolidated during the geologic past by the weight of an ice
sheet or glacier which has melted away, or by other geologic overburden or structural load
which no longer exists now. A normally consolidated soil is one which has never been
subjected to an effective pressure greater than the existing overburden pressure and
which is also completely consolidated by the existing overburden pressure. A soil which is
not fully consolidated under the existing overburden pressure is called an under
consolidated soil
Determination of preconsolidation pressure. In Figure is shown the
relation between void ratio and effective stress on a semilog plot,
typical for a laterally confined undisturbed preconsolidated soil
specimen. The initial portion of the curve resembles the
recompression curve of a remoulded soil specimen. The lower
portion is the virgin compression curve. The preconsolidation
pressure is the greatest effective stress to which the soil has been
subjected to in the past and underwhich it has undergone full
consolidation. A Casagrande (1936) has given the following method
for determining the approximate value of preconsolidation pressure.
Determination of preconsolidation pressure. Referring to Figure the
point A of maximum curvature (minimum radius) is selected and
horizontal line AB is drawn. Line AC is drawn tangential to the curve
at A and angle BAC is bisected by AD. The straight portion of the
virgin compression curve is extended back to intersect the bisector
AD at P. The effective stress corresponding to point P is the
preconsolidation pressure 𝜎𝑃′ .
Terzaghi’s Theory of One Dimensional Consolidation
Terzaghi (1923) derived the basic differential equation of consolidation which
represents the first step in the theoretical analysis of the consolidation process.
Following are the assumptions made in Terzaghi’s one-dimensional consolidation
theory.
1. The soil mass is homogeneous and fully saturated.
2. The soil particles and water are incompressible.
3. Darcy’s law for flow of water through soil mass is applicable during consolidation.
4. Coefficient of permeability is constant during consolidation.
5. Load is applied in one direction only and deformation occurs only in the direction of
load application.
6. The deformation is due entirely to decrease in volume.
7. The drainage of pore water occurs only in one direction.
8. A boundary drainage face offers no resistance to flow of water from soil.
9. During consolidation the change in thickness is continuous but final value of
compression is related to initial thickness only.
10.The time lag in consolidation is due entirely to permeability of soil. Any secondary
time effect is disregarded.
• Let a saturated clay layer of thickness H lie between two layers of sand which serve as
two drainage faces. When the clay layer is subjected to a pressure increment, the
pressure increment Δ𝜎 is first borne by pore water so that at initial time t0 the excess
pore pressure 𝑢ത = Δ𝜎 at all points along the depth of clay layer and is plotted as line AB
in Fig. (b). Drainage of pore water into the sand layers starts and the excess pore
pressure at the top and bottom boundaries of clay layer drops down to zero and remains
so at all times, during the consolidation process. At the end of the consolidation process,
say, at t = tf the excess pore pressure will have been completely dissipated so that ' 𝑢ത =
0 at all points and is represented by the line CD in Fig. (b). At any intermediate time t,
between
′
t0 and tf, part of consolidating pressure is transferred to soil particles so that 𝜎 =
Δ𝜎 + 𝑢ത . The distribution of excess pore pressure u at any intermediate time t is
represented by a curve such as CFD in Fig. (b). A number of such curves representing
excess pore pressure distribution along the depth of clay layer at different instants of
time t = t1, t2, .... can be drawn and they are known as isochrones. The slope of an
isochrone at any point at a given time gives the rate of change of 𝑢ത with depth.
𝒌
𝑪𝒗 =
𝒎𝒗 𝜸𝒘
The coefficient of consolidation 𝑪𝒗 as defined in equation indicates the combined effects of permeability and
𝑚2 𝑘𝑁
compressibility of soil on the rate of volume change. If k is expressed in m/sec, 𝒎𝒗 in and 𝜸𝒘 in 𝑚3, unit of 𝑪𝒗
𝑘𝑁
𝑚2
will be in .
𝑠𝑒𝑐
 𝑪𝒗 𝒕
𝑻𝒗 = 𝟐
𝒅
where d = drainage path. The drainage path represents the maximum distance a
water particle has to travel within the layer to reach a drainage face. When a
clay layer is bound by two drainage faces, double drainage occurs. When the
clay layer is bound by a drainage face at one end and an impervious boundary
at other end, single drainage occurs.
𝐻
For the case of double drainage, d =
2
For the case of single drainage d = H
Where H = thickness of layer
𝑪𝒗 𝒕 𝒌 𝒕
The time factor 𝑻𝒗 = = . 𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒎𝒗 𝜸𝒘 𝒅
The hydraulic boundary conditions to be satisfied by the solution of the differential equation of
consolidation are :
(i) at t = 0, at any distance z, 𝑢ത = 𝑢ത 0
(ii) at t = ∞, at any distance z, 𝑢ത = 0 and
(iii) at any intermediate time t, at z = 0, 𝑢ത = 0 and at z=H, 𝑢ത = 0

If 𝜌𝑓 denotes final settlement under pressure increment Δ𝜎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌 the settlement at any
intermediate time t, then the degree of consolidation attained at that time t is given by
𝑈 % = 𝑓 𝑇𝑣
The time factor Tv is a dimensionless parameter defined by the following equation
𝐶𝑣 𝑡
𝑇𝑣 = 2
𝑑
Where d= drainage path. The drainage path represents the maximum distance a water particle has
to travel within the layer to reach a drainage face. When a clay layer is bound by two drainage
faces, double drainage occurs. When the clay layer is bound by a drainage face at one end and an
impervious boundary at another end, single drainage occurs.
We notice that the time factor, and hence the degree of consolidation, depends upon
(i) coefficient of permeability, k
(ii) coefficient of volume compressibility, mv
(iii) thickness of layer and
(iv) number of drainage faces. In addition it is found to depend upon the consolidating pressure
and its manner of distribution across the depth of layer. The time factor contains the physical
constants influencing the time-rate of consolidation. The values of time factor Tv
corresponding to various values of degree of consolidation U for the two types of drainage
conditions and different distributions of consolidating pressure are presented in Tables 11.1
and 11.2. However, the following approximate expressions may be used to compute Tv, in
the absence of the tables.
Based on the expression for U as a function of Tv, the theoretical curve between Tv and U is obtained as shown in
Figure. The curve is straight upto U = 60% and the abscissa corresponding to U = 90% point on curve is 1.15 times the
abscissa of point of intersection of straight line portion of the curve produced with the horizontal line at U = 90%.
Taylor (1948) made use of this characteristic of the theoretical curve to determine the R90 point on the laboratory
consolidation curve obtained by plotting dial reading (R) as ordinate against the square root of time (t ) as abscissa for
any pressure increment. Here R90 corresponds to U = 90%. The initial dial reading at t=0 is denoted by R0 and it
corresponds to U = 0. In the Figure, line A is drawn coinciding with the straight portion of the laboratory curve. Let it
intersect the R-axis at Rc. Then Rc represents the corrected zero reading. The consolidation between R0 and Rc is called
initial consolidation. From point Rc another line B is drawn such that every point on it has abscissa 1.15 times that of
the corresponding point on A-line. Let line B intersect the laboratory curve at point P.
Then point P corresponds to U=90% and its coordinates are re-designated as 𝑡90 and R90. The coefficient of
consolidation is calculated from the following equation.

𝐶𝑣 𝑡90
𝑇𝑣90 =
𝑑2
𝑇𝑣90 𝑑2 𝐻1 + 𝐻2
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑑= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒,
𝑡90 2
1 𝐻1 + 𝐻2
𝑑= for double drainage,
2 2
𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Based on the theoretical relation between degree of consolidation U and time factor Tv, the curve shown in
Figure is obtained by plotting U as ordinate against log Tv as abscissa. A notable characteristic of this curve is that
the intersection of tangent drawn at the point of inflexion and the asymptote of the lower portion of curve
intersect at a point which corresponds to U = 100%. A Casagrande (1930) suggested that this characteristic can
be used to determine the point whose coordinates are U = 100% and R100 on the laboratory consolidation curve
obtained by plotting dial reading R against logarithm of time (log t) as shown in Figure. The corrected zero
reading Rc is obtained on the assumption that the initial portion of the curve can be approximated by a parabola.
𝑡
Two points A and B are marked on the initial portion of the curve corresponding to say, t1 = 1 min and 𝑡2 = 41 =
1
𝑚𝑖𝑛 . respectively. If z is the vertical distance between
4
A and B, a horizontal line is drawn at a distance z above B to get Rc which corresponds to U = 0. The two straight
portions of the curve are produced to intersect at point P which corresponds to U = 100%. The coordinates of point P
are R100 and log t100. The consolidation from Rc to R100 is the primary consolidation. It may be noted that the straight
portion of the curve from R100 to Rf represents a part of secondary consolidation. After locating Rc and R100 the point
corresponding to U = 50% is marked on the curve using the value of R50 computed as shown below. The value of t50 is
read out from the graph and the coefficient of consolidation Cv is computed.
𝑅100 − 𝑅𝑐
𝑅50 = 𝑅𝑐 +
2

Determination of Co-efficient of permeability

𝑘
𝐶𝑣 =
𝐶𝑣 𝛾𝑤
𝑘 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑚𝑣 𝛾𝑤
After finding mv and Cv, k can be computed using the above equation. Also k can be determined by performing a falling
head test on the consolidation test specimen, taken in a fixed ring consolidometer to which a stand pipe is attached.
The test is performed after the specimen is fully consolidated under a particular pressure increment. It should be noted
that a straight line portion is not always obtained in the Taylor method ( 𝑡 method). In such cases, Casagrande method
(log t method) will have to be used. However, the log t method requires long range compression readings extending
even into the range of secondary compression for getting the linear part of the curve at the lower end, whereas 𝑡
method requires compression reading over much shorter period of time.