FME 9 – Fluid Mechanics

Laguna State Polytechnic University

Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

Title FLUID MECHANICS

Description This course deals with the nature and physical properties of fluids as well as the identification and measurement of
fluid properties. It emphasizes the application of conservation laws on mass, energy and momentum to fluid systems
either incompressible or compressible flow, inviscid or viscous flow as well as head loss calculations on pipes and
fitting.
Course Code FME 9
Credit Units/Hrs. per week 2 units/ 2 hrs lecture
Prerequisites/Co-requisites SCI 2 / Physics for Engineers

LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

FLUID MECHANICS is a branch of physical science which deals with the mechanics of liquids and gases and is based on the same fundamental
principles that are in the mechanics of solid.

BRANCHES OF FLUID MECHANICS

1. Fluid Statics is the study if mechanics of fluids at rest.

2. Fluid Kinematics deals with the velocities and streamlines without considering forces of energy.
3. Hydrodynamics is concerned with the relations between velocities and accelerations and the forces exerted or upon fluids in motion.

FLUIDS are the substances capable of flowing. They possess particles which easily move and change their relative position without separation of
the mass, and they offer practically no resistance to change in form.

Ideal or Perfect Fluid is one in which there is no friction nor viscosity.

CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS

1. Gases are fluids which have little resistance to change either in form or volume and occupies all the space in which it is contained.
2. Liquid are fluids which offer great resistance to change in volume and occupies a definite portion in which it is contained.

Kinds of Thermodynamic Systems

1. Closed System is a system in which working substance does not cross its boundaries but energy crosses its boundaries
2. Open System is a thermodynamics system in which both the working substance and energy are crossing its boundaries. An example of which is
a pump or compressor being cut from the suction point to the discharge side.
3. Isolated system is a thermodynamic system in which neither the mass (working substance) nor energy crosses its boundaries, and completely
not affected by the surrounding conditions.

BASIC LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. First Law of Thermodynamics deals with law of conservation of energy. The law of conservation of energy states that "Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed it just transforms into one form to another"
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with the direction of flow of heat energy that is from the higher temperature body to lower temperature
body, and the property known as "Entropy".
3. Third Law of Thermodynamics deals with the restriction of all physical systems to the temperature regime that excludes absolute zero. The law
states that, "At absolute zero, the entropy of a pure substance (in equilibrium at OK or 0R) in some perfect crystalline form becomes zero".
4. Zeroth Law is law concerning thermal equilibrium and is the basis for temperature measurement
-The law states that "When two bodies, isolated from other environment, and are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, the two are in thermal
equilibrium with each other".

Thermodynamic Properties are descriptive characteristics of the system used to compute the changes of energy that have occurred in a system or
working substance. These are characteristics or attributes of matter which can be evaluated quantitatively.
Types of Thermodynamic Properties
1. Intensive Properties are thermodynamic properties that are independent of the mass of the substance in the system.
Example: temperature, pressure, density, and voltage.
2. Extensive Properties are thermodynamic properties that are dependent upon the mass of the substance in the system. These properties are total
values. Example: total volume, total internal energy or total enthalpy
3. Specific Properties are properties that are considered for a unit mass, and are intensive by definition Example: specific volume, specific internal
energy, or specific enthalpy.

Dimensions, Units, and Conversion Factors

There is a difference between dimensions and units. A dimension is a measure of a physical variable (without numerical values), while a unit is a
way to assign a number or measurement to that dimension.
For example, length is a dimension, but it is measured in units of feet (ft) or meters (m).
There are three primary unit systems in use today:
▪ the International System of Units (SI units, from Le Systeme International d’Unites, more commonly simply called metric units)
▪ the English Engineering System of Units (commonly called English units)
▪ the British Gravitational System of Units (BG)
 FME 9 – Fluid Mechanics
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

Length and Area Table 1-1

1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)
1 ft = 0.3048 meter (m)
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters (cm)
1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft)
1 mile = 1760 yards
1 mile = 1.609 kilometers (km)
1 acre = 43560 ft 2
1 hectare = 2.47105 acre

Mass and Weight

1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz)
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.205 pounds (lb)
1 tonne (metric ton or MT) = 1000 kg
1 ton UK (long ton) = 907 kg
Table 1-2 Standard prefixes in SI units
1 𝑘𝑔𝑓 = 9.8066 N
1 slug = 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚 = 143 N = 14.5939 kg

Capacity and Volume

1 tablespoon (tbsp.) = 3 teaspoon (tsp)
1 cup (c) = 16 tablespoon
1 gallon = 4 quarts = 3.785L
1 gallon = 128 fluid ounces
1 quart = 2 pints
1 pint = 2 cups
1 cup = 8 fluid ounces (oz)
1 𝑚3 = 1000L

Time
60 seconds = 1 minute
60 minutes = 1 hour
24 hours = 1 day
7 days = 1 week Table 1-3 Greek Alphabets and its Pronunciation
12 months = 1 year
52 weeks = 1 year
365 days = 1 year (366 for leap years)
10 years = 1 decade
100 years = 1 century
1000 years = 1 millennium

Energy and Work

1 N•m = 1 Joule (J)
1 Newton (N) = 100000 dyne
1 cal = 4.187 J
1 BTU = 252 cal = 1055 J

Power
1 Watt (W) = 1 J/s
1 Hp = 0.746 kW = 42.4 Btu/min

Pressure
1 atmospheric pressure (atm) =101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa= 14.6959 psi
=1.0332 𝑘𝑔𝑓 /𝑐𝑚2 =760 mmHg = 760 Torr = 29.9213 inHg = 34 ft 𝐻2 𝑂
1 bar = 100 kPa = 0.10 MPa

Temperature

Freezing Point Boiling Point Room Temperature

0⁰C 100⁰C 22⁰C
32⁰F 212⁰F 72⁰F
273.15K 373.15K 295.15K

Celsius to Kelvin: K = C + 273.15

Kelvin to Celcius: C = K - 273.15
Fahrenheit to Celcius: C = (F-32) (5/9)
Celsius to Fahrenheit: F = C(9/5) + 32
Fahrenheit to Kelvin: K = (F-32) (5/9) + 273.15
Kelvin to Fahrenheit: F = (K-273.15) (9/5) + 32
Fahrenheit to Rankine: F+ 460.67R
ΔC = K
ΔF = R
ΔF = (9/5) ΔC
ΔC = (5/9) ΔF
 FME 9 – Fluid Mechanics
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

The second law of motion of Newton states that. "The acceleration of a particular body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on it and
inversely proportional to this mass". Acceleration is also the derivative of velocity of a body with respect to time.

𝐹 𝐹 𝑚𝑎
a ∝ 𝑚 , or a=k 𝑚, or F= k 𝑘

Where,

F = force acting on the body, N, 𝑘𝑔𝑓 , 𝑙𝑏𝑚

m = mass of the body, kg, lb
a = acceleration, 𝑚/𝑠 2 , 𝑓𝑝𝑠 2
k = proportionality constant, depending on the unit of F

Definitions and Units of Force

1. Newton Force: A Newton force is a force required to accelerate 1 kg-mass at 1 𝑚/𝑠 2 . Thus, 1 N= 1 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚/𝑠 2.
2. Kg Force: A kg force is a force required to accelerate 1 kg-mass at 9.8066 m/s. Thus, 1 𝑘𝑔𝑓 = 9.8066 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
3. Dyne force: A dyne force is a force required to accelerate 1-gram-mass at 1 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 2 . Thus, 1 Dyne = 1 𝑔 − 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 2 .
4. Gram force: A gram force is a force required to accelerate 1 gram-mass at 980.66 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 2 . Thus, 1 𝑔𝑓 =980.66 𝑔 − 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 2 .
5. Pound Force: A pound force is a force required to accelerate 1 slug mass at 1 𝑓𝑝𝑠 2. Thus 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 =1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 − 𝑓𝑝𝑠 2.
6. Pound Force: A pound force is a force required to accelerate 1 lb-mass at 32.174 𝑓𝑝𝑠 2. Thus, 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 = 32.174 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑝𝑠 2 .

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

MASS (m) AND WEIGHT (𝑭𝒈 )

Mass is the absolute quantity of matter in substance or body. It is a quantity that does not change with the change of gravity.

Weight is the force of gravity on the body and could be determined by a spring scale. This quantity changes with the change of gravity

-At the surface of the earth near sea level, mass and weight are numerically equal.

𝑚𝑔
𝐹𝑔 = Where, Fg = the force of gravity on the body or the weight of the body, kgf, lbf
𝑘
m = mass of the substance, kg, lb
k = proportionality constant

DENSITY is an intensive thermodynamic property that is usually used to determine the mass of the substance or system. It is the mass per unit
volume of a substance.

𝑚
𝜌= Where, ρ = density of the substance, kg/m3, lb/ft3
𝑉
m = mass of the substance, kg, lb
V = Volume of the substance, m3, ft3

SPECIFIC VOLUME is the volume of a unit mass substance; it is also defined as the reciprocal of density.

𝑉 1
𝑣=𝑚= Where, 𝑣 = specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb
𝜌

SPECIFIC WEIGHT is the force of gravity per unit volume of a substance.

𝐹𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝜌𝑔
𝛾= = = Where, 𝛾 = specific weight of the substance, N/m3, kgf/m3, lbf/ft3
𝑉 𝑘𝑉 𝑘
Fg = the force of gravity on the body or the weight of the body, kgf, lbf

SPECIFIC GRAVITY is the ratio of the specific weight of a certain substance to that of the specific weight of water at standard condition. It is also
defined as the ratio of the density of a certain substance to that of the density of water at standard condition.

𝛾 𝜌
𝑆𝐺 = = Where, 𝛾 = specific weight of a certain substance
𝛾𝑤 𝜌𝑤
𝛾𝑤 = specific weight of water at standard condition
𝛾𝑤 = 62.4 lbf/ft3 = 1000 kgf/m3 = 9.8066 kN/m3 = 1 kgf/li
𝜌 = density of a certain substance
𝜌𝑤 = density of water at standard condition
𝜌𝑤 = 62.4 lbm/ft3 = 1000 kg/m3 = 9.8066 kN/m3 = 1 kgm/m3
 FME 9 – Fluid Mechanics
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

PRESSURE is an intensive thermodynamic property and basically defined as the force per unit area

𝐹
𝑃=𝐴 Where, p = pressure, kN/m2, kPa, MPa, kgf/cm2, psi
F = normal force, kN, kgf, lbf
A = area, m2, cm2, in2

• Gauge Pressure is the pressure of a substance or system measured by a pressure gage or a pressure-measuring instrument.
• Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the column atmospheric air per unit area; or it is the pressure of the atmosphere at a certain
location, say, at the surface of the earth near sea level
• Standard atmospheric pressure at the surface of the earth, near sea level
• Fluid Gage Pressure, or Hydrostatic Pressure, or simple. Fluid Pressure, is the force exerted by a column of fluid per unit area.

𝐹𝑔 𝜌𝑔
𝑃= = ( 𝑘 ) ℎ = 𝛾ℎ Where, p = fluid pressure or hydrostatic pressure, kPag, psig
𝐴
A = cross sectional area of the column, m2, in2
m = mass of the column of fluid, kgm, lbm
Fg = force of gravity on the column or the weight of the column, N, kg f, lbf
k = proportionality constant
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8066 m/s2, 32.174 fps2
h = dept of fluid, m. ft

• Absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of the barometric pressure or atmospheric pressure and the gauge pressure.

𝑃𝑎𝑏 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑜 ± 𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ± 𝑃𝑔

Where, 𝑃𝑎𝑏 = absolute pressure, kPaa, psia

𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑜 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = barometric pressure / atmospheric pressure, kPa, psi
𝑃𝑔 = gauge pressure, kPag, psig
Note: kPaa means kPa absolute and psia means psi absolute; and kPag means kPa gauge and psiag means psi gauge.
*Positive sign (+) is used when the gauge pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure or surrounding pressure of the system.
*Negative sign (-) is used when the gauge pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure. Negative gauge pressure is also called as
Vacuum pressure.

Pressure Measuring Instruments

• Barometer is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure atmospheric pressure.

• Pressure Gauge is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure gauge pressure directly by its dial indicator. Bourdon gage is the
most commonly used pressure measuring instrument.
• Manometer is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure gauge pressure of the system using U-tube wherein water or mercury
is the working substance.

Types of Manometers
• Open-type Manometer - is a manometer with an atmospheric surface in one leg and capable of measuring gage pressures.
Piezometer-is the simplest form of manometer, which is a tube tapped into a wall of a container or conduit for the purpose of measuring
the pressure.
• Differential-type Manometer - is a manometer without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring only differences of pressure.

COMPRESSIBILITY is the resistance of fluid to change its volume in a confined space. Compressibility of water usually affects the solution of practical
problems in hydraulics only by changing its unit weight.

If the density of a fluid varies significantly due to moderate changes in pressure or temperature, then the fluid is called compressible fluid.
If the change in density of a fluid is small due to changes in temperature and or pressure, then the fluid is called incompressible fluid.
• Modulus of Elasticity or Bulk Modulus of the fluid- is the ratio of the stress (change of pressure) to the strain (change in volume divided
by the original volume).

∆𝑃
𝛽= ∆𝑉 Where, 𝛽 = bulk modulus or modulus of elasticity of fluid
(− 𝑉 )
𝛽 = 300 000 psi (for water)
V = original volume
∆V = change in volume
∆P = change in pressure

The negative sign (-) accounts for the fact as the pressure increases, the volume decreases. if ∆𝑃 is positive then ∆𝑉 is negative and vice
versa, so that the bulk modulus is always positive
 FME 9 – Fluid Mechanics
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

SURFACE TENSION is the force of molecular attraction per unit length of free surface, it is a function of both the liquid and the surface in contact
with the liquid.

Where: Pi and Po = pressures inside and outside the droplet or bubble, respectively.
R = radius of the droplet or bubble
σ = surface tension

Capillary Effect - the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid.
The strength of the capillary effect is quantified by the contact (or wetting) angle ø, defined as the
angle that the tangent to the liquid surface makes with the solid surface at the point of contact
Meniscus - the curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube.
Cohesive forces - the forces between like molecules, such as water and water
Adhesive forces - the forces between unlike molecules, such as water and glass

VISCOSITY is a measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid; or it may be defined as the ratio of the shearing stress or force between adjacent layers
of fluid to the rate of change of velocity perpendicular to the direction of motion; or it may be defined also as that property of a fluid that determines
the amount of its resistance to a shearing stress.

Units of Viscosity:

For dynamic viscosity:

1 poise = 0.1 Pa-s = 1 dyne -s/cm2
1 Poise = 100 centi poise (cP)

For kinematic viscosity:

1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s

Where: μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity (Pa-s)

du/dy = velocity gradient (m/s/m)
y = distance between the plates (m)
τ = shearing stress (pascal)

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY is defined as the absolute viscosity divided by density; it is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of a fluid to its mass density.

Drag force – The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction, partly because of friction caused by viscosity.
Newtonian fluids - Fluids for which the rate of deformation is proportional to the shear stress.
 FME 9 – Fluid Mechanics
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

CONTINUITY EQUATION

• Continuity Equation is the conservation of mass expression for steady flow open system.
• Continuity equation is in the form of mass flow rate and volume flow rate of the fluid into or from the system.

Mass Flow Rate Equation: m= 𝜌AV Where, m = mass flow rate kg/s
A = cross sectional area, m2
𝑉̇ = volume flow rate, m3/s
v = velocity of fluid
Volume Flow Rate Equation: 𝑉̇ = A V

CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION FOR GASES

PV = mRT

R for air is 287 J/kgK.

M × R = Universal gas constant

R = 8314/M

SAMPLE AND PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Force, Acceleration, Mass, and Weight

1. What is the weight of a 66-𝑘𝑔𝑚 man at standard condition? Express your answer in 𝑘𝑔𝑓 and in Newton.
2. The weight of an object is 50lb. What is its mass at standard condition? Express your answer in 𝑙𝑏𝑚 and slugs.
3. Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to gravity is 30.5 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 are as follows: 𝑚1 is 500gm of mass; 𝑚2 weighs 800 𝑔𝑚𝑓 ; 𝑚3 weighs
15 poundals; 𝑚4 weighs 3 𝑙𝑏𝑓 ; and 𝑚5 is 0.10 slug of mass. What is the total mass expressed (a) in grams, (b) in pounds, (c) in slugs.

Density, Specific Volume, Specific Weight, Volume, and Specific Gravity

4. Two liquids of different densities, 1500 kg/m³ and 500 kg/m³, are poured together into a 100-liter tank filling it. If the resulting density of the
mixture is 800 kg/m³, find the respective quantities of liquids and also find the weight of mixture with local gravity of 9.765 m/s².
5. In problem # 3 above, what is the weight of the mixture?
6. One kilogram of liquid having a density of 1200 kg/m³ is mixed with a 2 kg of another liquid having a density of 2000 kg/m³. If the volume of the
mixture is the sum of the initial volumes, determine the density of the mixture.
7. A spherical tank 600 mm in diameter is filled with a fluid whose density is 640 kg/m³. Find the total volume of fluid in m²
8. A spherical tank 600 mm in diameter is filled with fluid whose density is 640 kg/m³, what is the total mass of the fluid?
9. A spherical tank 600 mm in diameter is filled with fluid whose density is 650 kg/m³, determine the specific volume of the fluid.
10. A spherical tank 600 mm in diameter is filled with fluid whose density is 640 kg/m³, what is the specific weight if g = 9.765 𝑚/𝑠 2 ?
11. If the density of a gas is 0.003 slugs per cubic foot, what is the specific weight of the gas in N/ m³?
12. Determine is the specific weight of water at standard condition, in 𝑘𝑔𝑓 /m³
13. A cylinder 6 inches in diameter and 10 inches high contains all that has density of 850 kg/m³. Determine the weight of the oil, in 𝑙𝑏𝑓 .
14. The fuel tank of a car holds 60 liters of gasoline. Assuming that the gasoline has a specific gravity of 0.74, determine the weight of the gasoline
in the tank, in 𝑘𝑔𝑓 .
15. A liquid has a specific weight of 200 𝑙𝑏𝑓 /𝑓𝑡 3. Calculate the volume needed to have a weight of 390 𝑙𝑏𝑓 .
16. It is proposed by a gasoline dealer to sell gasoline by the liter. If gasoline has a density of 1.3 slugs per cubic feet, what is the weight of 60
liters of gasoline?
17. 100 g of water are mixed with 150 g alcohol (density = 790kg/m³). What the specific volume the resulting mixtures, assuming that the fluids
mixed completely?

Pressure

18. A 30-m vertical column of fluid, density= 1878 kg/m³, is located where g = 9.65 m/s². Find the pressure at the base of the column, in kPag.
19. A vertical column of water will be supported to what height by standard atmospheric pressure in ft?
20. The door of a jet liner has the dimensions of 2.3 m x 1.2 m. If the inside pressure of the cabin is 98 kPaa, what force is exerted on the door when
the plane flies at an altitude where the outside pressure is 15 kPaa?
21. A boiler installed where the atmospheric is 752 mmHg has a pressure of 12 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 . Find the absolute pressure in MPa.
22. The pressure of a boiler is 9.5 kg/cm². The barometric pressure of the atmosphere is 768 mm Hg. Find the absolute pressure in the boiler, in
psia.
23. A vacuum gage mounted on a condenser reads 660 mm Hg. What is the absolute pressure in kPaa when the atmospheric pressure is 101.3
kPa.
24. The piston of a pump is 7.5 cm in diameter. If a force of 2000 N is applied to the piston, what is the pressure that is being developed at the face.
 FME 9 – Fluid Mechanics
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

of the piston?
25. Steam exhausts to a condenser pressure of 620 mm Hg vacuum. Determine the absolute pressure in kg/cm² if the barometric reading is 750
26. A tank is filled with fresh water until there us a depth of 35 ft of water. Determine the pressure psig, at the bottom of the tank.
27. A vacuum gage reads 10” Hg when the atmospheric pressure is 30" Hg. Assuming the density of mercury to be 13595 kg/m³, determine the
absolute pressure in kPaa.
28. A pressure gage indicates 25 psi when the barometer is at a pressure equivalent to 14.5 psi. Compute the absolute pressure in psia and ft of
mercury if the specific gravity of mercury is 13.0.

Compressibility, Gas Equation of State, Surface Tension and Capillary Rise, Viscosity and Kinematic Viscosity

1. Determine the bulk modulus of a liquid whose volume decreases by 4% for an increase in pressure of 500 × 105 pa. Also determine the velocity of
sound in the medium if the density is 1000 kg/m3.
2. The pressure of water in a power press cylinder is released from 990 bar to 1 bar isothermally. If the average value of bulk modulus for water in
this range is 2430 × 106 N/m2. What will be the percentage increase in specific volume?
3. Density of sea water at the surface was measured as 1040 kg/m 3 at an atmospheric pressure of 1 bar. At certain depth in water, the density was
found to be 1055 kg/m3. Determine the pressure at that point. The bulk modulus is 2290 × 106 N/m2.
4. A balloon is filled with 6 kg of hydrogen at 2 bar and 20°C. What will be the diameter of the balloon when it reaches an altitude where the pressure
and temperature are 0.2 bar and –60° C. Assume that the pressure and temperature inside are the same as that at the outside at this altitude.
5. A 0.6-mm-diameter glass tube is inserted into water at 20°C in a cup. Determine the capillary rise of water in the tube.
6. The space between two large inclined parallel planes is 6mm and is filled with a fluid. The planes are inclined at 30° to the horizontal. A small thin
square plate of 100 mm side slides freely down parallel and midway between the inclined planes with a constant velocity of 3 m/s due to its weight
of 2N. Determine the viscosity of the fluid.
7. The 8 mm gap between two large vertical parallel plane surfaces is filled with a liquid of dynamic viscosity 2 × 10–2 Ns/m2. A thin sheet of 1 mm
thickness and 150 mm × 150 mm size, when dropped vertically between the two plates attains a steady velocity of 4 m/s. Determine weight of the
plate. Assume that the plate moves centrally.
8. Determine the resistance offered to the downward sliding of a shaft of 400 mm dia and 0.1 m length by the oil film between the shaft and a bearing
of ID 402 mm. The kinematic viscosity is 2.4 × 10–4 m2/s and density is 900 kg/m3. The shaft is to move centrally and axially at a constant velocity of
0.1 m/s.

References:
Thermodynamics 2nd Edition by Hipolito B. Sta Maria and Dante V. Gedaria
Lecture Book in Thermodynamics 1 by Jose R. Francisco
Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications 2nd Ed. by John M. Cimbala and Yunus A Çengel
Fluid Mechanics and Machinery 2nd Edition, 2007 by Kothandaraman and Rudramoorthy
Power Plant Engineering by R.S. Capote and J.A. Mandawe
https://www.me.psu.edu/cimbala/Learning/General/units.htm
https://www.cuemath.com/temperature-conversion-formulas/
https://s3.wp.wsu.edu/uploads/sites/298/2014/10/Greek-Alphabet-and-its-Pronunciation.pdf