The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No.

2 December 2020 37

The Contribution of Comunità Volontari Per Il Mondo (CVM)

Ethiopia on Schooling of Manjo Ethnic Group Children in Kaffa
Zone
Getachew Robo
Received: 16 March 2018; Accepted: 27 September 2020

Abstract: In Kaffa zone, Manjo non-dominant ethnic group is segregated from the
Gomaro (Majority group) in economic activities, social interaction, residential regions
and ritual system. Because of their life on the edge, Manjos are at the risk of poverty,
lack of education and access to basic services. Thus, CVM Ethiopia is one of the
responsive NGOs to the educational challenges of these communities. For this
reason, this paper was aimed at depicting the contributions of CVM Ethiopia on
schooling of Manjo non-dominant children in the Kaffa Zone so that other
stakeholders can take applicable lessons. To that end, narrative research design was
employed in the analysis and interpretations of qualitative data. The participants of
this study were nine Manjo students, three literate Manjos, seven educational officials
and two CVM coordinators. They were selected by using purposive sampling
technique considering that they are beneficiaries, stakeholders of the organization
and knowledgeable persons of the theme respectively. For this study, data were
collected by using participant observation, semi-structured interview, focus group
discussions and document analysis methods. Collected data were analyzed and
interpreted by incorporating my own reflections and insights separate from descriptive
notes and verbatim. Generally, the results of the study indicated that the contributions
by CVM Ethiopia brought positive influences on the schooling of Manjo non-dominant
children; a number of improvements were being realized in admission, class
attendance, completion and academic performance. The overall recommendation of
this study is that NGOs should be able to mainstream the interests and livelihoods of
non-dominant communities in general and their children’s education in particular for
the sustainability of the development of the community.

Key words: CVM, Contribution, Empowerment, Marginalization,

Schooling, Persistence (retention)


Lecturer, Department of Educational Policy and Leadership, College of Education
and Behavioral Studies, Addis Ababa University, email: [email protected]
38 Getachew Robo

Introduction

As far the social stratification based on socioeconomic status, ethnic

group, race, skin color, religion, gender etc, is the universal life practice
of the global community, these kinds of stereotyping compel some
parts of the society to live on the edge. Consequently, non-dominant
communities become deprived of the right to education, resources,
health and other services. That is the case despite that education has
been envisioned as the great equalizer that enables people to mitigate
the effects of poverty on marginalized group by equipping them with
the knowledge and skills, they need to lead successful and productive
lives (Garcia et al., 1996).

Educational marginalization is true for both developed and under

developed nations. Despite some periods of progress, for instance, the
achievement gap between White and Black students remains
substantial (Coley and Baker, 2013). In addition to this, students from
low income families are more likely to repeat and drop out school than
students from high income families. In most rural areas of Ethiopia poor
families do not like to send their children to school and those who allow
schooling are not comfortable in allowing them to continue their
education. According to Befekadu (1998), parents in rural areas with
low household income and socioeconomic background face problems
in urging their children to stay in schools. The problem of income is
found to be the major reason why parents do not send children,
particularly girls to school or withdrawn them from schools.

Another root cause for low enrollment and poor quality of non-dominant
children’s schooling is ethnic inequity. In Southern Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples there are about forty-five different non-
dominant groups (http://www.non-dominantrights.org/). Kaffa Zone is
one of the Zones in SNNPRG, comprising Kaffecho, Chara, and Na’o
ethnic groups as indigenous people and other ethnic groups united at
different times. Even though they are not socially, culturally and
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 39

economically integrated, Manjo non-dominant groups are from among

Kaffecho’s sub-ethnic groups (‘gumbo’ literally means stem or clan).

In Kaffa Zone, Manjo marginalized groups are under immense

challenges of exclusion, illiteracy and poverty. Even though, many
governmental and non-governmental organizations are empowering
this segment of the community, because of the deep-rooted problems
for more than a century, the change in livelihood and education of the
Manjo community is very sluggish (Mesfin, 2005). Consequently, many
NGOs strived to mitigate the life challenges of Manjo community, but
there is no highly courageous transformation in their livelihoods and
education. One of the NGOs working on empowering these people at
present is CVM Ethiopia. CVM works on social integration and
economic empowerment in Kaffa Zone.

Ethiopia is overtaking the position to ensure equitable and inclusive

quality education for all by the year 2030. To that
end, the responsibility to have a separate and comprehensive
educational goal and to put education as a cross cutting thematic issue
complementary to all development plans for
post‐2015 development dialogues (MoE, 2015). Even though post
2015 educational targets of Ethiopia are aimed at bringing about quality
and external efficiency in education, there are still some localities
facing the problems of access.

Statement of the problem

It is well established in the literature (e.g. Pruzek, 1974; Thomas, 1965)

that ethnic non-dominant students throughout the world have
experienced un-equitable enrollment, academic performance, school
persistence, treatments and administration by members of the
dominant group. The dominant groups, in most cases, consider the
academic failure of the non-dominant students is normal and attributed
naturally. These practices across the global community in general and
schools in particular risk with bad consequences of high rates of
40 Getachew Robo

alcohol abuse, poor hygiene, and lack of middle-class child rearing

practices, poor schooling of children, poor performance at school,
dropouts, all of which are viewed as manifestations of the non-
dominant group's deficiency (Reyhner, 1992).

As a result, many international NGOs such as UNESCO, UNICEF,

Save the Children, USAID etc, work on upgrading the livelihoods and
empowering education of the segregated groups at least to lessen the
gaps between the majority and non-dominant life experiences.
Because of their life is on the edge Manjos are at the risk of poverty,
lack of education and access to basic services (Thomas, 1965).

The practices of ethnic group exclusion in the community pave ways

for school children to segregate the non-dominant students which end
up with dropouts, poor lesson attendance and poor performance of the
groups. In the case of Kaffa zone, the schooling and retention of the
Manjo community children are poor as compared to the composition of
the Gomaro majority children. (AAE, 2008). CVM Ethiopia is striving to
minimize these educational inefficiencies among the target groups but
the governmental educational organizations do not sensibly regard
their efforts. Ahmed (2007) in his research entitle ‘The Socio-
psychological and educational challenges of students of Manjo ethnic
groups. The case in Chiri primary school of Kaffa zone’, Ahmed tried to
identify some of the educational challenge before ten years ago at a
single school. In addition to this, as far Ahmed is the student of
psychology, he gave due attention to merely the psycho-social
orientations of the target groups. However, there no substantial
research that has been conducted on the effects of contributions of
Non –Governmental Organizations on schooling of Manjo non-
dominant children. That is why I am inspired to conduct this study on
the role of CVM in minimizing the discrimination and schooling the
Manjo community children.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 41

Thus, the study was guided by the following research questions.

Research questions

1. How do the educational challenges impede the schooling of

Manjo ethnic group children?
2. How does CVM Ethiopia mitigate the major educational
problems of discrimination and schooling of Manjo ethnic group
students?
3. How do the interventions by CVM Ethiopia bring about better
Manjo ethnic group children’s schooling?

Objectives of the study

The general objective of this study was to explore the roles of CVM
Bonga in minimizing the discrimination and schooling of Manjo non-
dominant children in Kaffa Zone.

Specific objectives

1. To find out the major problems threatening the schooling of

the Manjo community children.
2. To investigate the major contributions of CVM Ethiopia on
supporting schooling of Manjo students.
3. To examine the improvement in schooling and educational
performance being realized in Manjo children’s education
because of the assistance of CVM Ethiopia.

Significance of the study

The main importance of this paper is to provide information to lower

level educational managers to take lessons from the achievements of
the CVM Ethiopia in promoting the enrollment, retention and
performance of Manjo non-dominant children in Kaffa Zone.
42 Getachew Robo

Operational Definitions of Key Terms

CVM Ethiopia: CVM Ethiopia a NGO that promotes concrete

development actions and intercultural cooperation projects. It
also fosters a community centered approach and plays a
facilitation role in all the projects carried on in the country. CVM
Bonga works on social integration and economic empowerments
of vulnerable group in Kaffa Zone (CVM, 2016).

Gomaro: It is a common name given to group of people from different

sub-clans but of not out of non-dominant group among Kaffecho
people.

Manjo: Manjos are clans of marginalized (subordinate) groups, hunter

and occupational minorities in Kaffa, Sheka, Dawuro and Bench
people.

Schooling: In this article, schooling refers to the state and process of

education and trainings of Manjo children.

Review of Related Literature

Social Stratification in Education

Social stratification is common for most societies all around the world.
However, the stratification or interaction remarks vary in forms in
different societies. Some take in to consideration the occupation to
segregate or see down others. Others base their division on ‘have’ and
‘have not’ or ownership versus non-ownership, membership versus
non-membership in social groups while the rest consider age and sex
etc (Data, 1997).

In a stratified society, people are arranged hierarchically based on a

variety of characteristics such as income, educational attainment,
power, race, and religion. Evidence of stratification appears in social
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 43

institutions such as education, where these hierarchical distinctions

greatly impact the quality of schools. Evidence of stratification appears
in social institutions such as education, where these hierarchical
distinctions greatly affect the quality of schools. According to Wells (et
al. 2009) regions may be stratified on both racial and socioeconomic
levels, and both types are important to consider. In racially stratified
societies, students attend racially isolated schools with minimal
interaction with students of other ethnic backgrounds. Such interactions
promote students’ comfort with students of other races and help break
down stereotypes, thus preparing students to live in a multicultural
society (Holme, Wells & Revilla, 2005).

When students attend schools with a variety of ethnicity and

socioeconomic backgrounds, students’ level of comfort with other
groups’ increases and prepare them to live and work in an integrated
society (Holme, Revilla, & Wells, 2005). Other studies of integrated
education suggest that students, particularly minorities, at integrated
schools were more likely to graduate, attend college, and find higher-
paying jobs later in life (Braddock & Dawkins, 1993). These studies
indicate that stratification in schools denies students a host of critical
long-term benefits pertaining to their future success in educational and
social settings.

In Ethiopia, particularly in South Nation Nationalities and Peoples’

Regional state, the ethnic pluralism is also substantial. The Kaffecho -
the indigenous people of Kaffa - are a hierarchical society organized
traditionally into series of majority ‘high’ clans and non-dominant ‘low’
clans (Zewdie, 2004). The Manjos, who are considered to be among
the ‘original’ inhabitants of highlands of Kaffa and hence are ethnic
Kaffechos, have for the most part been at the foot of the social
hierarchy. This is on account largely of their supposedly “unclean”
feeding habits, which contravene biblical food taboos (Lange 1982).
Although the clan system has no longer any significance, it is being
used as a justification for Manjo segregation. Following this trend, the
access to different social services like education, clinics, grain mills,
44 Getachew Robo

pure water and ownership of the natural resources varies among the
segments of the society.

Social Stigmatization of Manjo and Education in Kaffa Zone

The majority group in the Kaffecho society (Gomaros) believe that

Manjos have separate identity in their physical appearance; allegedly
being shorter, darker skinned, and having flatter noses; eating habits,
the Manjos eat unclean and filthy food, this includes the meat of
religiously prohibited wild animals such as colobus monkey, savanna
monkey, wild boar, and dead animals; having unique characteristics,
the Manjos are extravagant and thieving, are wicked and are liars, they
are also lazy and are not interested in education (Sayuri,2008). The
degree of the discrimination against the Manjos is greater in Kaffa zone
than in Dawuro and Sheka zones. The Manjos have their own sub-
clans (Woldesillassie, 2001). Because of these beliefs Gomaros
consider Manjos as cursed and polluting people. Even those people
who have been beaten by a Manjo lack acceptance in the society
during the fight between the two parties, those who sit where a Manjo
sit believed to get hard skin rash and other wrath of God will happen to
appear on their bodies. This is considered to be justification among
Gomaros, Dawuros and Sheka people for the discrimination against
Manjos, pushed away to the edge and live in the pockets of the region,
even though it is not an adequate reason and rational in respect to
humanity.

Another reason for Manjos’ residence on marginal lands is that they

prefer to dwell where hunting wild animals are available. However,
these days very small number of Manjo households lives with Gomaros
being next door neighbor in the same village but with little or no social
interaction (Gezahegn, 2001). This is because of the destruction of the
forest resources and official conservation policies their livelihoods have
been threatened.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 45

Traditionally, whatever the produce it is, Manjos are not allowed to sell
their produces at the center of the market. Male Manjos are skillful tree
climbers, make and hang hives. Accordingly, they are known suppliers
of honey to Bonga and the rest of woreda market places. However, the
market places are not equally accommodating Manjos’ with others’
produces. Manjos products are not equally accepted by Gomaro
buyers; even though, they want to use it. The goods provided by
Manjos are highly undermined by local purchases in order to
discourage them from a fair bargaining of the prices according to the
present market price. After all, they obliged to sell at a very lower price
than its actual market price. In this way both males and females make
money for their survival, but live in extreme poverty (AAE, 2008).

Manjos are the most culturally ostracized community. Even though they
speak the same language, ‘Kafi noono’, with the rest of Kaffechos,
Manjos are not considered to be indigenous people. In Kaffecho
culture, the first four days from the bereavement of an elder, is
celebrated by traditional songs (Bekele, 2010). The mourning songs of
males that is accompanied by attractive dance is said to be ‘hichoo’,
where as the songs of females is known as ‘gommo’. In this occasion,
Manjos join neither male’s nor female’s group, rather they can form
their own group and usually sing outside of the compound. Manjos’
song is considered to be mark for mourning celebration, for this they
are paid back as compensation in kind; i.e., provision of drinks ‘borde’,
local beer and foods, ‘qocco’ or ‘nifro’ in large quantity. However, as far
as my knowledge from my life experience is concerned, Manjos are not
allowed to participate in digging the grave for Gomaro’s burial. They
are also not allowed to carry the corpse of a Gomaro on trip to burial
celebration. In all the procession of mourning they sit separately far
apart from others’ group.
46 Getachew Robo

Challenges of Manjo community Children’s Education

Socioeconomic Challenges

Socioeconomic Status

The socioeconomic status or social class can be measured in a

number of different ways. Most commonly used measures are; father’s
education, occupation, or income, either separately or together.
Sometimes mother’s education or occupation, family income, or
household possessions are used, especially in combination with each
other or with father’s characteristics. Whatever the measure, however,
socioeconomic status is positively correlated with both educational
participation and achievement: the higher a student’s socioeconomic
status, the greater his/her educational accomplishment is likely to be.
In many studies, socioeconomic status is measured by an index
constructed from father’s education, mother’s education, parents’
income, father’s occupation, and household items, such as possession
of color television set (Parelius and Parelius, 1978). Subsequently, the
lower socioeconomic status of Manjo community highly hampers their
children’s primary education; that is low enrollment, high dropout and
repetition rate.

Household Income

In Kaffa zone Manjo girls are victims of dual-prejudices (double

discrimination); i.e., gender (sexist) prejudices and racial prejudices.
Moreover, Effa (2006) and Tesfaye (2009), point out that parents with
low income have to make priority to send boys to school because of
that they are assumed as the future providers of economic security for
their parents, while girls’ future roles is to be married off. Generally,
numerous studies have concluded that low-income parents frequently
lack knowledge, time, energy, and other resources that allow middle
class families to influence what happens to their children in the school
and classroom (Levine and Havighurst, 1992).
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 47

High Demand for Child Labor

Child labor use is highly manifested in poor income families and it is a

major cause of dropout. Developing country’s children are often
productive from quite an early age; as a result, most families do not
send their children to school because they want them to work at home
or in the field. The incidence of child labor is higher in sub-Saharan
African countries than in any region in the world (Tamiru, 2004).

In many places, children are active workers in the household economy.

Boys herd animals, keep with harvest or do odd jobs to earn a little
income. Girls plant and cultivate along side of their mother, take care of
younger siblings, cook, and carry water and fire wood and perform
other daily activities that are essential for family survival. If children go
to school, the family loses their work (opportunity cost of the child
labor). In poor families, such a loss can threaten survival (Marry, 1992).
However, when making differentiation between the two sexes, girls are
more likely to work and work longer hours that exhibits low school
enrollment rates (Tamiru, 2004).

Parents’ Education

The level of parents’ education and the nature of occupation have an

impact on education of children. Parents are responsible to their
children to provide a positive environment for learning at home,
reinforce school rules and expectations, and require, at least attempt to
require their children to work hard and complete their assignments,
while the teacher’s job is made easier and his/her effectiveness can be
greatly enhanced (Levine and Havighurst, 1992). Many studies show
that the more educated the parents the more probably their children
stay at school (without dropping out the school) and the better they
perform.
48 Getachew Robo

Obviously, the parents’ educational accomplishment affects the

success of their children in schooling. Students whose parents were
college (university) graduates tend to attain better at college than the
students from the parents of illiterates (Grissmer, 1994).

Regarding the enrollment of school age children in relation to enter the

school on standard school age, Effa(2006) writes that, children of
educated parents or guardians were more likely to be enrolled in
school than those of uneducated parents or guardians and begin
schooling on appropriate school age.

Socio-cultural Factors

Early Marriage

In Ethiopia, according to Mahdere (2006) early marriage is practiced

for two major reasons; Social reasons: fear for abduction, fear for the
female children not doing well in school, fear for ostracization and
stigmatization by the society, protecting virginity (premarital sex), and
unwanted pregnancy, urge to conform to tradition, fear of losing the
bride price and relation with unwanted family, cementing kinship ties;
economic reasons: feel of obligation to secure child’s future before
they get weak or die, future reciprocal assistance, reduction of financial
dependency of children, linkage to a family who is financially better off
or a better “social standing".

As a result, early marriage contributes to the low enrolment and high

dropout rates of girls in Ethiopia. In much of the parts of the country,
the importance of girls' education is under -rated on the part of parents
and the community, particularly in rural areas where the majority of the
Ethiopian population reside. Married girls, who would like to continue
their schooling, are often prevented from doing so. High levels of adult
illiteracy rates, with only one in four adults in rural areas able to read
and write, and often abject poverty exacerbate the situation. As a
result, the majority of girls in Ethiopia are deprived of their basic right to
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 49

education. The fear of gossip and rumors play a powerful role in early
marriage decisions in different societies in Ethiopia (http:
//www.unicef.org/ethiopia/ET_real_Bugna.p.).

Polygamous Marriage

Currently, Manjo men reluctantly stopped hunting because of the

government prohibition and destruction of the forest, home of wild
animals. As a result, Manjo men are engaged in charcoal burning and
some in fire wood production and selling, woodwork and subsistence
farming as complementary farms of livelihood, the women and children
collect firewood and sell it that is a major source of household income
for Manjos. Most of the household responsibilities saddle on shoulders
of the women. Thus, the Manjo man believes that the more the number
of the wives the more cash his family daily earns. Perhaps this is one
of the reasons why the Manjo men promote polygamous marriage
(Data, 1997). Therefore, a Manjo marries two or more girls before or at
school age. Married Manjo girls, on one hand, lack opportunities for
schooling.

In Kaffecho society, Manjos are known to be greed for extra wives

(Dagmawi, 2005). Subsequently, a Manjo man marries two or more
girls even before their adolescent age. These girls have no chance of
enrolling the school after marriage.

Research Design and Methodology

Research Design

For the purpose this study, the qualitative research approach was
employed. Specifically, the narrative research design was the most
extensively employed design in the analysis and interpretations of
qualitative data. Qualitative research methods were used for two basic
reasons; 1) the target groups of the study were few in number, 2) it
enables the researcher to investigate the life situations, lived
50 Getachew Robo

experiences and education of target groups (Manjo non-dominant

children) under the help and supervision of CVM Ethiopia.

Narrative research design is appropriate in this study to identify major

challenges, extract lessons from successful Manjo non-dominant
students through the contribution of the CVM Ethiopia and the change
that contributions brought in the schooling of the students. While
designing this study, a related empirical study by Hendricks et al (1996)
was highly informative. According to the research by Hendricks et al
(1996), Successful and persistent non-dominant students had learned
how to depersonalize incidents of prejudices in an effort to be
successful in school and persist. Thus, it is easy to understand from
the findings that they were successful through make use of the
narrative design and ended up with adequate and significant research
results.

To conduct such a narrative study, the researcher established a close

relationship with the participants and makes them feel that they gain
respect and recognition. Additionally, for participants in the study,
sharing their stories make them feel that their stories are important and
that they are heard. Since the life experiences of the informants were a
major source of narrative study, here, Manjo students’ school life
experiences were recorded.

Methodology

Participants

Kaffa zone comprises 10 woredas and 1 Administrative town (Bonga).

Out of these two woredas, Adiyo and Chena woredas were selected
using purposive sampling techniques that they are working sites of
CVM Ethiopia, Bonga center. The subjects of this study were nine
enrolled Manjo students with empowerments of CVM Bonga, three
literate Manjos who can write and read texts (EduManjo 1, 2 and 3),
seven educational officials (Edu Off 1, 2…7) and two CVM coordinators
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 51

(CVM 1, 2). They were selected by using purposive sampling technique

considering that the nine enrolled Manjo students are the only
beneficiaries from the organization in Kaffa zone. The other subjects of
the study were stakeholders in the organization who were trained by
the main office of CVM Ethiopia and they are knowledgeable persons
in the research focus.

Data collection Instruments

Four data collection instruments were used to collect the required data
for this study. These were participant observation, semi-structured
interviews, Focus Group Discussion (FGD) and document analysis.

Participant observation

In this study, participant observation technique was performed by

incorporating with informal interviews referring to the successful
research entitled ‘low-income non-dominant seniors’ enrollment in a
cybercafé (2010)’ in the relatively correlated problem under study.
Here, jottings of casual conversations and informal interviews made
with Manjo students were recorded. At the end of each observation, the
field notes and analytical memos were cleaned and written down.

In this study, participant observation was supplemented with informal

Interview; informal interviews were conducted with nine Manjo students
under the supervision and empowerment of CVM Bonga because it is
easier to carry out hand in hand with participant observation. So,
informal interviews were performed with the Manjo students in between
usual conversations and chats, because it enables the researcher to
acquire adequate data to enrich the results of semi-structured
interviews and FGD, and it encourages the subjects freely air out their
feelings.
52 Getachew Robo

To carry out participant observation, the researcher spent about forty

five days with the Manjo students. CVM Bonga partners continuously
supervise Manjo students and go into the villages of the Manjo
students with the researcher to observe students’ living condition at
hostel and renting rooms, schooling and social settings. Here, CVM
Bonga coordinators served the researcher as gate keepers. The results
were many rich descriptions and analyses of Manjo students’ rental
room or hostels, schooling and parents’ follow up; social interactions
(among the Manjo students and between the Manjos (non-dominant
students) and Gomaros (majority students). Here, the researcher
strived not to let his presence influence the attitudes or behaviors of the
Manjo students.

Semi-structured Interview

Semi-structured interviews were prepared in light of the research

questions for nine enrolled Manjo students and two CVM Bonga
coordinators.

The interview questions of Manjo students comprise twenty items

prepared in Kafi nono language and later translated to English in
transcription and analysis. The coordinators’ interviews comprise
eleven items and set in English language but the conversations were
carried out in Amharic language. All the interview conversations were
tape recorded and spent an average of an hour and half with each
interviewee from both groups.

Focus Group Discussions

Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was organized for three literate

Manjos, seven officials of Kaffa Zone education department, and
Chena and Adiyo woreda educational offices and two CVM Bonga
coordinators. These twelve persons were divided in to two relatively
homogeneous groups. The first group comprises educational officials
and second group comprises literate Manjos and CVM coordinators.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 53

This is because subjects tend to disclose more about themselves to

people who resemble them in various ways than to people who differ
from them (Jourard, 1964). On top of this, literate Manjo parents are
lower level educated and then they may feel uncomfortable or
threatened if they perceive educational officials in the group to have a
higher status, greater knowledge of the discussion issues or more
influence in the community, which may reduce their willingness to
contribute openly to the discussion. Depending on the thought of
Hennink (2007) the discussions were held with two groups in two
different days to retain notes and transcripts of audio records within a
day after the discussion has been held with the first group.

Focus group discussions were held at the CVM Bonga office in the
training room. The seating arrangement of the group was circular to
provide opportunity for participants to interact with each other. The
medium of discussions in both groups was Amharic language. The
focus group discussion team comprises one moderator assigned from
CVM coordinators, note taker and the researcher. After FGD is
completed, note summaries and transcripts of audio records cleaned,
labeled by themes and used for data analysis.

Document Analysis

In this study, document analysis was a supplementary research

method to the observational method, focus group discussion and
interviews. Analysis of three types of official documents were
employed; the project plan (budget and work plan), the minutes of the
organization regarding the contributions made by CVM Ethiopia and
the achievements of the organization in light of empowering the target
groups, and reports from the schools about the performance of Manjo
students.
54 Getachew Robo

Methods and procedures of Data Analysis

The field-notes were filed during the qualitative observation.

Descriptive details in the field notes and direct quotes from the
participants during informal conversations were presented as
qualitative data. Next to each descriptive note, the researcher
incorporated his own reflections, insights and interpretations separate
from the descriptions and verbatim. Data gathered through document
reviews were analyzed by employing the descriptive method. In the
following paragraphs the details of the procedures of qualitative data
analysis were presented.

Data collected from Manjo students through semi-structured interviews

were analyzed by carrying out the following procedures.

Procedure 1. The interview records of each interviewee were

transcribed into textual data. Since the interview records were
done in Kafi Nono, local language, it was directly translated into
English during transcription; the entire transcripts of all
interviewees were documented.

Procedure 2. The transcripts of semi-structured interviews and focus

group discussions were carefully read at least three times;

Procedure 3. Next, initial coding was carried out. The themes and sub
themes were coded and prearranged pseudonym for the
participants. Giving pseudonym for participants is necessitated
to protect confidentiality and well being of the participants; only
the researcher knows the correct names, profession,
educational attainment and residences of the participants
specifically for the purpose of this paper. Regardless of the
probing questions, twenty interview questions and their
responses as sub-themes were coded. The subthemes were
coded for numerous reasons in this research. One of the
reasons is my interview transcripts contain large volume of data
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 55

from the participants. Thus, from the continuous description of

participants for interview questions, the researcher phrased the
responses of each participant by highlighting using different
colors and categorized each phrase under the code for sub-
theme. Accordingly, the phrases of descriptions of each
participant were taken to each sub-theme. For this purpose, the
pseudonyms of nine Manjo students given are Manjost 1,
Manjost 2, Manjost 3… Manjost 9 (i.e. To mean Manjo student
1, 2, 3…9); the codes given in sub-themes (responses to
interview questions) were coded as, (Code: MS Int, a), (code:
MS Int, b), (code: MS Int, c)… (Code: MS Int, t) (i.e., to mean
Manjo student’s response to interview question a, b, c…t). Let
us see, here below, how the codes for subthemes and
pseudonyms were duly used in the data analysis process.

Example, Code: MS Int, a stands for the interview question, ‘Would

you tell me the major problems that are threatening your education?’ or
sub-theme titled ‘major problems threatening the education of Manjo
students’. Code: MS Int, k stands for the interview question or sub-
theme, ‘What are strategies and practices in place in your school to
improve Manjo children’s school retention and performance?’ Code:
MS Int, it stands for sub theme discrimination in school and classroom
activities. In my transcription, for example, (Code: MS Int, a- Manjost
9) means the response of Manjo student 9 to the question ‘Would you
tell me the major problems that are threatening your education?’

To get a structure for categorizing and discussion of the transcripts of

different participants reacting against a single theme, the data were
labeled. A look at the following two examples shows the structure of
data reduction method in my data analysis process. Example one,
coding character MS Int a –Manjost 1 literally means “The response of
the first Manjo student to the first interview question, ‘Would you tell me
the major problems that are threatening your education?” Example two,
coding character MS Int a –Manjost 9 means “The response of the
ninth Manjo student to the first interview question, ‘Would you tell me
56 Getachew Robo

the major problems that are threatening your education?” in my data

analysis.

Procedure 4. Once the coding processes were attained, the coded

copies of the transcribed interviews were taken apart to be categorized
under each theme. And then varieties of categories that are relevant to
the research questions under each topic were labeled accordingly.

Procedure 5. The results of semi-structured and focus group

interviews were substantiated by the results of document analysis,
participant observation and informal interviews.

Results and Discussions

Major Educational Challenges Threatening the Schooling of Manjo

Non-dominant Students

Before we discuss the major challenges of Manjo non-dominant

children’s education, let us discuss the current status of Manjo
community school aged children’s participation in the research sites.

% composition of Manjo community children

participation
The percentage of out of school Manjo children (Age…

44%
56%

Fig 1. Net Enrollment Ratio (NER) of Manjo non-dominant children in Adiyo and
Chena Woreda (source: CVM Ethiopia, 2016)
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 57

As can be seen in the above Pie chart 44% of school age Manjo
community children are out of school. This might be of the highest
status of school age non-enrollment in the region after the UPE had
been in operation. The Net Enrollment Ratio (NER) of Manjo
community children in the target woredas is 56%.(i.e., the NER of
Manjo children is total number of Manjo students between the age of 7
and 14 divided by the total number of Manjo community children
between the age of 7 and 14 in and out of school multiplied by 100%).
The graph depicts that large number of school age Manjo children are
out of school.

The results of analysis of participant observation, interviews, focus

group discussions and document reviews depicted the following major
educational challenges that threaten the success of Manjo students
and the roles of CVM Bonga to mitigate the problems. The labeling and
categorization results of semi-structured interview were organized in
the following table 1.

Let us see the details of major themes presented in the above table (1)
and that have been frequently expressed in the words of participants.
Because of the large amount of data collected from the participants, all
statements of the participants were not included in the following
paragraphs but the frequently stated issues were extracted from the
excerpts of the subjects.

i. Parents’ education. Getachew (2011) and Kassahun (2015), in

their research, found out that the majority of the Manjo students’
parents are illiterates. Many studies show that the more educated
the parents the more probably their children enroll and stay at school
without dropping out of school and the better they perform.

The focus group discussion results reveal that since most Manjo
parents are illiterates; they are not aware of the value of education.
Most of the focus group participants have contended that parents’
support and awareness about the significance of education in every
 58 Getachew Robo

body’s life determines children’s education. In the FGD group one, for
instance, EduMan 1has portrayed that;

We all know that parents’ supports to children’s education

are very important. However, because most Manjo parents
are illiterates; they do not know the value of education; they
do not encourage their children to attain good in schooling.
Even, some Manjo parents are heard to urge their children
to dropout from the school. To me, CVM partners are
substituting parents’ role in all they do.

Incessantly, the issue has been burning in the same focus group,
Eduoff4 also put in plain words that “since most Manjo parents are
illiterates they belittle or devalue their children’s education. Thus, they
lack interest to send their children to school.” The problem of the
parents’ illiteracy is not only attributed to lack of interest to send
children to school, but they may also be unable to follow up their
children’s schooling.

ii. Lack of school necessities. CVM1 (one of the coordinators of CVM

Bonga) stated that out of the multiple project activities of CVM Bonga,
one is providing school materials to poor Manjo non-dominant students
and briefly described the reason. Accordingly, she has shared the
following with me.
Before our project gets implemented, during the pre-feasibility
studies, we identified those students who are facing educational
challenges because of the lack of the school materials and poor
feeding. Based on our appraisal, lack of encouragements from
concerned bodies, lack of school materials and a small amount of
pocket money for making minor purchasing of incidental school
requests found to be significant factor that drive Manjo students to
drop out of school and achieve poor. And then, this issue becomes
the component of our project activity. These days, it is being
realized that the response to this challenge has got good fruits and
Manjo students observed to persist in schooling because of
provision of school materials and pocket monies.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 59

On top of this, most of the project beneficiaries delineated that lack of

school materials is one of the challenges facing them. Manjost7, for
instance, is one of the female Manjo students who gained a
scholarship from CVM Bonga. Lack of clothes and educational
facilities are other challenges facing Manjo children’s schooling. She
states the following about the major challenges that impede her
education.

Since my parents are under extreme poverty, during my

primary school life; I experienced a number of hardships. I
could not change my clothes and I do not have shoes; I have
been barefoot. While non-Manjo students change their
clothes every time, I get ashamed because I put on the same
worn out clothes with a lot of shreds all the time. I do not
wash my clothes regularly because I do not have change. No
one buys stationeries for me; I buy exercise books, pens and
dictionaries on my own by rearing chickens. Before I get
support from CVM Bonga for my schooling, I record poor
results in my education and I get horrified when I attend the
classes because most students have no good outlook
towards Manjo students.

From the above reprimands one can understand that lack of school
materials has negative impacts on the educational admission and
performance of Manjo learners.

iii. Poverty and extreme hunger. Most participants suggested that

poverty is one of the major factors contributing to Manjo children not
attending school (reason for absenteeism and dropout). Poverty forces
Manjo non-dominant people in poor housing and parenting; it forces
them to live in remote areas and far from schools and they have to
cope with hunger. When poverty prevents children being educated, the
education of boys may be prioritized over that of girls because in most
illiterate families, parents prefer to send boys to girls to school. Manjo
Communities may not see the benefit in educating their daughters;
60 Getachew Robo

girls’ labor is frequently needed to help the family. Supporting these

results, Eduoff 4 (FGD participant) shared the following with me.

Most Manjo students drop out of school because of poverty,

hunger, lack of money for buying clothes and stationeries.
Another root cause coupled with extreme poverty is
possessing poor housing and health conditions which
obstruct their children’s education.

Despite the poverty they face, Manjo parents may keep children out
of school because of the direct and opportunity costs of education,
and the perception that the returns to investment in girls’ education
is low. The economic need for child labor has been identified as one
of the most important reasons for not sending rural children to
school.

iii. Distance to school. Some research suggest that girls are more
sensitive than boys to greater distances to School and poorer
education quality; which, therefore, affect socially excluded girls
more than socially excluded boys. Because, socially excluded non-
dominant girls experience double discrimination (i.e., sexist and
ethnic).

From my personal experiences and observation, most Manjo

communities are dwelling in deep forest far from different social
services. Consequently, a majority of Manjo students reported that
home to school distance consumes an hour and more hours every
school day, which was also told as a reason for some drop outs. This is
one of the major challenges faced by Manjo community children to be
deprived of education. Manjost 6 stated her feeling that home-school
distance coupled with hunger affected her education.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 61

Before I got the aid from CVM Bonga, I could not attend all
the classes in a semester; I could not study hard. I came
from Wota Wora kebele, which consumes three and half an
hour on foot distance from Wacha, capital of Chena
Woreda every school day. Long distance coupled with
hunger makes me extremely exhausted not to study hard.

This on the other hand shows that maximum time is consumed on the
way from home to school and it makes the Manjo students’ learning
tedious.

iv. Fear of discrimination by school community and non-Manjo

classmates

During the focus group discussion with the literate Manjo parents, one
of the Manjo teacher participants (EduManjo 2) from Chena Woreda
explained that he knows some Manjo parents keep their children out of
school because of perceived discrimination and mistreatments by non-
Manjo students and some teachers. Some teachers keep silence,
watching that some Manjo girls sit far from the teacher and
blackboard provided with fewer textbooks and other learning
materials, and not encouraged to participate in classroom
discussions.

Majority of Bonga TVET and preparatory school participants suggested

that the degree of discrimination in classroom minimizes from the lower
to the higher grades. In my opinion the reason why the extents of
exclusion decrease across the levels of education is because of the
increasing awareness among educated persons. However, from the
informal conversations with participants, it has been realized that the
discrimination against Manjo students is less not only among educated
persons, but also among the dwellers of towns than the less educated
persons and the dwellers of rural areas.
62 Getachew Robo

In most elementary schools there is the practice of discrimination

against the Manjo students. Manjost 1 shared the following with me
that she experienced a number of challenges in her primary
education classes.

Some non-Manjo fellows bullyingly teased me and said that

I’m very ugly. Because of this, I passed multiple challenges
in my school life. Specifically, in lower grades, I get
embarrassed and feel loneliness every school day. The
school days during that time were horrifying for me. Not only
because of the poverty of my family, but also in school were
problems prohibiting me from not properly attending lessons.

One of the literate Manjo parents (EduManjo 2) in focus group

discussion stated that the stereotyping made by non-Manjo students
hampers the continuity of schooling of Manjo community children. In
conformity with this finding, the results of previous investigation by
Ahmed (2007) disclose that “the misbehavior of non-Manjo students
against their Manjo mates often made Manjos perceive themselves as
lowly and worthless.” In addition to this almost all of his Manjo subjects
reported that they experienced non-Manjo segregation in different ways
(EduManjo 3). On top of this, Mesfin (2005) finds out that in Decha
Woreda, there is more probability for the friendship of students of non-
Manjo with non-Manjo irrespective of their village than to find Manjo to
non-Manjo friendship.

In some primary and secondary schools, the school environments are

not welcoming to Manjo students. Some non-Manjo students
discriminate the non-dominant group children in classroom activities
and playing grounds. Manjost6 described things that hurt her school life
in the following way;
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 63

Another problem that impedes my education is during the

class break, the non Manjo students do not want to chat
and play with me; I feel loneliness; sometimes I wrangle
with my God, why he created me as if I am an incomplete
person. On top of this, many female non-Manjo students go
to library in group but they never tell me to go together with
them. During our group assignment discussion, some
members of the group do not accept my response, though
it is correct answer.

The discrimination that Manjo students face is also manifested in group

activities including the one to five cooperative learning. Obviously, for
the group to be successful in cooperative learning, the members of the
group should be in a coordinated and sociable manner to each other.
Nevertheless, according to the expression of EduManjo 2, it is not
uncommon to hear that there are some non-Manjo students that
segregate Manjo students in 1 to 5 network cooperative groups.
Therefore, the exclusions in classroom activities make some Manjo
students not comfortable in their schooling; they isolate themselves
from the group and attain poor results. Besides, Manjost7 told me that
she has experienced anxiety in her primary school classes.

I left behind a lot of tribulations in my primary school life.

While I come closer to the group formed by the teacher,
some students leave that group. They do not want to sit
together with me. In most conversations, they use the idiom
“they ….and we….” to portray the disparity between the
Manjo and non-Manjo students. This by itself pushes me
away from the school, but I resist all the hardships to
complete my education. Especially, at primary and
secondary schools I have experienced a lot of anxiety
because of my lowly mannerism. Nowadays, besides the
support of CVM Ethiopia, Bonga TVET is a new compound
and learning environment for me. As a result of this, I scaled
down my anxiety because I can put on neat clothes; my new
64 Getachew Robo

classmates at TVET do not exclude me. At the present time,

I do not feel inferiority more because even in wearing I am
competing with non-Manjo students.

Regarding whether non-Manjo students exclude Manjo students or not,

Manjost6 stated the following as an ever memorable event in her
school life. This case happened in this year, semester one in 11th
grade.

In this year, in English class our teacher gave us class

work to be done in 1 to 5 network group; in our group, four
of us were females and one male who is the group leader;
because he (our group leader) was absent in the
mentioned class, the rest of three non-Manjo female
students worked together and submitted the class work;
and I did and submitted individually. Then, the teacher
asked me why I did the group work individually; I replied to
him that even though I want to work together with my group
members, female non-Manjo students do not let me work
with them. After I explained everything to the teacher, he
became nervous and made them withdrew from the
classroom for a week. And then the school director
enforced the ladies to bring their parents for signing the
warning statements against their daughter’s accusation to
avoid further similar disciplinary problems.

This interview transcript reveals that there is some perceptible

discrimination still in upper secondary grades. Thus, it is difficult to
wind up that highly educated people are free from the act of
discrimination. In addition to this, there are some non-Manjo students
who do not want to make body contacts with Manjo students in the
classroom. Concerning the alienation to protect body contact Manjost6
has the following to say.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 65

When some non-Manjo students shake my hands during

greetings, others quarrel each other with those who shake
my hands in greeting. They ignore even those students
who want to interact with me. Much to my disgust, I was
compelled to drop out of school, but I resist all the
challenges until today.

v. Parent’s poor work conditions. Manjost 1 explained that

because they are unemployed, her parents do not understand the
value of education. Thus, she explained that they are not that
much interested in her education struggling with numerous
difficulties. Sometimes, they ask her to drop out of school.

My educational problems are poor economic backgrounds

of my parents. In addition to this, they are both illiterates
and unemployed. My parents lack money to pay for school
expenses and our household income source bases on
poor working conditions; i.e., selling wood and charcoal.
As a result, they earn less household income. Before the
support from CVM Bonga, sometimes I do not eat for one
to two days.

As can be realized from the interview transcripts of Manjost 1, another

problem that threatens Manjo non-dominant children’s education is
parents’ poor work conditions coupled with famine. Poor work
conditions are usually attributed to meager household income which in
turn consequences poor parenting and schooling of children.

The focus group participants (Eduoff3, EduManjo 1,2,3) also conversed

that poor household income generation means are one of the major
impediments of schooling of Manjo non-dominant children. They
identified the following household income sources for Manjo
communities that are not good for earning enough money for their
children’s schooling; some Manjo parents’ household income depends
on selling charcoal, firewood, and forest honey. The Majority of Manjo
66 Getachew Robo

parents generate their income from agricultural produces. The

remaining other Manjo parents depend on various lower level
occupations such as production of household earth ware utensils and
woodwork. Generally, these occupations are economic activities from
which low revenue is generated. To that end, one can conclude that
hence the parents of Manjo students are engaged in the lower income
generation, they cannot earn an adequate amount of money for their
children’s education.

vi. Non-Manjo fellows’ and teachers’ perspective. The majority

of non-Manjo informants suggested that the Manjo community in
general and Manjo students specifically are unwillingly accepted the
lowly positions as it is a customary. Besides the fact that Manjos’
recognition of lowest position in the traditional system as it is just a
social imposition which they had to accept it, most Manjo children in
school do not feel equality with other students because of the school
environments they threatened. Supporting the present findings,
Ahmed (2007) found out that in Decha woreda–Chiri primary school,
some Manjo students are observed to either sit separately from other
non-Manjo students at the corner of the class, or share broken desks
in middle of the classroom, and one of his Manjo respondents
informed him that non-Manjo students have hostile attitude towards
Manjo students.

In present study, some non-Manjo teacher informants forwarded that it

is realized that Manjo pupils sometimes react to educational problems
with relating to ethnicity. Traditionally, it is prohibited for Manjos to
beat the Gomaro child even during the fight either inside or on the way
to school. If a Manjo student did so, the friends, families or relatives of
the Gomaro child may hurt him on the street. For this reason, even
though, the Manjo child is interested in schooling he or she obliged to
drop out for his or her physical safety.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 67

vii. Discrimination in house renting to Manjo students. The results

of interviews with Manjo students depict that in some localities of
Kaffa zone there are the practices of discrimination against Manjo
students in renting their houses. Some informants of this study put in
plain words that there are practices of prejudices against Manjo
students in allowing them to rent Gomeros’ house. For example,
Manjost2 sorrowfully explained why Manjo house owners are absent
in towns so that they can accommodate Manjo students by renting
their houses. She recalls her past experience as follows.

When I was a secondary school student, during my search for

renting room, I realized that most house owners do not want to
rent their house for Manjo students. One of the big problems is
no Manjo house owner dwell at towns so that they can rent out
rooms for us (slight pause ‘ayiya’). Non-Manjo house owners
identify that we are Manjo students by looking at our skin color
and unsociable behaviors. Some house owners believe that it is
not a problem that allowing Manjo students to rent their house,
but they fear that the community will neglect them from social
affairs after they rent out their houses to Manjos. Even some
people scare that we enter their house. They critically observe
our faces and deep black skin colors; immediately they know
that we are Manjos, and then they refuse to rent their houses for
us. In the present days, we are somewhat improving our
wearing style and resemble non-Manjos in many things. Even
though we do not integrate with them in social affairs, the non-
Manjo house owners are changing their attitude.

The response of Manjost5 concerning the trends of discrimination

against Manjo students for renting out their house in Shishinda town is
unique.
68 Getachew Robo

In Shishinda, the house owners do not want to rent out

their houses for Manjo students; the discrimination against
Manjo students in Shishinda town is unspeakable. I have
wanted to have rental house in Shishinda town since 2007
E.C but everybody refused to welcome me (slight pause). I
did not find anyone who can rent out his house for me. As
soon as Shishinda house owners know me that I am
Manjeche (female Manjo), everybody was not willing to
welcome me. As a result, I travel two hours and forty
minutes to and from school every school day. I was looking
for someone who can reluctantly rent his house for me
without considering clan. I travel more than seven
Kilometers on foot to and from Dahari kebele to Shishinda
from grade 5th through 9th. In tenth grade, my school
principal understood my problems and wrote to CVM
Bonga. In 2008E.C, CVM Bonga came to Shishinda and
accepted me; and then they agreed to finance my
education. Not only I but also CVM Bonga partners were
unable to find the rental house for me. As soon as the
house owners understood that CVM partners want to get a
rental room for Manjo students, they all responded that
there is no house for renting. And then, unwillingly CVM
partners searched for other apartment houses where
Shishinda secondary school teachers dwell. Therefore,
though it was unwilling, CVM Bonga coordinators make an
agreement with the teachers and left one room for me.
From that day onwards my life shifted one step. Presently, I
reduced at least the burden of home to school distance. I
am a single Manjeche attending the preparatory class at
Shishinda; since no one can live with Manjeche, I was
alone. After some days, I brought my younger sister and I
am still living with her.

The lived experience of Manjost5 tells us there are some teachers who
are not interested in helping Manjo non-dominant students. We can
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 69

also recognize that there are some teachers who make fun of Manjo
students in an absurdly ridiculous way; like telling her that she is paid
salary as if she is a civil servant and even she can support others.
These kinds of rumors are of the psychosocial challenges that hinder
the education of Manjo students. In addition to this, in some cases,
some Manjo students are aware of those teachers in the act of
segregating them in instruction and hence they dislike their subjects.

However, Manjost7 stated that there is no higher perceptible challenge

facing her in searching for renting the house.

In Bonga, most house owners do not consider the ethnic

group or clan to rent their house either to Manjos or to non-
Manjo students. However, few house renters believe that
no one will rent it in the future if Manjo students rented it
before. Therefore, they do not want to rent their houses to
Manjo students. In this year at our renting compound there
was no the problem of discrimination in renting. But as
neighborhoods, we are not drinking coffee and tea together
with those non-Manjo students. The non-Manjo students
invite each other for coffee and tea and chat together,
where as we three Manjos form another distinctive group.

On the one hand, if the Manjo students are not stable in residence and
are obliged to travel a long distance from home to school, they cannot
attend their classes properly and achieve better performance. On the
other hand, even if they get the chance to have renting a room, Manjo
students may lack money for a rental fee. Therefore, the contribution of
CVM Bonga is greatly important.

viii. The approach of community

What is being Manjo in the minds of some non-Manjo community?

All aspects of a society (i.e., economic, religious, political, cultural,
technological… etc.) have their own influence on the formal education.
70 Getachew Robo

Most participants of focus group discussions indicated that the bad

approach of non-Manjo ‘Gomaro’ against the Manjo community in
general and their children’s education in particular affects schooling of
Manjo children. Manjost 6, for example, forwards her feeling as “the
communities in Kullish Kebele think and talk about Manjos offensively.
They consider our feeling as ‘pain in the ass or butt’ which is extremely
annoying.” Manjost 6 shared the following unforgettable memories in
her school life with me.

When I was learning in ninth and tenth grades in Kullish

secondary school, most of the times in the evening non-
Manjo people were beating my rental room; they were
insulting me that Manjo are not human beings, directly to
mean I am not a human being; they were bullying,
nagging and teasing up on me.

One of the literate Manjo informants (EduManjo 2) and CVM Bonga

partner (CVM 2) in focus group discussion explained that the influence
of bad approach of the society towards Manjo children’s education has
greater adverse effects. During the personal communication non-
Manjos use offensive words that embarrass Manjos like ‘Manaji’,
‘seconds’, ‘Ferenj’ or ‘Jamaica’ which are additional names
prearranged to Manjos to widen the gap. The most popular nasty
phrase used by local people to distinguish between Manjos and any
other person is “ashoone Manjoone?” Literally to mean, ‘is he/she a
human or a Manjo?’ Moreover, the interview results confirm that the
bad outlooks of the society are not completely changed even if
changes are underway.

During the interview with a Manjo teacher with regard to the approach
of the general public in general and the educated people in particular
towards the Manjo civil servants, he put in plain words that the
psychological depression and ostracism are happening against some
of the literate Manjos and teachers that make their children confused
about the value of education incapable to flee them from exclusion.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 71

The interviewees talked about two shocking cases took place in 2009.
The informal conversation with the Manjo teacher reveals that there are
practices of discrimination against Manjo employees. He shared his
pain with me in the following way;

After my transfer from Gewata Woreda to Chena, the Woreda

education office assigned me to Kulish Mulu primary school, but the
school principal refused to welcome me by reporting that his staff is
full. Then, the next day the office re-assigned me to Donga primary
school that is farther deep inside of the capital of the Woreda. Before
my arrival at the school, the information preceded me to Donga kebele
and the kebele dwellers became hot and said ‘are we garbage
recipients?; if he came by first assignment, we would tolerate, but the
office turned its face to us as an alternative.’ Some people from the
kebele Administrative council came to the school principal and warned
him about the existence and security of his newcomer teacher. The
principal immediately reported to the Woreda Office of Education about
the insecurity of the life of mine. Later, WOE assigned me to Chena
primary school. Next ladder of my problem was while I have been
teaching in this school there were many grievances against me from
my 5th grade pupils. Once upon a time, during the environmental
science lesson I asked my students to mention the food items rich in
protein. Students raised their hands up to respond, I gave chance to
some students and respondents listed the food items such as meat of
colobus monkey (Gureza), Savanna monkey (Tota), wild boar (pig)
(Asama), porcupine (Jart) and dead animals to annoy me that I am
eater of these animals. I never expected such responses from the
class and I got nervous, walked out and accused the class to the
school principal. The principal gathered the class and told about the
accusation of the teacher. Many students commented that ‘knowing his
inferiority, the teacher has been doing wrong deeds, he wishes to
dominate over us, we are angry about him bossing us around!’ Then,
the principal advised the students and let them to attend the class with
no one being punished. Since that day onwards, I have left that class
and even I started to quarrel with other sections I was teaching.
Finally, I asked the Woreda Office of Education to transfer me to
another elementary school, meanwhile, they transferred me to Kocha
Wacha primary school.
72 Getachew Robo

However, in the present study, there are participants that argue in

mixed way that attitudinal challenges facing Manjos are not external
ones but their own way of thinking and self image. In the FGD group
1, Eduoff 5 and Eduoff 7, for example, forwarded the following
respectively.

Today, there is no more attitudinal problem against Manjos

among the school community. Sometimes, it seems to me,
it is not a big deal. Because there are a number of Gomero
children who dropout and have no helpers whose parents
are living below the life situation of Manjo households. If we
want to support we need to identify all children schooling by
confronting such extreme challenges. But, this is not to
mean that there are no symptos of prejudices against
Manjos; still we have to work together.

All right, Eduoff 7;

I support eduoff5’s idea; there are Manjos who are living

better life style than Gomeros. For those Manjos’ children
the challenge is their own attitudinal problem not others’
ignorance. What other concerned bodies have to do is
against negative attitudes of both parties. Indeed, yeah, I
know some Gomeros who have negative outlooks even
against Manjo civil servants.

From the results of past studies and the above FGD transcripts, it can
be realized that in some local schools the non-Manjo students depress
Manjo teachers in instructional processes. Hence, it is hardly possible
to agree with those people that suggest there is no discrimination
against educated and well dressed Manjos. The researcher argues this
because there are a number of people that usually express that people
do not exclude hygienic and literate Manjos. These transcripts reveal
that there is some sort of marginalization against literate Manjos, with
the exception of the degree of exclusion.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 73

The contributions of the CVM Ethiopia in schooling of Manjo non-

dominant students

I. Financing non-dominant children’s education

Regarding the major contributions of the CVM Ethiopia in schooling of

Manjo non-dominant students, the project facilitator of the CVM (CVM
2) Bonga has the following to say.

We are enhancing the education of Manjo children because they

are disadvantaged group of the mainstream society. We exert
our maximum effort to improve the livelihood of the Manjo
community in general and the education of their children in
particular. We have a monthly budget for our target groups,
especially for female Manjo students. We allot five hundred fifty
Birr monthly for each student. They contentedly receive our
monthly contribution and we advise them to use it wisely. Before
2009 E.C (2016 G.C), we offer six hundred for each beneficiary,
but in this year we deducted fifty Birr from each because we
increased the number of beneficiaries.

The financial contributions of CVM Bonga in schooling Manjo non-

dominant children are explicit and visible functions, but there are a
number of implicit and invisible roles that the organization plays in the
life of the subjects. Manjost 7 is one of the female Manjo students who
gained a scholarship from CVM Bonga. She stated the following about
the benefits she gained from the organization;

After I completed tenth grade I have got the chance to join

TVET in this year. I am a student in garment department.
Since CVM Bonga is helping me in financing my education, I
enjoy the study because it gives me hope to work on my own
business in the future. CVM Bonga supports me by giving
money, buying reference books and encouraging our teachers
to deliver additional support and tutorial sessions for us.
74 Getachew Robo

Presently, the attitude of my parents is changed. In the past

usually they tell me to continue if I am capable of continuing
my education, unless and otherwise they urge me to drop out
of school. They provide me only these two options because
they cannot give me money for buying stationeries and
clothes. Now they understand that I got aid from CVM Ethiopia
because I persisted in schooling.

The information attained from the conversation with Manjost 2 about

the contribution of CVM Bonga for Manjo education is nearly similar
with Manjost1. However, Manjost 5 is not that much satisfied with the
contribution of CVM Bonga because of ample of problems in her
residential issue and educational challenges. She expressed in plain
words that still she feels hopelessness in her life.

In my first contact, I accepted CVM Bonga partners as my

kins but I saw them once at a glance and then they became
out of sight. CVM Bonga supports me only by giving
money. They do not come to my residence; most of the
time they send me the money via the drivers. I think they
provide money for the sake of reporting to funding
organization.

Regarding the sufficiency of CVM aid, Manjost 1 states that, the

contribution by CVM Bonga is sufficient for her schooling. Three female
Manjos (Manjost 1, Manjost 2 and Manjost 3) rented a room with two
hundred fifty Birr. Manjost 1 saves one hundred birr each month for her
further education and graduation celebration. Since her parents are
poor, they cannot afford for her education and clothes. However,
Manjost 6 from Chena woreda described that since she has no any
other source of income for her education, she says the contributions by
CVM Bonga is not enough for her.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 75

Therefore, the financial contributions to Manjo students is not equally

enough to each beneficiary because some of the beneficiaries have
limited educational cost and others have large amount of educational
expenditures.

II. Psychological treatments

In critical observation, we can understand deep in to the psychological

treatments and therapy that this independent NGO partners make. In
the first place, psychological therapies are very important because
Manjo communities have been internalized the lower social class and
incapability in almost all development aspects. On the other hand, this
NGO is creating human capital that Ethiopia may lose because of lack
of education. That is in agreement with the contention by Davaadorj
(2011). Davaadorj states that NGOs are critical as they contribute to
civil society by providing means for expressing and actively addressing
the difficulty of the global world that we live in today. More specifically
he notes,

NGOs increase social capital by providing people with

opportunities to build respects each other and the
capacity to work together toward common goals. In
recent years the presence and number of NGOs have
grown. However, the influence and importance of NGOs
differ depending on the national and local context in
which they operate.

Accordingly, CVM Ethiopia is a responsive NGO in working on

psycho-social problems. In line with psychological treatments they
render, CVM Bonga project coordinator (CVM 2) explained the
following.
76 Getachew Robo

We provide consultations and counseling services; we follow

up their academic results from the schools. Most Manjo
students are not successful in their academic performance
and they are not persistent in continuing their education not
because they are Manjos but because of different factors.
That is why we regularly supervise and inspiring our students
by rendering consultation services and psychological
treatments. Nowadays, in a real situation, we are observing
improvements in their academic performance and the degree
of assimilation with other non Manjo students.

III. Promoting Equality and Human Rights

Education is a vital means to the enjoyment of a wide range of other

rights and fundamental freedoms, without which individuals and
societies remain economically, socially and culturally impoverished.
The third main contribution of CVM Ethiopia to schooling Manjo non-
dominant students is promoting the human rights of the Manjo non-
dominant children. In the group two FGD discussion, CVM 2 explained
that how the organization promote the rights of ostracized Manjo
community in general and their children at school in particular, as
follows.

We organize different clubs in schools that directly enhance

the schooling of the Manjo non-dominant students. In target
Woredas, specifically in our cluster primary schools two
clubs have their own offices. Ethics club, for instance, is
organized to promote the equality and combat exclusion of
some groups within the school and community. In addition
to this, during the consultation and counseling services, we
hearten that they have to enjoy their educational rights.

In group one focus group participants forwarded their opinion that

CVM Bonga is working on promoting equality and protection of
rights of Manjo non-dominant. In doing that they seem to be mindful
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 77

of, UNESCO (Pamphlet No. 11) disclosed that “non-dominant

communities are among the world's most disadvantaged when it
comes to education, are a special focus of UNESCO's
education program.”

IV. School Community and general public mobilization

Creating awareness at school level. In primary schools, following the

role models of their parents, children in many local schools are not
willing to cooperate with Manjo children in academic and other social
activities. Not only local restaurants, liquor venders and tea rooms set
up around schools, but also classrooms are discriminating between
Manjo and non-Manjo students that make non-Manjo students not to
receive the instruction properly. Hence, Manjo parents are not keen to
send their children to school (AAE, 2008). In response to this, a CVM
Bonga partner, CVM1, says that one of the functions of the two clubs is
to create awareness among the school community and the general
public through dramatization and cultural songs.

V. Community Mobilization

CVM Bonga is playing a great role in combating harmful traditional

practices that hamper Manjo children’s education by creating
awareness among the community through organizing public meeting
and panel discussions. One of the causes of the high dropout rate and
poor enrollment ratios among Manjo community children is cultural
challenges like early marriage. Early marriage is the enormous harmful
tradition in Manjo community. Eduoff 6, one of the members of the
FGD has the following to say.

CVM Bonga partners are discharging their efforts to bring

about improvements. Organizing panel discussions,
community meetings and seminars enhance the Manjo
non-dominant children’s education are among the
noticeable works of CVMs. Because working on this
78 Getachew Robo

community cases requires general community participation

and collaborative work.

Early marriage is encouraged in Manjos to protect virginity (pre-marital

sex). A Manja man rushes to marry too young, girl irrespective of his
age to get her virgin. As a result, early marriage contributes to the low
enrollment and high dropout rates of Manjo girls in Kaffa zone. Married
girls, who would like to continue their schooling, are often prevented
from doing so. But Manjost 4, fortunately, got an opportunity for
schooling after her marriage was quitting.

VI. Teaching Life skills and saving Culture. Regarding the further
benefits they gain from CVM Bonga, during the interview session
Manjost 1 and Manjost 2 testified the following.

Partners of CVM Bonga render consulting services and

trainings regarding how we can socialize with non-manjos;
they teach us how we can compete with others and
develop good self image. In addition to this, they
encourage us to save money in Omo micro finance for
further education. Accordingly, most of us save one
hundred Birr monthly.

Although some members of the focus group complained that it is less

important to support Manjo community children, the practices show that
attitudes and educational changes are being attained among these
groups through funding their education.

Improvements in schooling of Manjo community students

Concerning the improvement that the contributions of CVM Bonga

brought in Manjo children’s education, the project facilitator portrayed
the following.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 79

We request the achievement status of the Manjo non-

dominant students from their school principals and
teachers every month. Then, we urge those teachers
whose Manjo students are poorly performing to deliver the
tutorial sessions. On top of this, the school libraries support
these students by lending reference books for further
studies. As a result of this, some slow learner Manjo
students become average in their achievements. Both
extrinsic and intrinsic motivations are very important for the
improvements of academic performance. I realized
improvements in enrollment of Manjo students and those
who drop out of school restarted the class.

The project facilitator also extrapolated that follow up made by

CVM Bonga have brought improvements in Manjo non-dominant
students’ enrollment, school survival rate and academic
performance. Supporting this sentence, for my question about what
improvements do the contributions of CVM Ethiopia brought on the
school survival rate of Manjo non-dominant children, EduOff2 in
the first focus group of educational officials replied the following.

Most Manjo students drop out their education at the lower

primary level (Grade 1-4) and few of them continue to the
upper primary education (grade 5-8) and secondary
education. This is the first time, for us, to see Manjo female
students who joined University preparatory classes. Two of
Manjo female students are preparatory students who are
attending in Chena and Shishinda comprehensive
secondary and preparatory schools. Other three female
Manjo students are attending at Bonga TVET.

These good lessons are extracted from the empowerment of CVM

Bonga, which are indicators of the contributions of the organization for
increment in the survival ratio of Manjo students. In informal
communication, most of the Manjo students explained that they have
80 Getachew Robo

recorded achievement progresses after the aid of the CVM Bonga has
started. For example, Manjost 7 testified that she is competent enough
in educational achievement with the non-Manjo students.

Nowadays, I am optimistic towards competing with non-

Manjo students in the classroom and life situations in the
mainstream society. My course achievements are
comparable to non Manjo students. In the past, I did not
work class work and homework properly. But nowadays, I
am performing all the instructional activities equally with
my classmates. At Bonga TVET, the classrooms are
welcoming for all students without exclusion; therefore,
there are no frustration and anxiety because of being
Manjo.

As has been described earlier, in addition to the lack of the boarding

house, long distance to school hampers the performance of the Manjo
students. Manjost 5 explained the following that since then the CVM
Bonga started aid and prearranged boarding house, her academic
performance has improved.

From grade one to nine I have been traveling a long

distance on foot to and from school. Because of the
tiresome journey I get extremely exhausted every school
day; in addition to this I had a lot of household
responsibilities. In those days, my educational
achievements were poor because of the multiple burdens. I
cannot study and do home works properly. However, after I
had my own house via CVM support and I become stable
from my daily trip; my academic performance has improved
in a number of ways.

The interview session with Manjost 1 about the contributions of

CVM Bonga in her education; she stated that her continuous
assessment results are good. She suggests that “if there is no one
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 81

who is responsible to encourage Manjo community children’s

education; there will be high dropouts of Manjo students’ at all
educational levels.”

What lessons do Manjo community children learn from successful

Manjo students?

Manjost 9 reacted to my interview about what lessons do out of school

Manjo children learn from her schooling; she explained that a number
of out of school and enrolled Manjo community children in her village
wish to attain the life like hers. Her school persistence is a model for
many other Manjo children. Supporting this, Manjost 8 shared the
following with me.

Many Manjo children in my former residential kebele considered

me as a role model because I survived within the school along
with a number of challenges. I resisted all the complexities and
completed my secondary education. As a result of this, most
Manjo children in that village were inspired to enroll in school
and some of those who dropped out of school get motivated to
restart classes. When I see this, I get inspired to keep on
schooling because CVM Ethiopia assisted me a lot; I improved
my life situation and other Manjo children who are out of school
and lower grade students take a lesson from my life.

Moreover, the following quotations depict that Manjost 7 expressed that

from her endurance to persist in schooling; most Manjo children in their
former residential kebele get enrolled in school and those students who
dropped out of school restarted schooling.

Regarding my school life, after I joined CVM scholarship; I

changed my reading style. In lower grades since I was
hopeless, I did not study properly. Today, because of the
support I gain from CVM Ethiopia, I am hopeful; I strive to
compete with non Manjo students. During this semester,
82 Getachew Robo

my assessment results are better than previous ones. My

younger sister Manjost 4 is tenth grade in this academic
year. One of the manjo guys deceived her in voyage to
school and make an agreement with her to get married.
She dropped out of school and get married. But the CVM
Bonga project workers went down to her residential Kebele
with police officers and told to her husband to break up so
that she can restart classes. Since her age is below
eighteen he lacks option to resist the legal procedure and
then he left her alone. Because of the intermediation of the
CVM Bonga she restarted her class under the support and
supervision of the organization.

Conclusions

The major problems threatening the schooling of the Manjo community

children found to be poor parents’ educational attainment, lack of
school necessities, poverty and extreme hunger, distance to school,
fear of discrimination in school and classroom activities, parents’ poor
work conditions, discrimination in house renting for Manjo students and
bad approach of general public towards Manjo children’s schooling.

CVM Ethiopia renders the following major services in schooling of

Manjo non-dominant students. These are financing Manjo children’s
education, counseling and guidance services, promoting equality and
human rights, School Community and general public mobilization, and
teaching life skills and Saving Culture

Most of Manjo students under the supervision and support of CVM

Ethiopia have recorded improvements in the schooling, school survival
rate and educational achievements.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 83

Recommendations

NGOs should be able to mainstream the interests of non-dominant

communities in their project goals. One effect of the current approach
of NGOs is that the needs and interests of non-dominant community
children continue to be seen as marginal. The provision of
educational services to non-dominant Community children by the
NGO, although very necessary, affects the notion that non-
dominant community needs are to be served by community civil
organizations.

NGOS should identify and reward role model Manjo parents who have
inspiration to school their children appropriately to hearten those Manjo
parents who are belittling their children’s education. And awareness
should be created among Manjo communities to send their children to
school and follow up their education.

Woreda Office of Education (WOE) should follow up and provide

special support to vulnerable children by offering stationeries,
organizing school feeding program and hostels.

Based on the present research findings, educational researchers who

are interested in investigating the enrollment and schooling challenges
of the target groups should strive to investigate the following issues.

1) To what extent do the stakeholders work to provide access to

Manjo community children?
2) Do the school grants consider the population of students that
require extra-support; example, marginalized children?
3) How do the identities of the students affect the academic
achievement?
4) How can educational un-equity and exclusion practices be
mitigated?
84 Getachew Robo

References

AAE, (2008). Assessment Report on The Life of Manjas Living in

Gimbo And Chena Woredas Of Kaffa Zone. By Bonga Social
Inclusion Project Action Aid Ethiopia with the European Union
Financial Assistance.

Ahmed, E. (2007). The Socio-Psychological and Educational

Challenges of Students of Manjo Ethnic Groups. The Case in
Chiri Primary School of Kaffa Zone. Unpublished MA Thesis.
Addis Ababa University.

Befekadu, Z. (1998). Promoting Girls’ Basic Education in the Rural

Areas of Oromia. Addis Ababa University. Unpublished MA
Thesis.

Bekele, W. (2010). The History of the Kingdom of Kaffa: The Birth

Place of Coffee. Addis Ababa. ARCCIKCL

Braddok, H. J. and Dawkins, M. P. (1993). Ability Grouping, Aspirations

and Attainments Evidence from The National Educational
Longitudinal Study Of 1988. Journal of Negro Education.
62(3):324-36.

Coley, R. J., & Baker, B. (2013). Poverty and Education: Finding the
Way Forward. Educational Testing Service Center for Research
on Human Capital and Education.

CVM Ethiopia, (2016). Comparison of the Socioeconomic Status of

Manjo and Gomero In Kaffa.

Cybercafé (2010). Low-Income Non-Dominant Seniors’ Enrollment in A

Cybercafé (2010). Psychological Barriers to Crossing the Digital
Divide. Educational Gerontology, 36:193–212.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 85

Dagmawi, T. (2005). The Manjo Marginalized Minorities in Kaffa Zone,

South West Ethiopia. Unpublished MA Thesis. Addis Ababa
University.

Data, D. (1997). Rural Livelihoods and Social Stratification among the

Dawro, Southern Ethiopia. Unpublished MA Thesis. Addis
Ababa University.

Davaadorj, T. (2011). Issues of Theory and Practice of Ensuring

Economic Security in National Security Concept). Strategic
Studies, 53(1), pp. 14-34.

Effa,G. (2006). Factors Hindering Enrollment of Female Students in

Second Cycle Primary Schools of Dodota Sire Woreda Arsi
Zone. Unpublished MA Thesis. Addis Ababa University.

Garcia, C. C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H. P., Cunic, K.,
Wasik, B., & Garcia, H. V. (1996). An Integrative Model for The
Study of Developmental Competencies in Non-Dominant
Children. Child Development, 67, 1891-1914.

Getachew Robo (2011). The Socioeconomic and Cultural Factors

Affecting the Manjo Children’s Participation in Primary Education
in Coffee Zone. Unpublished MA thesis. Addis Ababa University.

Gezahegn, P. (2001). Kaffa. In D. Freeman and Alula Pankhurst. (eds).

(2001). Living on The Edge: Marginalized Minorities of Craft
Workers and Hunters. (pp.81-99). Addis Ababa: Department of
Sociology and Social Administration.

Girls' Education (Early Marriage Feature) Retrieved on December 26,

2018 from http://www.unicef.org/ ethiopia/ET_real_Bugna.pdf

Grissmer, D. (1994). Student Achievement and the Changing American

Family. Santa Monica.
86 Getachew Robo

Hendricks, A., Smith, K., Caplow, J., and Donaldson, J. (1996). A

Grounded Approach to Determining the Factors Related to The
Persistence of Non-Dominant Students in Professional
Programs. Innovative Higher Education 21.

Hennink, M. M. (2007). International Focus Group Research: A

Handbook for the Health and Social Sciences. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Holme, J.J., Wells, S.A., & Revilla, T.A. (2005). Learning Through
Experience: What Graduates Gained by Attending
Desegregated High Schools. Equity and Excellence in
Education. 38: 14-24.

http://www.non-dominantrights.org/

http: //www.unicef.org/ethiopia/ET_real_Bugna.p

Jourard, S. (1964). The Transparent Self. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.

Kassahun, G. (2015). The Psychosocial Adjustment and Educational

Achievement of Manjo Ethnic Non-Dominant Students in Two
Schools of Bonga, Kafa Zone. Unpublished MA thesis. Addis
Ababa University.

Lange, W. (1982). History of the South Gonga: South West Ethiopia.

Weisbaden: Stainer.

Levine, D.U. & Havighurst, R.J. (1992). Society and Education, 8th.ed.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Mahdere, P. (2006). Executive Directress: Ethiopian Women Lawyers

Association. Retrived (November 23, 2010) from htm.
www.etwla.org.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXX No. 2 December 2020 87

Mary, B. (1992). Education for All: What Are We Waiting for? New
York: UNICEF

Mesfin, T. (2005). The Root Causes, Factors and Effects of

Discrimination on Manjo Community in Kaffa Zone: The Case of
Decha And Bitta Woredas. A Report Submitted to AAE Bonga
Social Integration Project.

Ministry of Education. (2015).

Education for All 2015 National Review Report: Ethiopia. Retriev
ed from [email protected]

Parelius, A.P., and Parelius, R. J. (1978). The Sociology of Education.

Trenton, Rutgers: The State University of New Jersey.

Pruzek, U. (1974). Self-Concept and Disadvantage Ethnic Group

Membership and Mixture. Journal of Educational Research.
41(3): 13-20

Reyhner, N. J. (1992). Empowering Non-dominant Students. Adapted

from Jim Cummins, The Empowerment of Indian Students.
In Teaching American Indian Students). University of Oklahoma
Press, 1992).

Sayuri, Y. (2008). Searching For A Way of Social Discrimination: A

Case Study of the Manjo through the 2002 Incident in Kaffa.
Journal of Nilo-Ethiopian Studies.12:47-60.

Tamiru, M. (2004). Factors Affecting Basic Education in Waghimra

zone, Amhara region. Unpublished MA Thesis. Addis Ababa
University.

Tesfaye Semela (2009). Child Schooling in Sidama: Predicting School

Dropping Out and Sex Preference in Households’ Enrollment
Decision. The Ethiopian Journal of Education. 29 (2):1-36.
88 Getachew Robo

Thomas, R. (1965). Social Differences in the Class Room: Social

Class, Ethnic and Religious Problems. New York: University of
California, Santa Barbara

Wells, S.A, Terrenda, W.C, Allison R., Richard L., Jacquelyn D. N., &
Bianca, B. J. (2009). Suburban School Segregation and
Inequality on Long Island. Paper Presented at The Annual
Meetings of The American Educational Research Association.
San Diego, CA.

Woldesillassie, A. (2001). Kambata. In D. Freeman and A. Pankhurst

(eds). (2001). Living on the Edge: Marginalized Minorities of
Craft Workers and Hunters. (Pp.72- 80). Addis Ababa:
Department of Sociology and Social Administration.

Zewdie, Y. (2004). Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review.

20(2): 31-58.