Chapter 6.

QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS
We are now in a position to apply QFT to the interactions of light and matter. The result-
ing theory is called quantum electrodynamics, or QED, and is one of the greatest intellectual
achievements in the history of human civilization.

1. LIGHT AND MATTER

What is the allowed coupling between light and matter?
Consider Z  
4 1 2 µ
S= d x − Fµν − Aµ J .
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Under a gauge transformation, Aµ → Aµ + ∂µ α, we get
Z Z
δS = − d4 x ∂µ α J µ = d4 x α ∂µ J µ + boundary term ,

i.e. coupling is gauge invariant if ∂µ J µ = 0.

The coupling to fermions is therefore through the vector current:
1 2
+ ψ̄ iγ µ ∂µ − m ψ − e Aµ ψ̄γ µ ψ


L = − Fµν
4
1 2
+ ψ̄ iγ µ (∂µ + ieAµ ) −m ψ


= − Fµν
4 | {z }
≡ Dµ
↑
covariant derivative
1 2

= − Fµν / −m ψ.
+ ψ̄ iD
4
The theory now possesses a local gauge symmetry :
)
Aµ → Aµ + ∂µ α(x)
−ieα(x)
Dµ ψ → e−ieα(x) Dµ ψ .
ψ→e ψ
2. FEYNMAN RULES
The Lagrangian for QED is
1 2
LQED = − Fµν / − m)ψ
+ ψ̄(iD
4
1 2
= − Fµν + ψ̄(iγ µ ∂µ − m)ψ − eAµ ψ̄γ µ ψ .
| 4 | {z }
Lint
{z }
L0
The corresponding Feynman rules are:

i(p/ + m)
Fermion propagator : =
p2 − m2 + i
−iηµν
Photon propagator : =
p2 + i

QED vertex : = −ieγ µ

= us (p) (incoming)
External fermions :
= ūs (p) (outgoing)

= v̄ s (p) (incoming)
External antifermions :
= v s (p) (outgoing)

= µ (p) (incoming)
External photons :
= ∗µ (p) (outgoing)

• Momentum is conserved at each vertex.

• Undetermined loop momenta are integrated over.
• Fermion loops receive a factor of (−1).
• Each diagram can potentially have a symmetry factor.

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3. SCATTERING IN QED
As a simple example, consider electron-muon scattering, e− µ− → e− µ− :
e− p2 p4 e−

iA = q ≡ p1 − p3

p1 p3
µ− µ−
−iηµν
= ūse4 (p4 )(−ieγ µ )use2 (p2 ) × 2
× ūsm3 (p3 )(−ieγ ν )usm1 (p1 )
(p1 − p3 )
e2 s4
= i 2 ūe (p4 )γ µ use2 (p2 ) ūsm3 (p3 )γµ usm1 (p1 ) .
q

The square of the amplitude is

e4 µν
2
|A| = 4 L(e) L(m),µν ,
q
where we have defined
Lµν s4 µ s2 s2 ν s4
(e) ≡ ūe (p4 )γ ue (p2 ) ūe (p2 )γ ue (p4 ) ,

and similarly for Lµν

(m) .

Experiments usually have an unpolarised beam and target and do not measure
the polarisations of the outgoing particles. We must therefore average over
initial spins and sum over final spins.
To perform the sum over spins, we use
X
us (p)ūs (p) = p/ + m .
s
We find
1X
|A|2
4 spins
e4 h µ ν
ih i
= γ (p/ + me )βγ γγδ (p/4 + me )δα γµ,αβ (p/1 + mµ )βγ γν,γδ (p/3 + mµ )δα
4q 4 αβ 2
e4 
µ ν
  
= Tr γ (p/2 + me )γ (p/4 + me ) Tr γµ (p/1 + mµ )γν (p/3 + mµ ) .
4q 2

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This can be evaluated by using

Tr(/a/b) = 4a · b


a/b/cd/) = 4 a · b c · d − a · c b · d + a · d b · c
Tr(/
Tr(γ µ1 · · · γ µn ) = 0 for n = odd

After some work, we get

1X 2 2e4  2 2 2 2 2 2 2

|A| = 2 s + u − 4(me + mµ )(s + u) + 6(me + mµ ) .
4 spins t

In the high-energy limit s, |u|  me , mµ , this leads to the following differential

cross section in the center-of-mass frame

dσ e4 s2 + u2
= .
dΩ 32π 2 s t2

4. COULOMB POTENTIAL
We will end this course by returning to something familiar: Coulomb’s law. We will now show
that it follows from the non-relativistic limit of scattering in QED.

Consider e− e− → e− e− and e− e+ → e− e+ scattering. To determine the scat-

tering potential, it suffices to look at the t-channel contributions.
For e− e− → e− e− , we have

e− p2 p4 e−

−ηµν
Ae− e− = q ≡ p1 − p3 = + e2 ū(p4 )γ µ u(p2 ) 2
ū(p3 )γ ν u(p1 ) .
q

p1 p3
e− e−
In the non-relativistic limit, we have
0 0
√ ūs (p0 )γ 0 us (p) → 2m δ ss ,
 
ξ
u(p) → m ⇒ 0
ξ ūs (p0 )γ i us (p) → 0 .

We see that only the zeroth component of the gauge field contributes.

4
This gives
δ s1 s3 δ s2 s4
2 2
Ae− e− → − e (2m) ,
|q|2
where the minus sign came from −η00 = −1. The potential therefore is

e2
V e− e− (r) = + ,
4πr
which corresponds to a repulsive force.

For e− e+ → e− e+ , we have
−ηµν
Ae− e+ = (−1) × e2 ū(p4 )γ µ u(p2 ) 2
v̄(p1 )γ ν v(p3 ) .
q
In the non-relativistic limit, we have
0 0
√ v̄ s (p0 )γ 0 v s (p) → + 2m δ ss ,
 
η
v(p) → m ⇒ 0
−η v̄ s (p0 )γ i v s (p) → 0 .

This gives
δ s1 s3 δ s2 s4
Ae− e+ = + e2 (2m)2 = − Ae− e− .
|q|2
The corresponding potential is

e2
Ve− e+ (r) = − ,
4πr
which corresponds to an attractive force.

Conclusion: Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

THE END