Forward kinematics of manipulators Kinematics is the science of motion that treats motion without regard to the forces which

cause it. Within the science of

kinematics, one studies position, velocity, acceleration, and all higher order derivatives of the position variables (with respect to time or any other variable(s)).
Hence, the study of the kinematics of manipulators refers to all the geometrical and time-based properties of the motion. Manipulators consist of nearly rigid
links, which are connected by joints that allow relative motion of neighboring links. These joints are usually instrumented with position sensors, which allow
the relative position of neighboring links to be measured. In the case of rotary or revolute joints, these displacements are called joint angles. Some
manipulators contain sliding (or prismatic) joints, in which the relative displacement between links is a translation, sometimes called the joint offset.

Inverse kinematics of manipulators This problemis posed as follows: Given the position and orientation of the end-effector of the manipulator, calculate all
possible sets of joint angles that could be used to attainthis given position and orientation. (See Fig. 1.7.) This is a fundamental problem inthe practical use of
manipulators. This is a rather complicated geometrical problem that is routinely solvedthousands of times daily in human and other biological systems. In the
case of anartificial system like a robot, we wifi need to create an algorithm in the control computer that can make this calculation. In some ways, solution of
this problem is the most important element in a manipulator system. We can think of this problem as a mapping of "locations" in 3-D Cartesianspace to
"locations" in the robot's internal joint space. This need naturally arises anytime a goal is specified in external 3-D space coordinates. Some early robots lacked
this algorithm—they were simply moved (sometimes by hand) to desiredlocations, which were then recorded as a set of joint values (i.e., as a location injoint
space) for later playback. Obviously, if the robot is used purely in the mode of recording and playback of joint locations and motions, no algorithm relating joint
space to Cartesian space is needed. These days, however, it is rare to find anindustrial robot that lacks this basic inverse kinematic algorithm. The
inverse kinematics problem is not as simple as the forward kinematics one. Because the kinematic equations are nonlinear, their solution is not always
easy (or even possible) in a closed form. Also, questions about the existence of asolution and about multiple solutions arise. Study of these issues gives
one an appreciation for what the human mind and nervous system are accomplishing when we, seemingly without conscious thought, move and
manipulate objects with our arms and hands. The existence or nonexistence of a kinematic solution defines the workspaceof a given manipulator. The
lack of a solution means that the manipulator cannot attain the desired position and orientation because it lies outside of the manipulator's workspace.

The global medical robotics market was valued at $16.1 billion in 2021 and is expected to grow at an annual compound growth rate of 17.4 percent by 2030. A
key driver for this growth is the demand for using robots in minimally invasive surgeries—especially for neurologic, orthopedic, and laparoscopic procedures.
The development of a wide range of robots serves a variety of roles within the medical environment. For example:

 Surgical and rehabilitation robots specializing in human treatment

 Assistive and therapeutic robots helping patients recover from serious conditions like strokes

 Empathic robots assisting in the care of elderly or disabled individuals

Industrial robots take on a variety of routine tasks such as sterilizing rooms and delivering medical supplies and equipment. Below are six uses for
robots in the field of medicine today. 1. Telepresence - Physicians use robots to help them examine and treat patients in rural or remote locations,
giving them a “telepresence” in the room. “Specialists can be on call, via the robot, to answer questions and guide therapy from remote locations,”
writes Dr. Bernadette Keefe, a Chapel Hill, NC-based healthcare and medicine consultant. “The key features of these robotic devices include navigation
capability within the ER, and sophisticated cameras for the physical examination.” . 2. Surgical Assistants - These remote-controlled robots assist
surgeons with performing procedures, typically those that are minimally invasive. “The ability to manipulate a highly sophisticated robotic arm by
operating controls, seated at a workstation out of the operating room, is the hallmark of surgical robots,” 3. Rehabilitation Robots - Rehabilitation
robots play a crucial role in the recovery of people with disabilities in areas such as improved mobility, strength, coordination, and quality of life. These
robots can be programmed to adapt to the condition of each patient as they recover from strokes, traumatic brain or spinal cord injuries, or
neurobehavioral or neuromuscular diseases such as multiple sclerosis. Virtual reality integrated with rehabilitation robots can also improve balance,
walking, and other motor functions. 4. Medical Transportation Robots - Medical transportation robots deliver supplies, medications, and meals to
patients and staff thereby optimizing communication between doctors, hospital staff members, and patients. 5. Sanitation and Disinfection Robots -
With the increase in antibiotic-resistant bacteria and outbreaks of deadly infections like Ebola, more healthcare facilities are using robots to clean and
disinfect surfaces. “Currently, the primary methods used for disinfection are UV light and hydrogen peroxide vapors. 6. Robotic Prescription Dispensing
Systems - The biggest advantages of robots are speed and accuracy—two features that are very important to pharmacies. “Automated dispensing
systems have advanced to the point where robots can now handle powder, liquids, and highly viscous materials, with much higher speed and accuracy
than before.

In the context of velocity kinematics, the term "singularities" refers to specific configurations or positions of a mechanical system, such as a robot or a
mechanism, where the system's velocity calculations become problematic or undefined. Singularities are critical points that can cause issues when determining
the system's velocities and can affect its overall performance. There are typically two types of singularities to consider:

1. Joint Singularities: These occur in robotic systems with multiple joints, such as robotic arms. Joint singularities happen when one or more of the joints
reach a specific configuration that makes it challenging to calculate the end-effector's velocity accurately. In these configurations, small changes in
joint angles can result in significantly large or undefined changes in the end-effector's velocity. This can lead to jerky or unpredictable movements,
making it difficult to control the robot effectively. 2. Workspace Singularities: Workspace singularities occur when the end-effector or tool of a robot
reaches a specific location in its workspace where the Jacobian matrix becomes singular. The Jacobian matrix relates the joint velocities to the end-
effector's linear and angular velocities. When the Jacobian matrix becomes singular, it means that the system has lost degrees of freedom, and it may
not be possible to move the end-effector in certain directions or perform certain tasks. This can limit the robot's capabilities in specific regions of its
workspace. In both cases, dealing with singularities in velocity kinematics is crucial for robotics and mechanical engineering, as it affects the planning
 and control of robotic systems. Engineers and researchers often use various techniques to avoid or mitigate singularities, such as using redundancy in
robot design, adding extra joints, or implementing special algorithms to handle these critical configurations more gracefully.

Trajectory planning is a crucial aspect of motion control in robotics and automation, as it involves generating a smooth and feasible path for a robot or a
mechanical system to follow from an initial state to a goal state while adhering to various constraints. Here are the general steps involved in trajectory
planning:

1. Define the Problem: - Clearly specify the initial state (position, orientation, velocity, etc.) of the system. Specify the desired goal state that the system
needs to reach. Identify any constraints or limitations on the system, such as joint limits, obstacle avoidance requirements, or velocity/acceleration limits.
2. Kinematic Modeling: - Develop a mathematical model that describes the kinematics of the system. This model relates joint positions/angles to end-
effector positions and orientations. 3.Choose a Trajectory Type:- Decide on the type of trajectory that best suits your application. Common trajectory
types include linear, circular, spline-based, or customized trajectories. 4. Path Planning: - Determine the path that the system should follow to connect the
initial state to the goal state. Path planning algorithms, such as A* or RRT (Rapidly-Exploring Random Trees), can be used to find collision-free paths in
complex environments. 5.Time Parameterization:- Assign time values to points along the path to ensure that the system moves smoothly and respects
velocity and acceleration constraints. Time parameterization can involve methods like trapezoidal velocity profiles or polynomial interpolation. 6.Velocity
and Acceleration Profiles: - Generate velocity and acceleration profiles that satisfy the system's velocity and acceleration limits. Common profiles include
constant, trapezoidal, or S-curve profiles. 7.Collision Detection and Avoidance: - Implement collision detection algorithms to ensure that the planned
trajectory does not intersect with any obstacles in the environment. If collisions are detected, the trajectory may need to be adjusted. 8.Iterative
Refinement: - Iterate through the trajectory planning process, adjusting the path and velocity profiles as needed to meet constraints and optimization
criteria. This step may be necessary to improve the trajectory's quality. 9.Simulation and Testing: - Simulate the planned trajectory in a virtual
environment or use a testbed to verify its feasibility and performance.

10.Execution and Monitoring: - Implement the planned trajectory on the actual robot or system, monitoring its execution closely to ensure it follows the
desired path accurately.11. Feedback and Correction: - Use feedback from sensors and encoders to make real-time adjustments to the trajectory if the system
encounters unexpected disturbances or deviations from the planned path.

12.Safety Measures: - Implement safety measures and emergency stop mechanisms to prevent accidents in case of unexpected situations.

13.Documentation and Maintenance: - Document the trajectory planning process and the parameters used for future reference and maintenance.

Trajectory planning is a complex and critical task, and the specific steps and algorithms involved may vary depending on the type of system, the level of
automation, and the complexity of the environment in which the system operates. Additionally, optimization techniques may be applied to improve
trajectory quality and efficiency.
Mobile robots are autonomous or semi-autonomous robotic systems that are designed to move and operate in various environments, including indoor
and outdoor settings. Unlike stationary robots that are fixed in one location, mobile robots have the ability to navigate, explore, and interact with their
surroundings while being equipped with sensors and control systems for perception and decision-making. Mobile robots find applications in a wide
range of fields, including manufacturing, logistics, healthcare, agriculture, and more. Mobile robots can be classified into various categories based on
their characteristics, capabilities, and intended applications. Here are some common classifications of mobile robots: 1.Wheeled Robots: - These robots
use wheels as their primary means of locomotion. They can have various configurations, including differential drive (two wheels), omnidirectional
wheels, or multi-wheeled setups. 2.Tracked Robots:Tracked robots use continuous tracks, similar to those on a tank, for movement. They offer good
stability and traction in rough or uneven terrains. Legged Robots: Legged robots mimic the walking or running motion of animals. They are well-suited
for navigating through complex and unstructured environments but can be challenging to control. Flying Robots (Drones): Flying robots, or drones, are
equipped with rotors or propellers for aerial mobility. They are commonly used for surveillance, inspection, and data collection in inaccessible or large
areas. Swimming Robots: Swimming robots are designed to operate in aquatic environments. They may have propellers, fins, or other mechanisms for
underwater propulsion. Crawling Robots: Crawling robots are designed to move on surfaces like walls, ceilings, or other vertical structures. They often
use adhesive or gripping mechanisms to achieve this. Aerial Robots (Aerial Vehicles): Aerial robots, also known as aerial vehicles, include helicopters
and fixed-wing aircraft used for various tasks, such as aerial photography, mapping, and surveillance. Ground and Aerial Hybrid Robots: Some robots
can operate both on the ground and in the air, combining wheeled or tracked mobility with aerial capabilities. These robots offer versatility in terms of
terrain coverage. Underwater Robots (ROVs and AUVs): Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) and Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) are
specialized mobile robots designed for underwater exploration, research, and tasks like underwater inspections or deep-sea exploration. Humanoid
Robots: Humanoid robots are mobile robots designed to resemble human beings in terms of body structure and mobility. They are often used in
research and applications related to human interaction and assistance. Telepresence Robots: Telepresence robots enable remote presence and
interaction. They are equipped with cameras, displays, and mobility systems to allow users to "teleport" to a distant location and interact with people
and environments there. Autonomous Ground Vehicles: These are mobile robots designed for terrestrial environments and can include autonomous
cars, delivery robots, and agricultural robots, among others. Exploration and Search-and-Rescue Robots: Mobile robots used for exploring unknown or
hazardous environments, such as planetary rovers or search-and-rescue robots deployed in disaster-stricken areas. Industrial and Service
Robots:Mobile robots used in industrial automation, warehouses, and service industries for tasks like material handling, inventory management, and
cleaning.

These are some of the common classifications of mobile robots, but there are many more specialized categories and variations based on specific
applications and design requirements. Mobile robots continue to evolve, incorporating advanced sensors, artificial intelligence, and autonomy to
perform increasingly complex tasks in diverse environments.