A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

Criminology 212

Theories of Crime Causation

1
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

CHAPTER 1

THE OVERVIEW OF THEORIES

THEORY

Any system of ideas arranged in rational order that produce general principles which
increase our understanding and explanations.

It is a representative of particular facts, but those principles are not dependent upon
the particular thing to be explained.

It is the foundation of criminology and of criminal justice.

A THEORY OF CRIME PROBLEMS

The crime triangle comes straight out of one of the main theories of environmental
criminology-routine activity theory.

The Routine Activity Theory provides a simple and powerful insight into the causes of
crime problems. At its heart is the idea that in the absence of effective controls, offenders will
prey upon attractive targets. To have a crime, a motivated offender must come to the same
place as an attractive target. For property crimes that target is a thing or an object. For
personal crimes that target is a person. If an attractive target is never in the same place as a
motivate offender, the target will not be taken, damaged, or assaulted. Also, there are
controllers whose presence can prevent crime. If the controller’s area absent or present but
powerlessness, crime is impossible.

TRIANGLE OF CRIME PROBLEMS

1. PEOPLE/OFFENDERS
People who are influential in the lives of potential offenders. In the case of
juveniles these might be parents, close relatives, siblings, peers, teachers, coaches,
and other similarly place individuals. In the case of adults, these people may include
intimate partners, close friends, relatives and sometimes their children. These people
are called handlers in routine activity theory. Crimes will take place where handlers are
absent, weak or corrupt.

2. TARGETS/VICTIMS/GUARDIANS
Guardians try to protect targets from theft and damage and potential victims
from attack and assault.

Formal guardians- includes the police, security guards, and others whose job
is to protect people and property from crime.

Informal guardians- include neighbors, friends, and others who happen to be

in the same place as the attractive target.
Parents, teachers, peers, and others close to potential victims are also potential
guardians. A target with an effective guardian is less likely to be attacked by a potential
2
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

offender than a target without a guardian. If the guardian is absent, weak or corrupt
little protection is provided the target.

3. PLACE MANAGERS
Some owns every location and ownership confers certain rights to regulate
access to the site and behaviors of people using the site. The owner and the agents of
the owner (employees) look after the place and the people using the place. Owners
and their agents are called place managers. Place managers control the behavior of
offenders and potential victims. Examples of place manager include merchants,
lifeguards, parking lot attendants, recreation and park workers, janitors, and motel
clerks.
In the presence of an effective place manager, crime is less likely than when
the manager is absent, weak or corrupt.

All of the people in this theory use tools to help accomplish their criminal or
crime control objectives. Offenders without access to tools are less likely to be able escape
handlers, enter unauthorized places and overcomes victims, guardians and managers.
Guardians may use light to increase surveillance, engraving devices to mark property,
and other devices to help reduce the chances of victimization. Place managers can use
gates, fences, signs and other tools to regulate conduct. With effective tools handlers,
victims, guardians, and managers will have a greater chance of keeping crime from
occurring.

Figure 1. Problem

The relationship of the actors, places and tools is depicted in the problem
triangle, shown in Figure 1 Problem occur when offenders are at the same places as
targets, without any effective controller. If one or more of the controllers is present,
however, the chances of crime are greatly reduced. The effectiveness of the people involved
will depend, in part on the tools they have available. Adding or subtracting various
elements in this model will alter the chances of crime.

3
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

THREE THEORIES OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

1. Psychological
2. Sociological
3. Biological

1. PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH

There are many different psychological models of

criminal behavior ranging from early Freudian notion to
later cognitive and social psychological models.

We all list several fundamental assumptions of psychological theories of

criminality.

1. The individual is the primary unit of analysis in psychological theories.

2. Personality is the major motivational elements that drive behavior within

individuals.

3. Normality is generally defined by social consensus.

4. Crimes then would result from abnormal, dysfunctional or inappropriate

mental processes within the personality of this individual.

5. Criminal behavior may be purposeful for the individual insofar as it addresses

certain felt needs.

6. Defective or abnormal, mental processes may have a variety of causes,

diseased mind, inappropriate learning or improper conditioning,
the emulation of inappropriate role models, and adjustment to inner
conflicts.

Given these Six principles to establish psychological explanations of criminal

behavior, we can suggest first that traditional imprisonment, fines and other court
sanctions are based on operant learning models of behavior for crime control. Operant
learning models are based on the utilitarian concepts that all people wish to maximize
pleasure and minimize pain or discomfort.

Technically speaking, punishment are any sanctions designed to decrease a

specific behavior; thus, fines, jail sentences, etc. are all forms of punishment. However,
punishment was generally ineffective in behavior modification and that reinforcement
worked better.

A Caveat (Warning/Caution) should be applied here: Punishment is effective

if applied properly, but unfortunately it rarely is applied properly. Punishment needs to
be immediate as close as time as possible, inescapable and the harsher, the better.
Punishment and sanctions for criminal behavior are based on behavioral psychological
principles.

4
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

Harsh form of punishment do not appear to significantly decrease the recidivism

rate. In terms of cognitive behavioral psychological principles, rehabilitation and
relearning, retraining, or educational programs for offenders are forms of
psychologically based methods to control crime.

So, all forms of retraining, reeducation, or reentry guidance is based on

psychological principles of criminality and reform. However, rehabilitation programs are
often rarely implemented in jail or prison.

In line with other psychological methods are policies aimed at maintaining a

visible presence of law enforcement and methods to maintain self-awareness in
tempting situations. Such methods are preventative.

For instances, it has been a well-known social psychological principle that

situations that diminish self-consciousness and self-awareness leads individuals to
being less restrained, less self-regulated, and more likely to act without considering the
consequences of their actions.

Thus, methods of crime control policies based on psychological principles

target the individual and attempt to reform or prevent criminal behavior form that perspective.
Any policies requiring therapeutic intervention, retraining, or education are
psychological in nature.

Any policy designed at preventing crime by targeting individuals such as raising

consciousness, promoting self-awareness or identifying individuals at risk are also
psychological. Likewise, psychologist have long recognized that the best predictor of
future behavior is the individuals past behavior. So, policies that are specifically
designed to deal with repeat offenders are also based on psychological principles of
criminality.

2. SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES

It is defined sociological notion of criminality

as:

1. Attempting to connect the issues of the

individual’s criminality with the broader
social structures and cultural values of
society, familial, or peer group.

2. How the contradictions of all of these interacting groups contribute to criminality.

3. The ways these structures cultures and contradictions have historically developed.

4. The current process of changed that these groups are undergoing.

5. Criminality is viewed from the point of view of the social construction of criminality
and its social causes.

5
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

Traditional sociological theories proposed that crimes was a result of anomie, a

term meaning “normlessness” or a feeling of a lack of social norms, a lack of being
connected to society.

Later sociologist used the term to describe the dissociation of the individual
from the collective conscience or the criminality resulting from a lack of opportunity to
achieve aspirations or b the learning of criminal values and behaviors.

Therefore, criminality results from the failure to properly socialize individuals

and by unequal opportunities between groups. It is also believed that crime was an
inescapable fact of society and advocated maintaining crime within reasonable
boundaries.

An important sociological control would be to increase legitimate opportunities

for advancement and obtaining of goods and wealth in areas where these do not exist.
Sociological controls targeted at his goal could originate in higher State and Federal
levels of government as well as local levels of government and would include programs
designed to guarantee equal opportunities to all individuals.

Thus, social programs ranging from soup kitchens, job training, educational
funding, urban renewal projects and so forth would be in line with sociological policies
to control crime.

Other related sociological controls for crime would consist of organizing and
empowering neighborhood residents with project like neighborhood crime watches,
providing law-abiding role models for children in schools and in other venues, providing
parental support for working parents, and establishing community centers in
downtrodden areas to allow people to learn and engage in positive activities.

Social program aimed at socializing children properly and providing support for
single family homes are also examples of sociological methods to control crime. There
are a number of these programs including career academics.

Finally, sociological policies to control crime would advocate stronger and

harsher penalties for serious crimes such as murder rape are more effective law
enforcement. Again, sociologist accept the realities that crime is a social phenomenon
that will not disappear no matter how many interventions are enacted to control it.

The purpose of imprisonment includes punishment, rehabilitation, deterrence

and selective confinement.

3. BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES

This physical flaw could be due to the:

1. Heredity

2. Neurotransmitter dysfunction

3. Brain abnormalities that were caused by either

of the above, improper development, or
6
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

trauma.

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIMINALITY

1. PSYCHOSURGERY

Brain surgery to control behavior has rarely been applied to criminal behavior.

Lobotomy were used to treat a wide range of problems form depression to

schizophrenia.

Lobotomy- a surgical operation involving incision into the prefrontal lobe of the
brain, formerly used to treat mental illness.

The lobotomy involves separating the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain
either surgically or in the case of the trans orbital lobotomy with a sharp icepick like
instrument that was inserted in the eye socket between the upper eyelid and the eye.
In this method the patient was not anesthetized, not even the children.

The psychiatrist hit the end of the instrument with a hammer to disconnect the
nerves in the frontal lobe of the brain. Afterwards behavior were changed, but a high
price as you can imagine. Today the lobotomy has fallen out of favor due medications
used to control behavior.

2. CHEMICAL METHODS OF CONTROL

The use of pharmacological treatment to try to control crime has been ongoing
in two major areas:

1. Chemical castration for sex offenders and

2. Pharmacological interventions for drug or alcohol addicts.

However, addicts can stop the medication and return to used. Sex offenders
are closely monitored and there is some evidence that this policy has been efficacious.

Sometimes mentally ill people in the criminal justice system been ordered to
take medications to treat their mental illness. Other pharmacological interventions to control
crime seen plausible and are being investigated, but do not appear to have been
widely used.
7
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

3. OTHERS

a. Deep brain stimulation is used for some disorders such as Parkinson’s Disease.

b. Changes in Diet to deal with criminality and better relations between parents.

c. Genetic XYY Combination to be a marker of criminal type but as it turns out these
individuals were found to be less intelligent or more likely to have learning
difficulties as opposed to being criminal types.

8
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

CHAPTER 2

EARLY GENERAL THEORIES ON THE

CAUSES OF CRIME

DEMONOLOGY is the study of demos or beliefs about demons, especially the methods used
to summon and control them.

Demons when regarded as spirits may belong to either of the classes of spirits
recognized by primitive animism. That is to say, they may be human or non-human,
separable animism. That is to say, they may be human, or non-human, separable
souls, or discarnate spirits which have never inhabited a body.

Greek word: daimon- divinity, devine power, god

Logia- study

1. DEMONOLOGICAL THEORY

Demonology is one of the earliest

theories in criminology. In the ancient times,
people believe that evil spirits or demons
entered human body to consist sins.

This was the earliest explanation given regarding crime and criminal behavior. Terms
like demons, witches and windigo were used people who had turned criminals. The society
thought that is happened due to evil influence. Supernatural powers were considered the best
explanation behind crime and sin. It was believed that a person did not commit crimes of his
own free will but under evil influence.

An early explanation of crime is theological

or religious. Crime has been viewed as a violation
of religious doctrine. It is called a sin- a violation of
sacred obligation. An individual who commits a crime
has been viewed as possess by evil spirits or under
divine wrath.

Criminal acts were considered as indicia of basically, evil human suggesting adherence
to Satan or under the spell of the prince of darkness.

9
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

The causes of crime have been based in superstitious belief in which criminals were
allegedly perceived as controlled by other worldly forces- the devil.

There are many myths, stories and legends that we know about. They maybe the
product of our imagination or be well crafted by our creative mind. Demonology is a very old
discipline which developed itself out of theology. Existence of demons only a fact that God
Exists.

Demonology is unfortunately a borderline science. This essentially means that modern

science will never accept any explanation that involves non-material or spiritual forms of
evidence. Officially any crime that involves demonic possession may be qualified as insanity.
Psychiatrist are those who at a request of the Court make a diagnosis (analysis) and
prognosis (prediction) about a person’s sanity or insanity.

Modern science tends to rationally and materially explains connections of crime and
demonic possessions. Main reasons are lawmaker request for a legal form of evidence.
Evidence can be statements of witnesses, victims, or perpetrators. Those statements get their
form of evidence in courts records and usually are backed by consistencies with material and
circumstantial evidence or facts as well as with high credibility of persons who gave those
statements.

Criminology as a science looks out on these matters from a cultural and legal
perspective. The legal perspective includes forensic psychiatry and psychology, while the
cultural perspective includes systems of values of some ethnic group of nation.

For an example, there are still some ritual practices among the tribes of the African
continent that allow throwing of the first-born male children to the pigs. Looking on it from our
perspective, this is naturally a crime, but among those tribes this a tradition. System of values
are also different in organization like Cosa Nostra, narcotic cartels or other criminal
organizations. While some behaviors are desirable in the kind of organization, they are banned
or marked red by a normal society.

According to some theorist, the first school of criminology was the

demonological school of criminology.

Criminology as a science was established at second half of the 19 th century.

“People commit crimes under demonic or evil influences”.

2. POSITIVIST THEORY

Theories which existed before positivist theory of Criminology were

Phrenology and Physiognomy theories.

Johan Kaspar Lavater, the physiognomist, thought that

the shape of the skull and some facial features had an
impact on a human behavior and action.

10
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

Later, positivist theorist of crime Casare

Lombroso took Lavater ideas and began exploring
other physical traits of a body.

Lombroso, the criminal anthropologist, not only research the farcical features and the
shape of the skull, but social conditions of individuals like unemployment and medical history
of illness.

He compared large number of criminals and non-criminals using human physical traits
like: ear, size, hair length and other.

Goring, the main critics of Lombroso, conducted the research on crime heredity, but
didn’t find any differences in facial features or other human physical traits between prison
inmates, asylum inhabitants and non-criminals.

The only physical difference Goring found between an experimental and control group
was the significant dissimilarity in body weight and stature.

The criminals in Goring’s research tend to have the lower weight and small stature.
Positivists theories of crime argued that human behavior is pre-disposed and fully determined
by individual differences and biological traits.

In shorts, terms, what drives people towards crime is not a matter of free-will. The
positivist crime theories and criminal anthropologist Cesare Lombroso made attempts to
scientifically prove his thesis that criminal offenders were physically different from non-
offenders. Lombroso stated that atavistic features are more akin (similar) to savages
(barbarians) and criminal offenders.

11
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

Positivist theory of Crime presumed that scientific study of criminal behavior should find
the “causes” of such behavior. They also believed that the causes of crime are beyond the
control of the individual. Explanations of positivist theory were deterministic.

Lombroso was influences by Darwinian principles of evolution and used these ideas to
support a thesis on inferiority of criminals. Positivist theory of crime implemented the idea of
social Darwinism that individuals or group develop certain physical and psychological
attributes, which allow them to function more efficiently in the social and natural environment.

We can object to positivist theories of crime that the theories never accepted the idea
about the equality of gender roles. Lombroso thought that males were lenient to a crime
because they were more masculine that females in general.

This theory acts on the proposition that one who commits a crime cannot morally
comprehend the wrongfulness of his actions in the same way individuals of average
intelligence or who are socially accepted, etc. are able to do so.

The mind of these individuals has been affected in a particular way and therefore does
not have the capability to make a conscious, rational choice to obey the law. Unfortunately, a
case can be made based on this theory regarding shootings on school campuses where
students have murdered fellow students usually because of some type of bullying involved.

In the early 1800’s, public execution used to be commonplace. The ideas was that
society would be afraid of the public punishment that came with wrongdoing and adjust their
actions. This reasoning for punishment aligns with a view known as Utilitarianism.

Utilitarianism is a theory that one is motivated by pleasure and the fear of

pain, so punishment ca be used as a deterrent to commit crimes.

Positivist Criminology began to emerge, which is the study of criminal

behavior based upon external factors.

3. NEOCLASSICAL CRIME THEORY

(New- English Lang./ Neo-French Lang.)

Classical Crime theory is represented by the theoretical study of Jeremy

Bentham and Cesare Beccaria.

Jeremy Bentham was the Founder of English

Utilitarianism. Bentham thought that human
beings are hedonistic and act only in their
own self-interest.

Utilitarianism also considered rational courses of

action when people pursue their own interest.

12
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

Utilitarian teaching are an important part of

criminal-justice ethics today.

Neo-classical crime theory is a continuation of classical crime theory tradition.

Development of neo-classical theory will continue in 1980 with a forming of new
sociological theories, i.e. differential association and identification.

Although sources that mention neoclassical school and crime theory of criminology are
merely sparse, it main contribution to the field of criminology is reflected through the
understanding of individual differences of the perpetrators. While classical school was wholly
concern with an explanation of crime, neoclassical crime theory saw some flaws in Beccaria’s
theory of crime.

Classical crime theory completely concentrated on the criminal act and positivist crime
theory concentrated on the perpetrator. Positivist was obsesses with behavioral prediction and
classist with a crime explanation.

Neoclassical crime theory sought to improve the stances towards perpetrators who
should have an impact on the level of guilt and severity of punishment.

Not all perpetrators should be treated in the same fashion, because the evident
differences exist among them. Crime is a result of many conditions that have ultimately
influenced on the perpetrators to commit. It. Representative of the neoclassical criminology
theory, Gabriel Tarde published the book “Penal Philosophy” in 1980.

Gabriel Tarde was a French sociologist and

founder of Neoclassical School of
Criminology.

In this book Tarde criticizes classical and

positivist criminology and takes the
best from both criminology.

Neoclassical criminology theory considers age, gender and social class of the
perpetrators. The perpetrators are people who think, feel, act and criminal behavior is learned
within groups by imitation and identification.

4. CLASSICAL THEORY

Classical theory in Criminology has its roots in the theories of the 18th century Italian
nobleman and economist, Cesare Beccaria and the English philosopher, Jeremy Bentham.

This was the time in history when punishment for crime was severe in the extreme, and
both men proffered the theory of utility. New theorist like Beccaria and Bentham looked at the
causes of criminal and delinquent behavior, and began to scientifically explain such deviance.

13
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

They rejected and theories of naturalism and demonology which characterized the
European Enlightenment as explanations for these types of behavior. The new theories
reflected the rationalism and humanitarianism of the philosophy of the Age of Enlightenment.

Beccaria did not develop a completely new theory

of criminology, but rather sought a way to make punishment
for committing a crime more rational.

He believed that there should be a hierarchy of

punishment for more and more serious crimes and the
number of times a criminal had been charged previously,
the circumstances under the death penalty was imposed
would depend entirely on the severity of the crime and
not the actual act committed or the degree of involvement
in the act. He was against judges having the broad discretion they possessed and
favored definite punishment fitting each crime.

He published a book, An Essay on Crimes and

Punishment in 1764 discussing why crime occurs
and what society should do about it. He advocated a
proposition that punishment should be swift, certain,
and proportional to the crime. He also advocated the
abolition of both corporal and capital punishment, a
revolutionary idea in his time. His work was promoted
by Bentham, particularly in his book and Introduction to
the Principles of Morals and Legislation.

Beccaria and Bentham believed that people

committed crimes when they believe that the chance of
rewards to them would be greater than likelihood of
punishment.

It was pain/pleasure view of human behavior; that human sought to gain pain. These
men believed the people acted on the principle of free-will; they made a choice of what
behavior to indulge in and therefore, should suffer the consequences if caught in criminal acts.

Classical theory of crime explains that crime is a product of believes that benefits of
committing crimes are far greater. People opt in decisions making between two scenarios A
and B. A scenario is: a crime isn’t profitable cause you will be get caught” and B scenario
presents certainty in decision making “that you will never get caught”. Most of the criminal
think they’ll never get caught.

14
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

MAIN PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY WERE:

1. Crime is a rational choice, and most people are capable to commit crimes.

2. People will commit a crime after they have compared potential cost and benefits of
such actions.

3. Most of the people fear punishment, and the certainty, severity and speed
punishment will have an impact on the level of crime.

4. Punishment needs to fit a crime and individual differences of perpetrators shouldn’t

have an influence on the punishment.

5. The criminal justice system needs to be predictable, while laws and punishment
must be known to public.

Proportionality in Criminology means that crime must fit a crime. The first model of
proportionality in applying punishments was Lex Taliones or law of retaliation. Crime is a
behavioral human characteristic and a choice.

Similar to the choice theory, this theory suggests that when one commits a crime, it is
because the individual decided that it was advantageous to commit the crime. The individual
commits the crime from his own free will being well aware of punishment.

5. CONFLICT THEORY

Conflict theory hold that crime results from the conflicts in society among the different
social classes and those laws actually arise from necessity as a result of conflict rather than a
general consensus.

The fundamental cause of crime are the social and economic forces operating within
society.

The criminal justice system and criminal law are thought to be operating on behalf of
rich and powerful social elites, with resulting policies aimed at controlling the poor.

Conflict theory is a theory propounded by Karl Marx that claims society is in a state of
perpetual conflict due to competition for limited resources.

It holds that social order is maintained by domination and power, rather than
consensus and conformity. According to conflict theory, those with wealth and power try to
hold on to it by any means possible, chiefly by suppressing the poor and powerless.

15
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

Karl Marx

MARX’S CONFLICT THEORY FOCUSED ON 2 PRIMARY CLASSES

1. BOURGEOISIE
Represent members of society who hold majority of the wealth and means.

2. PROLETARIAT
Includes those considered working class or poor.

It is theorized that the bourgeoisie, a minority within the population, would use
their influence to oppress the proletariat, the majority class. Marx further believe that as
the working class and poor were subjected to worsening conditions, a collective
consciousness would bring the inequality to light and potentially result in revolt.

FOUR PRIMARY ASSUMPTIONS OF MODERN CONFLICT THEORY

1. Competition
Competition over scarce resources (money, leisure, sexual partners, and so
on) is at the heart of all social relationships. Competition rather than consensus is
characteristic of human relationships.

2. Structural Inequality
Inequalities in power and reward are built into all social structures. Individuals
and groups that benefit from any particular structure strive to see it maintained.

3. Revolution
Change occurs as a result of conflict between social class competing interest
rather than through adaptation. It is often abrupt and revolutionary rather than
evolutionary.
16
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

4. War
Even war is unifier of the societies involved, as well as war may set and end to
whole societies.

6. CRITICAL THEORY

It upholds the belief that a small few, the elite of the

society, decide laws and the definition of crime, those who
commit crime disagree with the laws that were created to
keep control on them.

Critical criminology sees crime as a product of

oppression of workers and less advantaged groups within
the society, such as women and ethnic minorities are
seen to be the most likely to suffer oppressive social relations
based upon class division, sexism and racism.

More simply, critical criminology may be defined as any criminological topic area that
takes into account the contextual factors of crime or critiques topics covered in mainstream
criminology.

The Core concepts of Critical theory are as follows:

1. That critical social theory should be directed at the totality of society in its historical
specificity;

2. That critical theory should improve understanding of society by integrating all the
major social sciences, including geography, economics, sociology, history, political
science, anthropology, and psychology.

Critical theory as it is known today can be traced to Marx’s critique of economy and
society put forth in his many works. It is inspired greatly by Marx theoretical formulation of the
relationship between economic base and ideological superstructure, and tends to focus on
how power and domination operate in particular, in the realm of the superstructure.

A Critical theory as it is known today can be traced to Marx critique of economy and
society put forth in his many works. It is inspired greatly by Marx theoretical formulation of the
relationship between economic based and ideological superstructure, and tends to focus on
how proper and domination operate, in particular, in the realm of the superstructure.

A critical theory that has a distinctive aim: to unmask the ideology falsely justifying
some form of social or economic oppression to reveal it as ideology and, in so doing to
contribute to the task of ending that oppression.

Critical theory aims to provide a kind of enlightenment about social and economic life
that is itself emancipator; persons come to recognize the oppression they are suffering as
oppression and thereby partly freed from it.

17
 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

REFERENCES

Theories and Causes of Crime by Tancangco Philippine Copyright 2018 Wiseman

Books Trading, Inc.

Theories of Crime Causation by Jonah S. Badua Philippine Copyright 2019 Wiseman

Books Trading, Inc.

Theories of Crime Causation by Shirley S. Domingo Philippine Copyright 2020

Wiseman Books Trading, Inc

18