Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis

By

Bonpah M. Saye, FRC

College of Engineering

Electrical Engineering Department

Fendall Campus

University of Liberia

Tel: 0886-536-494/0777-825-903

E-mail: [email protected]
This book is a result of my twenty-eight years of teaching at the University of Liberia. The
objective of this book is to prepare students to become internationally eligible to do
degree courses in Communication Engineering, Computer Engineering, Electrical
Engineering and Electronic Engineering.
The presentation of the topics covered in this book is based on the traditional method
and ten laboratory experiments.
The following topics are comprehensively covered in this book:
1. Electrical Sources
2. Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws
3. Electric Circuits
4. Network Theorems
5. Electrostatics
6. Electromagnetism
7. Complex Numbers
8. AC Circuits
9. Capacitance and Inductance
10. Transient Circuits
11. Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
12. Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
13. Impulse and Step Functions
14. Laplace Transforms in Circuit Analysis
15. Fourier Series in Circuit Analysis
16. Frequency-Selective Circuits
17. Two-Port Circuits
 Electrical Sources
Electricity is a convenient form of energy that can be transformed from one form
to another. The quantity of electricity crossing any point in a medium is called an
electrical charge, its electrical symbol is Q and unit is the coulomb ©.
The movement of free electrons in a medium is called an electric current, its
electrical symbol is I and unit is the ampere (A). The number of free electrons
crossing any given point in a conductor is given by: n=1/e=1/1.6x10-19=6.25x1018
electrons/second, where e is a charge on each electron. Electrical charge is given
by: Q=It, where t is the time taken for a free electron to move from one point to
another.
The opposition offered by a material to the flow of electrical current is called the
electrical resistance of that material, its electrical symbol is R, unit is the ohm (Ω)
and its circuit symbol is shown below:
The measure of how well a material conducts electricity is called the electrical
conductance of that material, its electrical symbol is G and unit is the siemens (S).
G=1/R (S). The energy required to move the free electrons in a conductor is
called the voltage, its symbol is V and unit is the volts (V).
All electrical devices are designed to convert electrical energy to other forms of
energy. A device that is capable of converting nonelectrical energy into electrical
energy and vice versa, is called an electrical source. The most familiar example is
a battery. When the battery is discharging, it converts chemical energy into
electrical energy, and when it is being recharged, it converts chemical energy into
electrical energy. The most important thing to remember about all electrical
sources is that in any given situation they are either delivering or consuming
electrical power.
Sources, resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc. are called circuit elements.
There are two types of electrical sources:
1. Ideal sources
2. Real sources
These two are subdivided into current and voltage sources, and they may be
dependent or independent.
The ideal Current Source:
An ideal current source is a circuit element that maintains a constant current
in its terminal regardless of the voltage drop across it. The circuit symbol of an
ideal current source is shown below:
The arrow indicates the direction of current flow.
The Real Current Source:
A real current source has an internal resistance, so the current in it depends
on the internal resistance and the voltage drop across its terminals. The circuit
symbol of a real current source is shown below:
Points A and B are connection points.
The Ideal Voltage Source:
An ideal voltage source is a circuit element that maintains a constant voltage
across its terminals regardless of the current through it. The circuit symbol of
an ideal voltage source is shown below:
 The plus and minus signs define the reference direction or voltage polarity.
The Real Voltage Source:
A real voltage source has an internal resistance, so the voltage drop across its
terminals depends on the internal resistance and the current through it. The
circuit symbol of a real voltage source is shown below:
Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws
The interconnection of sources and other circuit elements used to convert
electrical energy into other forms of energy is called an electric circuit. Current
and voltage are the basic variables in the study of electric circuits, others are
electrical power, electrical energy and electrical resistance.
The relationship between the current and the voltage in a circuit was
discovered by Georg Simon Ohm in 1847 and it is referred to as Ohm’s law.
The process of finding this relationship in a circuit is called circuit analysis. In
this process there are two important components, designing and problem
solving. In problem solving, we must know our destination before selecting the
route to get there by applying circuit laws and theorems. In the analysis of
electrical circuits, we always start our route at the point in a circuit where there
are more data provided by the problem. We move around circuits in the clock-
wise direction and any current or voltage that moves opposite to our direction
of movement, is considered to be negative.
In designing, we must develop the ability to translate written problems into
circuit diagrams for analysis.
Ohm’s Law:
In any electrical circuit, the voltage drop across any circuit element is equal to
the product of the current flowing in that circuit element and the resistance of
that circuit element.
From the circuit diagram, we have: V=IR (V), I=V/R (A) and R=V/I (Ω).
Example: A 20-Ω resistor is connected across a 100-V dc source. Calculate
the current in the circuit.
Solution:
The first step in finding the solution is translate the written problem into
a circuit diagram as shown below:
The second step is to collect the data supplied by the problem, starting
with the source. The third step is to apply circuit law and theorems to
the circuit in order to calculate the variable of interest.

Applying Ohm’s law, we have V=IR, therefore I=V/R=100/20=5A.

The last step is to verify the solution.
Electrical Energy and Power:
Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is converted to other forms
of energy. Whenever current flows in a circuit, electrical power is dissipated, and
the amount of power dissipated depends on the current, resistance and the
voltage in a circuit. From Ohm’s law, we know that V=IR and I=V/R, and from the
definition of electrical power, we have P=VI (W).
P=VI=IRI
P=I2R
P=V.V/R
P=V2/R
From these expressions we can clearly see that electrical power is not a linear
quantity.
Electrical Energy:
From the definition of electrical power, we have: W=Pt (J).
W=Pt=VIT=VQ=I2Rt=tV2/R (J).
Example: A 12=V flash light has an internal resistance of 200Ω. The flash light is
switched on for eight seconds, Calculate the energy dissipated by the flash light.
Kirchhoff’s Laws:
The interconnection of sources and other circuit elements imposes some
constraints on the relationship between the current and the voltage in a circuit.
These constraints were discovered by Gustav Kirchhoff and are referred as
Kirchhoff’s laws. The two laws discovered by Kirchhoff are:
1. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
A node is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are connected
together. An essential node is a junction in a circuit where three or more circuit
elements are connected together and a reference node is a junction in a circuit
where more circuit elements are connected together.
Whenever a line connects two nodes together, the two constitute one node.
Let’s consider the circuit diagrams below:

Point A is a node where R1 and R2 are connected together.

Point B is an essential node where R1, R2, and R3 are connected together.

Point D is a reference node where R2, R3, R4 and ground are connected together.

Line AC connects nodes A and C together, and line BD connects nodes B and D
together therefore the circuit has only two essential nodes.

KCL:
The sum of the currents coming to any node equals the sum of the currents
leaving node. In other words, the algebra sum of all currents directed away from
any node is zero.
Let’s consider the circuit diagrams below:
 Applying KCL at node A, we have: I1=I2+I3 and I1+I2+I3=0.

At node B:

I1+I2+I3=0

Example: Apply KCL to the circuit below:

At node A:

I1+I3=I+I2.

When current flows from the positive terminal of a battery to the negative, then we
have a voltage drop and from negative to positive voltage rise.
Let’s consider the circuit below:

The voltage drop between A and B is VAB and means that point A is more positive
with respect to point B.

VAB = -VBA.

KVL:
In any closed circuit the applied voltage equals the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops
in that circuit.
Let’s consider the circuits below:

Applying KVL to the circuit, we have: V=V1+V2+V3

V1+V2+V3=0.

Example: Use KVL to find expressions for the voltage drop between nodes A and B in
the circuit below:

R1 A R3

V R2 R4

NOTE: We can use Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws to analyze and solve circuits in which at
least two of the five circuit variables are known.
 Electric Circuits
There are two basic ways in which we can connect sources and other circuit elements
together to form an electric circuit:
1. Series connection is a circuit in which the total current has only one path to travel.
2. Parallel connection is a circuit in which the total current has more than one path
to travel.
However, the two basic connections can be combined to form other connections:
(a) Series-parallel circuits;
(b) Parallel-series circuits.

Series Circuits:
Two or more circuit elements are connected together in series if they share the same
single node.
Let’s consider the circuit below:

R1

V R2

Laws of series circuits:

The laws of series circuits are used to analyze and solve series circuit problems and
verify their solutions.
1. The total current is the same throughout the circuit;
2. The applied voltage equals the sum of the voltage drops;
3. The total resistance is the sum of all the resistances in the circuit;
4. The total resistance is always larger than any one of the resistances;
5. The total power dissipated equals the total power supplied.

NOTE: Series circuits are used to increase total resistance, decrease total current and
to divide voltage between two or more resistors.
Example: Prove the laws of series circuits by analyzing and solving the circuit below:
 10Ω

200V 30Ω

60Ω

Current Sources in series:

Since the total current in a series is the same throughout, current sources of different
values must never be connected together in series.

Current source in series with a resistor:

Since the total current in a series circuit is the same throughout, any resistor connected
in series with a current source has no effect on the current, therefore it can be ignored
when analyzing or solving the circuit.

Voltage sources in series:

Two or more voltage sources of different values can be connected together in series in
order to increase or decrease the total current or the total voltage.
Let’s consider the circuits below:

R1

V1 V2

R2

The voltage divider circuit:

This circuit is used to divide voltage between two or more resistors.
Let’s consider the circuit below:

R1

V R2
Example: A 500-W voltage source is applied to a voltage divider circuit consisting of a
15-Ω resistor and an unknown resistor. Calculate the power dissipated in the unknown
resistor if 25% of the supply voltage drops across it.

Parallel circuits:
Two or more circuit elements are connected together in parallel if they share the same
two nodes.
Let’s consider the circuit below:

V R1 R2

When three or more resistors are connected together in parallel, we have:

To obtain the total resistance of any circuit, replace all current sources by open circuits
and all voltage sources by short circuits.

Laws of parallel circuits:

The laws of parallel circuits are used to analyze and solve parallel circuit problems.
1. The total voltage is the same across every circuit element;
2. The total current equals the algebraic sum of all the currents;
3. The total resistance equals the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the
resistances;
4. The total resistance is always less than the least of all the resistances;
5. The total power dissipated equals the total power supplied.
NOTE: Parallel circuits are used to reduce total resistance, increase total current and to
divide current between two or more resistors.

Current sources in parallel:

When two or more current sources of different values are connected together in parallel,
the total current equals the algebraic sum of the individual currents.
Let’s consider the circuit below:
 A

R1 I2 R2
I1

Voltage sources in parallel:

When two or more voltage sources of different values are connected together in parallel,
the total current equals the algebraic sum of the individual currents.
Let’s consider the circuit below:

R1 A R3

R2

V1 V2 V3

Voltage source in parallel with a resistor:

Since the applied voltage is the same across each circuit element, any resistor
connected in parallel with a voltage source has no effect on the voltage, therefore it can
be ignored in the analysis and solution of the circuit.

Series-parallel circuits:
The combination of a series circuit and a parallel circuit is called a series-parallel circuit.
Let’s consider the circuit below:

R1 A

V R2 R3

B
Example: Calculate the value of R1 in the circuit below if 51.2 W is dissipated in the 5-Ω
resistor.

R1
A

80V 20Ω 5Ω

Parallel-series circuits:
The series combination of two or more parallel circuits is called a parallel-series circuit.
Let’s consider the circuit below:

R1

A B

C
V R2
R3 R4
D

Example: Use Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws to calculate the value of the supply voltage in
the circuit below if the 1A is supplied by the voltage source, 200 mW dissipated in R6, at
100 mA and 200 mA in R3 .

8Ω 13Ω
B D

10Ω 15Ω R5 R6
V

C
 Network Theorems
Network theorems are used to transform and simplify the analysis of electrical circuits.
When the basic circuit elements are interconnected to form an electric circuit, the
resulting interconnection can be described in terms of:

1. Essential nodes:
2. Path: A trace of adjoining basic circuit element with no element included more
than once;
3. Loop: A closed path whose last node is the same as the starting node;
4. Mesh: A special loop that contains no other loops within it;
5. Branch: A path that connects two essential nodes together.

Let’s consider the circuit below:

R1 R3
A

V1 R2 V2

From the circuit diagram, we have: n=2 b=3 L=3 m=2.

Circuit Equations:
We are interested in the number of branches, essential nodes, and meshes because they
give the exact number of simultaneous equations required to solve any given circuit.
The number of unknown currents in any given circuit equals the number of branches in
which the currents are unknown. If b= the number of branches and n= the number of
essential nodes of a given circuit, then we need b equations to solve that circuit. We can
obtain (n-1) of these equations by applying KCL at every essential node, except the
reference node, and the remaining b-(n-1) equations by applying KVL to the meshes of
the given circuit.
In any circuit containing essential nodes, branches and meshes, we have:

b=m+(n-1)

KCL=(n-1)

KVL=b-(n-1)
These equations are used to analyze and solve any given circuit, but the ability to
identify the exact number of essential nodes, branches and meshes of any given circuit
must be developed.

Source transformations:
Source transformation allows us to replace a voltage source in series with a resistor by a
current source in parallel with the same resistor, and vice versa. From this statement, we
can clearly see that source transformation is a bi-lateral relationship, therefore we have:

I=V/R and V=IR.

The branch-current method:

This method is used to calculate the values of the unknown currents in the branches that
make up the given circuit, it is based on the actual currents in a circuit.
To use this method to analyze and solve a given circuit, follow the procedure below:
1. Label out all the branch currents and their direction of flow;
2. Determine the number simultaneous equations required to solve the given circuit;
3. Apply KCL at the (n-1) essential nodes and KVL to every mesh of the given circuit;
4. Solve the equations for the branch currents.

NOTE: Always use Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws to verify the solutions.

Example: Use the branch current-method to calculate the power dissipate in the 19-Ω
resistor in the circuit below:

4Ω 3Ω
A

130V 19Ω 120V

The node-voltage method:

This method is used to analyze and solve a given circuit in terms of the (n-1) current
equations, and is based on the second statement of Kirchhoff’s current law.
A node voltage is a voltage rise from the reference node to a nonreference node.
A node-voltage equation is derived by writing the current leaving each branch connected
to a nonreference node as a function of the node voltages and summing these to zero in
accordance with the second statement of KCL.
In writing the node-voltage equations, any current coming to a node being considered is
a negative current.

NVE=KCL=(n-1)
To use this method to analyze and solve a given circuit, follow the procedures below:
1. Identify the number of essential nodes;
2. Select one of these nodes to be the reference node;
3. Label out the node voltages;
4. Derive the node-voltage equations by applying KCL at every essential node,
except the reference node;
5. Solve the equations for the node voltages.

NOTE: Always use Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws to verify the solutions.
Derive the node-voltage equations for the following circuits:
Example: Use the node-voltage method to calculate the power dissipated in the 19-Ω
resistor in the circuit below:

4Ω 3Ω
A

130V 19Ω 120V

The mesh-current method:

This method is used to analyze and solve a given circuit in terms of the b-(n-1) voltage
equations, it is a systematic substitution of the (n-1) current equations into the b-(n-1)
voltage equations.
To use this method to analyze and solve a given circuit, follow the procedure below:
1. Identify the number of meshes of the given circuit;
2. Assign the direction of current flow in each mesh;
3. Apply KVL to the meshes of the circuit;
4. Substitute the (n-1) current equations into the b-(n-1) voltage equations;
5. Solve the equations for the mesh currents.

NOTE: Always use Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws to verify the solutions.
Write the mesh-current equations for the following circuits:
Example: Use the mesh current method to calculate the power dissipated in the 19-Ω
resistor in the circuit below:

4Ω 3Ω
A

130V 19Ω 120V

Thevenin’s Theorem:
This theorem is used to calculate the current, power and voltage drop in any part of a
given linear circuit.
Any linear circuit containing two or more voltage sources can be replaced by a single
voltage source in series with a single resistor. This single voltage source is an open-
circuit voltage and is called the Thevenin’s voltage, VTh and the single series resistor is
called the Thevenin’s resistance, RTh and is calculated by replacing all voltage sources
by short circuits.

Example: Use Thevenin’s theorem to calculate the power dissipated in the 19-Ω
resistor in the circuit below:

4Ω 3Ω
A

130V 19Ω 120V

Norton’s Theorem:
Any linear circuit containing two or more current sources can be replaced by a single
current source in parallel with a single resistor. This single current source is a short
circuit current and is called the Norton’s current, IN. The single parallel resistor is called
the Norton’s resistance and is calculated by replacing all current sources by open-
circuits.
Example: Use the Norton’s theorem to calculate the power dissipated in the 19-Ω
resistor in the circuit below:

4Ω 3Ω
A

130V 19Ω 120V

The superposition Theorem:

Whenever a linear circuit is excited by two or more energy sources, the total response
equals the algebraic sum of the individual responses. When any one of the sources is
acting, the others are considered to be inactive. It is very important to remember that this
theorem is not valid for electrical power calculations because electrical power is not a
linear quantity.

Example: Use the superposition theorem to calculate the power dissipated in the 19-Ω
resistor in the circuit below:

4Ω 3Ω
A

130V 19Ω 120V

Millman’s Theorem:
This theorem is a combination of Norton’s and Thevenin’s theorems, and it is used to
reduce any number of sources in parallel to a single source.
Let’s consider the circuit below:
 R1 A R3

R2

V1 V2 V3

Maximum power transfer:

In circuit analysis maximum power is transferred to a load when the resistance of the
load equals the Thevenin’s resistance of the circuit.