Ability Enhancement Compulsory Course

1st Semester
Environmental Studies
Notes
 Unit 1

Environment
Derived from the French word ‘environner’, meaning surrounding or
external conditions or encircle.
Defined as surrounding conditions (physical, biological, social, cultural,
geographical etc.) that affect life, nature, behaviour, growth and development
of all living organisms.
The environment is affected by all physical and biological surroundings and
interactions.

Types
● Natural
○ All the things nature made for us
○ Grassland, forests, rivers, etc
● Artificial/man-made
○ Human-made
○ Gardens, aquariums, ponds, croplands, farmlands,
○ Both types influence daily lives

Scope of Environment Studies

Study of components, ethics, concepts, and problems associated with
pollution natural resources depletion, population explosion and other
environmental problems
For finding practical solutions leading to effective management practices,
protection and people participation at all levels

Multidisciplinary Nature
The multidisciplinary nature of environmental science is the study of the
interaction between the physical, chemical and biological components of
human surroundings.
● Mathematics, Computer science -Modelling, effective tool in
environment modelling and management
● Life science (biology, botany, zoology, microbiology, marine biology) -
Basic and applied, helps us understand the abiotic components
● Physical Science (Physics, chemistry, geology, meteorology, and
astronomy) - Basic and applied, help understand the physical and
chemical structure of abiotic components and energy transfer and flow
● Economics, political science, history, sociology, law, mass
communication, philosophy etc - management and awareness, provides
tools for effective management and protection of the environment.
● Information Technology, nanotech, civil engineering etc - Technology,
form the basis for various technology dealing with the control of
pollution, waste treatment and development of cleaner technology.

Importance of environmental studies

Helps maintain ecology balance by providing basic operating knowledge of
environmental systems and processes
Gives information regarding changes that take place due to anthropogenic
factors and help gain skills in analysing various environmental systems and
the effect of human activities on them
Help achieve sustainable development and understand the relationship
between development and the environment
Discipline to help educate people towards their duty of environmental
protection
Global in nature
Deals with the analysis of processes of air, land, soil, and organisms that lead
to pollution and environmental degradation
Deals with the most important issues like safe and clean drinking water,
living conditions, clean and fresh air, and healthy food for man and
development.
Discipline provides basic knowledge of the environment and various issues
and examines the scientific basis for environmental and social concerns about
our present energy need, global climate changes, toxic emission and waste
disposal.
Provides knowledge about the development and utilization of energy
resources and the role of public policy
Protect bio-diversity growth on human population and resulting increase in
consumption and technology development and scale of degradation
Concepts applied to the study of agriculture and the design of sustainable
production systems
Pollution laws strengthen, different ways to dispose of produced waste

Importance of Environment
Obtaining products from nature, production value
Aesthetic/recreational value
Option value - All the various options from all various possibilities we can
gain from natural products. Drugs medicine food and ingredients,
sweeteners

Components of Environmental Studies

Physical/Abiotic
● Climate factors; light temperature, rainfall, humidity, atmosphere
● Topographic factors; sea level, the slope of hills, direction from
mountains, exposure to sunlight, distance from sea and equator
● Edaphic/soil factors; fertility, colour, quality, organic matter etc.
Biological/ biotic
● Vegetation, animals, micro-organisms(fungi, bacteria etc)
Social
● Population, urbanisation, industrialization, social changes and systems,
etc
Cultural
● Politics, economics, moral values, religion etc

Segments of the Environment

Atmosphere
● A protective blanket of gases surrounds the earth
● Sustains life
● Saves us from the hostile environment of outer space
● Absorbs most of the cosmic rays from space and a major portion of
electromagnetic radiation from the sun
● Transmits on UV, visible, near Infrared radiation and radio waves,
while filtering out tissue-damaging UV rays
 ● Composed of Nitrogen, oxygen, argon, Carbon dioxide and trace gases

Hydrosphere
● All the water resources, oceans, lakes, seas, rivers, streams, reservoirs,
polar icecaps, glaciers, groundwater
● Nature’s 97% water supply is in oceans
● About 2% of the resource locked in polar ice caps and glaciers
● About 1% is readily available freshwater - rivers, lakes, streams,
groundwater and fit for human consumption and use.

Lithosphere
● Outer mantle of solid warth
● Consists of minerals occurring in the earth’s crust and in the soil
● Minerals, organic matter, soil

Biosphere
● Realm of a living organism and their interactions with the
environment viz. Atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere

Environment
● Physical component
○ Land
■ Geology
○ Air
■ Climatology
○ Water
● Biological component
 ○ Plants
■ Botany
○ Animals
■ Zoology
● Sociology
○ Man and his functions
■ Education
■ Economics
■ Law
■ Management

The objective of environmental studies

Create awareness about environmental problems
Give basic knowledge about the environment and related problems
Develop an attitude of concern about environmental problems
Motivate students to participate in environmental protection and
improvement
Acquire skills in identifying and solving environmental problems

Scope of environmental studies

Wide scope
● Natural resources conservation and management
● Ecology and biodiversity
● Environmental pollution and control
● Human population and environment
● Social issues in relation to development and the environment
Need for public awareness
Growing population
Poverty
Environment degradation
Agricultural growth
Need to increase groundwater
Development and forests
Degradation of land
Evil consequences of urbanisation
Air and water pollution

Sustainable Development
To make the world a better place now without destroying the possibilities for
the next generation
If something is sustainable, we can do it over and over again
Social progress, economic development, and climate and environment
Climate and environment
● Have to take care of the planet, and natural ecosystems that must be in
balance to live here
● Climate systems ensure the temperature is correct and that the
atmosphere emits the right amount of solar energy
● Emitting harmful greenhouse gasses like CO2, we clog the atmosphere
which changes the temperature and affects our development
● How we use and produce energy is important, Oil and coal are
examples of energy we might run out of.
● Water, wind and sun will always be here
 ● Using lasting resources with benefit the planet and provide us with jobs
for years
Economic Development
● Everything we buy, develop and trade starts with nature
● The smarter we use resources and better systems for fair distribution,
the more sustainable we are
● One way to contribute is to be aware of what we buy, and how it was
produced
Social Progress
● Humans are a part of nature but also important resources for the
world. We have minds that create the strangest and most creative thing
● For us to be the best versions of ourselves, things have to be in order
○ Equal opportunity to education
○ Safety
○ Clean food and water
○ Healthcare and medication
● Provides greater opportunities for us as humans but also for the planet
If we have to win the battle for a sustainable future, we have to fight with fair
rules that apply to everyone. All the countries in the UN have agreed on a
joint plan for sustainable development but they all need to cooperate.
All three factors must work together for sustainable development

Sustainable development emerged in the late 1980s as a response to the

world’s growing social and environmental problems
With globalisation, the inequality gap between rich and poor countries
widening every day, and the projection for population growth reaching an
alarming 9 billion in 2050.
Sustainable development was defined in 1987 for the Rio Earth Summit
Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their needs.
Growth must be accomplished with respect to nature and humankind.
Sustainable development can be achieved with social responsibility,
environmental protection and economic growth.

Companies can be sustainable

● Sustainable production of products adds value
● Upgrading production tools to use less energy and water is good for the
environment and finance
● Offering ecological designed products and packaging to what is
necessary saves material and reduces shipping costs
● Improving the quality of life at work helps to strengthen skills which
serve to strengthen their engagement which leads to better overall
performances.
● Creating products accessible to the world’s poorest demographic
means new markers. The poorest are going to grow the fastest between
the present and 2050.
● Monitoring the working condition offered by the suppliers, and
subcontractor means reducing risks that could damage the company's
image.
● Companies that use social, environmental, and ecological have
sustainable success.
 Unit 2

Ecosystems
Communities of interconnected plants and animals and their surrounding
Can be as large as Yellowstone or as small as a tree
Everything is connected through a network of interactions which allow
energy and nutrients to flow through the system

Defining an ecosystem
Based on the types of plants and animals found there
2 main types
● Terrestrial are lands based, including forests, grasslands and habitats
● Aquatic is water-based, including habitats like lakes, rivers, estuaries,
and oceans
Both can occur in different climate and includes a wide variety of organism
depending on factors like temperature, precipitation and geography

Importance
A healthy ecosystem ensures that a wide variety of plants and animals thrive
ad survive. This variety is known as biodiversity.
Biodivierys helps ecosystems recover from changes like wildfires, diseased and
invasive species,
When ecosystems are unbalanced, it becomes harder for the animals to find
food and shelter and for plants to get nutrients
Healthy ecosystems keep air, and water clean and provide nutritious food for
humans and animals
Studying them helps to know how to protect and keep healthy.

Biosphere
Depths of the ocean to 8 km above the earth
A complex web of interconnected ecosystems
Depends on the one-way movement of energy and the cyclic movement of
nutrients.

Energy Flows
Energy flows are the paths that energy takes through an ecosystem
Energy generally enters the ecosystem from the sun but does not return to
the sun. It is a one-way relationship.
Plants absorb energy during photosynthesis, adding CO2 and water to make
carbohydrates
The sun’s energy is converted to chemical energy and stored in the biomass
(any plants or living thing)
Biomass is eaten and passes on the energy to continue flowing
The rate photosynthesis akes energy across the entire ecosystem - rate energy
is used = Net primary production. The amount of stored chemical energy in
the ecosystem over a certain period of time.
Globally, the net primary production on land changes with latitude. It is
highest between the tropics and decreases towards higher latitudes or
altitudes.
Energy flows vary widely and limit the types of plants that can thrive. More
plants mean more diversity.
Biomes
Habitats with similar characteristics including productivity
Equators are all tropical rainforest biomes, diverse and complex areas of the
planet.
Moving away from the equator, biomes gradually shift from rainforest to
tropical savannah to desert
Further north, temperate and high altitudes, temperate/broadleaf forests
Middle of the continents, temperate grassland biomes with rich soils produce
tall grass prairies and short grass of steppe climates
North, poorer soils and colder forests have boreal forest climates
Higher, the decrease in temperature and icy tundra has no trees and very little
productivity.

Nutrients
Chemical elements like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus
are stored in both living and non-living parts of the ecosystem.
Living things like plants, animals and bacteria and dead bodies are part of
biotic. Non-living like soil, atmosphere, and groundwater is part of abiotic.
The paths that nutrients take through the ecosystem are nutrient cycles
between biotic and abiotic parts. Biotic parts of the ecosystem help facilitate
this process.
All the nutrients available are all that we will ever have
Nutrient cycling through the ecosystem depends on the geological, biological
and chemical processes operating within the atmosphere, hydrosphere and
lithosphere and make the earth’s geochemical cycles
Nutrients in Biomes
There is less productivity as we move in latitude, less biomass and nutrients.
Fewer nutrients mean that the ecosystem is structured differently.
Boreal forests have a lot of nutrient-filled litter because the cold keeps the
material from decomposing. Deciduous forests have a lot of nutrient-rich soil
because it is warm enough for decomposition but not enough for biomass to
grow.
Boreal and tropical forests have a lot of different energy availability and
nutrient stores.

Energy Flow
Primary producers - Primary consumers (herbivores) - Secondary consumers
(carnivores and omnivores) - Decomposers (dead plants and animals)

Sun - Trees/plants - Animals - Mushrooms/worms - Rain - Trees/plants

Trees/plants -(Nutrient cycles)- Mushrooms/worms

Deforestation
A lot of forest removal has caused immense damage to the ecosystem
Indigenous communities have figured out a calculated clearing that allowed
them to work with rapid nutrient recycling of tropical rainforests, farmers
rely on subsistence farming practices - which means they only grow what is
enough for their family.
Also known as swidden, slash and burn agriculture and shifting cultivation
Farmers begin by cutting small areas of the forest and the vegetation is then
dried and burned. The ash is then mixed with the poor soil to provide the
needed mineral and nutrients. They use the things in biomass to help the
crops grow.
After a few years, before the land is completely exhausted, farmers move on
to another part of the land and repeat the clearing, burning and planting
process.
The previous plot is left unplanted and the forest expands to start using the
soil for its balanced nutrient cycling.

Land Rotation
Subsistence agriculture is a key part of why humans can keep farming for the
past 1000s of years
When widespread clear cutting happens, the ecosystem can collapse. The
destruction of the amazon is an example of when crops are commercially
cultivated and sold in domestic and international markets
Soil is exhausted after 3-5 years, crops can't grow, then large cattle operations.
As cattle feed and trample, the soil is exposed to a lot of UV radiation as well
as cycles of wetting and drying from precipitation
The soil then becomes a brick-like substance, laterite, which is not great for
growing, Oce a lively rainforest hen becomes hard, barren and lifeless

Tropical rainforest covers 6% of the earth’s landmass and contains 50%of the
world’s species.
Since the 1980s, 1/5th of the amazon is deforested for towns, roads, dams,
farms and mines,
When humans disturb the biosphere, they alter how the energy flows and
nutrients cycle and it throws off the entire ecosystem.
Food Chains
A Series of organisms that eat one another resulting in a flow of energy from
one organism to another is called a food chain. Many food chains can exist in
an ecosystem.
One organism can be food for many, Interconnected food chains are called a
food web,
Sun is the driving force for all. Every food chain begins with a producer
(plants). Animals can obtain energy from both plant and animal sources.
Predators only feed on other animals and are not prey for other animals.
Such organisms are the apex consumers/predators - Consumers with few or
no predators, residing at the top of the food chain.
Each type of ecosystem has a food web that helps in the transfer of energy
and nutrients

Ecological Succession
The process by which an ecological community undergoes changes following
a disturbance or the initial colonization of a new habitat. Ex. Habitat, fiery
start from volcanoes to tropical islands
Two main types
● Primary succession occurs in new areas that have little or no soil, the
areas have been destroyed or newly formed. Over time, dirt is formed
and plants and forest/ grassland grow. The first species to colonize the
new is called the pioneer species.
● Secondary succession occurs when the existing ecosystem has been
destroyed or disturbed. More minor in magnitude compared to
primary succession.
 ○ Ex. Fire/ flood destroys the plant growth, and leaves behind
empty but not destroyed soil. 1st grass and other plants can grow
back. The small bushes/trees colonize the area, followed by
fast-growing evergreen trees. Shade-tolerant tres develop
underneath. Deciduous trees grow over them.
○ The ecosystem is similar but different from when the beginning
These disturbances are healthy for the ecosystem because over time they lead
to increased biodiversity, COntrolled burn by many park services helps to
control weed growth and reduces the risk of wildfires. It destroys the
nutrients and brings more desirable plant growth.

Forest Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystem.
All life starts in the soil where most plants get their food and water, many
animals make their home and important nutrients are recycled
It takes up to 100 years for 1 inch of soil to be formed. Soil is made up of
1000s of minute particles of organic matter and minerals.
Organic matter is small pieces of dead plants and animals broken down over
time by decomposition,
Decomposition is the process by which dead plants and animals are broken
down into the soil over time
Decomposers are organisms that consume and break down dead organic
matter. Fungi and earthworms
The process of decomposition is started by vultures and continued by
decomposers. Without them, it would be harder for nutrients to make their
way back to living organisms.
A high amount of organic matter makes the soil darker in colour meaning
higher nutrient content.

Deciduous Forests
Trees are the most abundant type of producers in the ecosystem. The trees
lose their leaves during winter.
Producers that turn sunlight, water, and CO2 into consumable
carbohydrates that provide energy for consumers that can’t make energy on
their own.
Producers are the base on which all ecosystems are built. Trees provide food
and homes for all kinds of different forest-dwelling animals.
When leaves die and fall from leaves or branches, they provide food for a
whole community of invertebrates that rely on decomposing trees for food
and shelter.
Primary consumers are the consumers that depend on producers for most of
their energy. Small birds, insects, and mammals. Important sources of prey
for all consumers on the higher level
Secondary consumers are organisms that rely on producers and other
consumers for their energy. They rely partially on consumers and producers.
They help keep the population of their prey in check while providing energy
for the top consumers.
Not all ecosystems have an apex predator but most have enough prey for 1 or
2. Tertiary consumers are at the top of the food chain with almost no natural
predators. They require a lot of energy to remain healthy and reproduce.
Among the rarest species in the natural systems.
Apex/tertiary consumers die and provide energy for other organisms as it
decomposes. They provide highly nutritious soil that fuels plant growth.
Without tertiary consumers, the populations of secondary consumers would
go out of check and overrun the ecosystem.

Healthy forests are beneficial to humans.

Timber forest provides 2 billion dollars in revenue to the US.
Forested landscapes are beautiful places to relax and enjoy nature,
Trees take in and filter toxins from the air and water.
Without forests, the planet would be hotter, drier and less biodiverse.

Desert Biome
It covers 1/5th of the earth.
Places that get very little or no rain and the soil can be sandy or made of
gravel or stone.
Deserts are both hot and cold
Animals and plants have special adaptations to survive. A famous desert
animal is a camel. It can go weeks at a time without drinking water, THis is
because they have oval-shaped blood cells that help keep water in their body.
Camels can close their nostrils to keep the dust-out. Their humps help
maintain a cooler body temperature.
Cactuses have large stems that store extra water and prickly spines to protect
them from animals.
Dust storms occur when the wind picks up and blow clouds of sand or soil.
Some animals are nocturnal to avoid the hottest parts of the day.
In warm deserts of North America, scorpions, tarantulas and rattlesnakes
hide in burrows or rocks during hr day and come out at night to search for
food. Bats are nocturnal and hide in caves.
In Australia, there are deserts in the western and central parts of the
continent. The Great Victoria Desert is Australia's largest and is home to
shrubs, grasses and eucalyptus trees which are fragrant. Animal life includes
skinks, dingoes (wild dogs), several species of large lizards called goannas,
bearded dragons, wallabies and kangaroos.
The Great Basin Desert of North America is the coldest of North American
deserts. It is mountainous and has high elevations. Sagebrush and grasses on
valet, pinyon pine and juniper trees. Home to sage grouse, kitten foxes,
kangaroo rats and horned lizards.
The Mojave desert of North America is the driest. It has Death Valley which
is the harshest climate in the world with cold temperatures at night. Joshua
trees grow here. Home to bats, birds, burrowing owls, bobcats, snakes,
lizards, cougars, coyotes, big-horned sheep and tortoises.
The Sahara desert stretches across most of North Africa. It is mostly rocky
but has areas with dunes as well as flat areas called plains. Home to foxes,
African wild dogs, and cheetahs in some parts.
The Arabian desert is the 5th largest desert in the world. Home to gazelles,
oryx, and sand cats.

Aquatic Ecosystems
It is the largest ecosystem on earth with the most area.
The environment is composed mainly of water and the biodiversity of flora
and fauna and organisms in the said environment.
Provides living spaces to species that live only in water, or water land, and sky.
Helps regulate the water cycle throughout the planet, and shape the
environment of a great number of species that otherwise would not exist.
Also acts as a filter for pollution
The richest ecosystem in the world with great biodiversity. The flora is made
up of algae and aquatic plants.
Types
● Lotic - Water in motion
● Lentic - Water is still or has very little movement
● Marine ecosystems are those with a high level of salt. The seas, and
oceans found in the areas between continents and surrounding islands
○ Represents 70% of the earth’s surface and 99% of its volume.
○ Mostly unknown but coastal areas are more populated than the
inhospitable seabed. This is because the food chain starts with
plankton but that needs sunlight to grow
● Freshwater ecosystems are water low in salt. Rivers, groundwater,
ponds, swamps and lakes.
○ The depth of flora and fauna is less than marine but is still rich.
○ Various characteristics like weather and relief determine the
characteristics of the habitat.
○ Shallow lake mountain flora is different and incompatible with
that of shallow warm water lakes in a tropical climate.
● Ideal conditions are created in each ecosystem for the species within to
flourish.
 ● Flora
○ Aquatic plants are mainly algae in fresh, brackish, and salty water
○ Water hyacinth, water lily, reeds, water lettuce, diatoms, and
dinoflagellates
● Fauna
○ Endless variety from fish to amphibians and freshwater
mammals. Some aquatic birds and reptiles spend part of their life
in water or close to it or flying around it.
○ Whales, dolphins, starfish, crayfish, seagulls, swans, frogs and
turtles
Freshwater is estimated to be 2.5% of the total water on the planet. 97.5% of
it is salt water. 1% is clean water that can be directly used and drunk by
humans.
 Unit 3

Indian Land Resources

Distribution of land for different uses such as forestry, cultivation, pastures
etc. is called land use or land cultivation.
Factors determining this:
● Relief features
● Climate
● Soil
● Population density
● Socio-economic factors
● Technical factors

Types of land use patterns

Net area sown - 42.42%
● The highest proportion is in West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala,
Punjab, and Haryana and the least in Northeast states
Forest area - 22.8%
● High in Andaman and Nicobar islands, and northeastern states and
least in Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat
Land not available for cultivation - 14.1%
● Roads, railways, canals, mountains, human settlement, and wastes
● Largely found in Assam, Manipur, Sikkim, and less in Goa, Kerala, and
Maharashtra
Fallow area - 8.2%
● The area which is not used for cultivation
 ● Found in Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu and less in Tripura and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Cultivable waste - 4.3%
● Land which is not taken up for cultivation due to certain soil
deficiency
● Found in Meghalaya, Goa, Nagaland, and Rajasthan
Permanent Pastures and other grazing lands - 3.4%
● Largely found in Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Gujurat
Land under miscellaneous use - 1.1%
● Gardens, orchards and plantations
● Found in Karnataka, and Himachal Pradesh

Land as a resource
It is an important natural resource on which all human activity is based.
Humans draw most of their subsistence as well as fuel, clothing and shelter.
Covers 29% of the earth’s surface.
A useful source of food, shelter, work, play, productivity, and economic
factor in agriculture, forestry, grazing, fishing and mining.
The foundation of social prestige and the basis of human wealth and political
power
Agricultural land contains natural fertilizer for the growth of products sown,
land also contains underground water, various material and other materials.
Land resources refer to the land available for exploitation like
non-agricultural for buildings, townships etc.

Land Use
It refers to the functions that humans apply to the land available to them
Study of land use is the study of how land is managed including how the
natural world is adapted to human needs
Types
● Recreational - human pleasure, arks, grounds, museums
● Residential - Housing
● Transport - Roads, highways
● Agriculture - farming, orchards, plantations etc.
● Commercial - Industries, factories

Soil
It is the upper layer of the earth where plants grow, animals and
microorganisms live.
It is a black or brown material consisting of a mixture of organic matter, clay,
rock particles, water and air
Soil pollution is the addition of substances that adversely affect the quality of
soil and its fertility
Soil contamination/pollution is caused by the presence of xenobiotic
chemicals or other alterations in the natural soil environment.
Sources
● Agrochemical
○ Manures
○ Fertilizers
○ Pesticides
○ Fuel spillage
● Urban
○ Electric power stations (ash, fallout)
○ Gasworks, tar, heavy metals
 ○ Transport furl, combustion, acid deposits
○ Nuclear waster disposal
● Industrial
○ Mining and smelting heavy metals
○ Metallurgical industries
○ Chemical and electronic industries
● Atmospheric
○ Windblown pollutants
○ Acid deposits
● Incidental
○ Industrial accidents
○ Warfare, explosion, poisonous agents

Land Degradation
Temporary or permanent decline in the original land quality and production
capacity of the land resulting from land use or a combination of processes
including human activities.
Loss of ecosystem affects the biophysical elements such as water, vegetation,
animals, and humans, and reduction in arable land.
Decline or complete diminution in value as an economic resource
Effects
● Food insecurity
● Higher food prices
● Climate change
● Environmental hazard
● Reduced water quality
● Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services
According to the UNCCD, land degradation is the reduction or loss of
biological or economic production resulting from land uses or from a process
or combination of processes, including human activities.
Causes
● Extreme weather conditions: Droughts, acid rains and floods
● Overgrazing of livestock
● Increased agricultural practices and livestock production
● Anthropogenic activities: Mining, dumping of oil, non-degradable
waste, and radioactive waste on soil leading to pollution or degradation
of soil quality and ecosystem
Collectively affects food production, livelihoods/incomes, dying out the
water resources and the production as well the provision of other ecosystems
goods and services.
Health hazards
● Malnutrition due to a reduction in food and water supplies
● Spread of water and food-borne diseases due to loss of potable water
and poor hygiene maintenance
● Asthmatic and related allergic problems (respiratory disorders due to
atmospheric dust and pollutants
● Increase in the spread of infectious diseases due to migration of
population.

Land degradation in India

Based on a report by ISRO’s Space Application Centre
● In 2011-13, 29.3% of the total land in India has undergone land
degradation and or desertification
 ● Reducing its land degradation and desertification neutral status by
2030 by land reclamation.
● For reaching this goal, strict land-use policies supporting Sustainable
Land Management as well as watershed management must be
implemented.

Sustainable Land Management

According to the World Overview of Conservation Approaches and
Technologies is defined as the use of land resources for the production of
goods to meet changing human needs while simultaneously ensuring
long-term productivity, the potential of these resources and ensuring their
environmental functions

Soil Erosion
A natural process that involves water and wind forces, causing the
displacement of topsoil, or anthropogenic activities like farming activities.
Form of soil degradation.
The processes involved are soil detachment, movement, and deposition. It is
a slow process or it can occur at a very rapid pace.
Factors accelerating soil erosion:
● Soil compaction
● Low organic matter
● Loss of soil structure
● Poor internal drainage
● Salination
● Soil acidity
● Anthropogenic factors
 ○ Deforestation
○ Overgrazing
○ Farming/agricultural practices
○ Use of agrochemical
○ Roads and urbanization
○ Climate change
Physical forces leading to soil erosion
● Floods and surface run-offs
● Splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully erosion (advanced stage
of rill erosion
● Rivers and streams (erosion of banks)
● Wind erosion

Desertification
According to UNCCD, when land degradation occurs in dryland areas,
more specifically arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, it is referred to as
desertification
Land degradation has exponentially increased during the 20th century
● Increasing agricultural and livestock production, over-cultivation,
overgrazing and deforestation
● Urbanization
● Extreme weather
● Climate change
Based on State of India’s Environment 2017: 30% of India's land is degraded
or facing desertification
Rajasthan, Delhi, Goa, Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Nagaland, Tripura and
Himachal Pradesh are facing around 30% to 70% of land desertification.
Causes
● Water erosion - 10.98%
● Wind erosion - 5.55%
● Human-made/settlement - 0.69%
● Vegetation degradation - 8.91%
● Salinity - 1.12%
● Others (water logging, frost shattering, mass movement, barren and
rocky land types) - 2.07%

Deforestation
Short-term gain that benefits few at the expense of many. Most common in
brazil, Russia, papa new guinea, and Indonesia.
The practice of cutting down trees and leaving behind a vast open wasteland.
The main causes
● Industrial uses - to build factories, residential areas
● Agriculture - To grow palm oil plantations, non-food crops (pulp and
paper plantations)
● Livestock - brazil, farmers destroying the land for pasture lands
Anything from illegal squatting to massive industrial-scale deforestation.
Effects:
● Trees absorb COs, the more CO2 humans put in the atmosphere and
the more trees we cut down, the more we hinder the earth’s ability to
balance the CO2
● Reducing the habitat of animals. Every years, 10K animals go extinct
and a huge chunk of that is because of deforestation.

Hydroelectricity
Hydropower is one of the oldest methods of power generation in the world.
Flowing water is trapped in front of dams, then directed through turbines,
which spin to generate electricity.
Currently, 22% of the world's electricity is provided by renewable resources,
73% of which is hydropower.
Dams inevitably alter thousands of square miles of waterways in both
directions affecting fish and wildlife, forests, farms, and (of course) human
populations.
China is the largest producer of hydroelectricity, followed by Canada, Brazil,
and the United States.
The Xayaburi dam on the Mekong river in northern Laos will provide 8 per
cent of the region's electricity, and 3.7 billion a year in income; it will affect
more than 200 thousand people in the region and result in "possible
extinction of fish species, reduced fish populations, inundation of river bank
gardens, and loss of nutrients for floodplain agriculture equivalent to 500
million dollars a year," according to a 2011 International Rivers report. Plus,
the construction of the dams could expedite the extinction of these cute but
weird-looking Irrawaddy dolphins.
Most people are aware of the impediments these dams make to spawning and
migrating fish. Water in a reservoir is stagnant, gathering more sediment and
growing more aquatic weeds. and algae - causing problems with downstream
life. The clustered sediments aren't good for the dam itself either, because as
the area in front of it is filled up with more and more sediment, it holds less
and less water.
Fish are used to certain temperatures and levels of oxygen in their river water.
Dams not only block the fish, but the deep reservoirs held by the dam result
in cold water with very little oxygen. Opening the reservoir to respond to a
sudden demand for electricity causes this cold, barely oxygenated water to
rush into rivers, suffocating and killing fish. On top of all that, the river itself
suffers, because sand, rocks, wood and other natural sediment build up in the
reservoir rather than spreading downriver.
Fish can't reach their spawning grounds and over time, dammed rivers can
lead to drastically reduced fish populations. Fish ladders are stepped pools
which allow fish to swim or jump from one pool to another all the way up
and behind the dam.
Worldwide populations of freshwater species have already experienced a
staggering 83% decline since 1970. More dams will likely further deplete their
numbers.
About 10% of large hydroelectric dams do emit as many greenhouse gases as
conventional fossil-fueled power plants.. As the reservoir behind the dam
grows or floods over plants; that material decomposes releasing CO2 and
methane; especially in tropical areas. Emissions vary but are just underneath
the lowest levels of a natural gas plant. Worldwide, the rotting vegetation in
reservoirs represents 1.3% of the total annual global emissions caused by
humans.
Dams are considered symbols of human achievement and national
willpower, but that can come at the expense of our national resources and
still cause pollution and destruction.
Aside from tearing them down, some hydropower plants simply divert water
rather than daming a whole river, and you can even generate power using
natural wave surges in the ocean.
Hydropower needs to be viewed as part of a broader strategy for energy. A
strategic mix of solar, wind and storage technologies around river basins
could be an option. Existing dams should be upgraded and retrofitted where
possible instead of building new ones. And fish passage systems need to be
optimized to make them more friendly for all different kinds of fish.

Free Flowing River

In a wild river, animals, such as migratory fish, can swim up and downstream
at will. Groundwater and aquifers naturally refresh the water, silt and other
natural materials can move along freely.
The water moves out onto the floodplain in harmony with the seasons,
delivering important nutrients to wildlife and other habitats, signalling fish
to spawn and bringing nutrients back into the river itself.
⅔ of wild rivers are already dammed.

Water Use and Exploitation

Earth comprised 30% land and 70% water
Sources of water
● Surface water
○ Rainwater
○ River water
○ Lake water
○ Sea water
● Groundwater
○ Aquifers: An underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock
Water resources
● 97% is salty water
● 3% is freshwater
○ Locked in polar icecaps
○ 0.003% is ground and surface water
Groundwater is located underground in large aquifers and must be pumped
out of the ground after drilling a deep well.
Groundwater fills the spaces between soil particles and fractured rock
beneath the earth’s surface.
Common Uses of water
● Domestic 10%
● Agricultural 70%
● Industrial 20%

Water Cycle
Water is evaporated from water bodies and forms clouds.
The water falls to the earth as rain through precipitation. This gets collected
in inland water bodies or as groundwater.

There is still water scarcity. Overutilization due to overpopulation, economic

development and rapid industrial growth.
Overutilization for agriculture disturbs the equilibrium of water reservoirs in
that region.
There is inadequate rainfall. Building construction seals the permeable soil
zone, and results in less water percolation rate.
Effects:
● Lowering of the water table
● Drying of well
● Decrease in pressure of aquifers and changes in direction and speed of
water flow
● Increase in salinity
 ● Water pollution
● Ground subsidence is the gradual sinking to a lower level. When
groundwater withdrawal exceeds its rate of recharge, the sediments in
the aquifer get compacted.
● Increase power costs
Sources of water pollution
● Sewage, industrial effluents, insecticides, pesticides, detergents, plastics

Water is a limited source. Demands are increasing.

Only a small % of the total water on earth is usable.
Less consumable water every due to contamination, increased demand and
inadequate rainfall.

Remedial measures
● Restrictive regulatory measures
○ Groundwater law should be enforced
■ Restricting construction of new wells
■ Less pumping hours
■ Limitation of perennial crops
○ The artificial recharge project works to reduce surface runoff
■ Construction of percolation tanks
■ Check dams
■ Contour bands
○ Drip and sprinkler irrigation system

Water Conflict
Due to climate change, there is water scarcity. As water becomes scarcer,
people get more aggressive in protecting their water rights. This has been a
long ongoing battle.
Nearly all human activity including commerce, transportation, sanitation,
migration patterns and survival are intrinsically linked to water.
Nearly 800 million or 11% of the global population lacks access to clean
water.
According to a study between 1950 and 2000, there were more than 1,800
international conflicts and 1831 reported cases of international water related
disputes and dispute resolution.
WTO addresses water disputes that deal with international commerce like
fishing or agriculture. UN steps in with domestic water management and
resources. They focus more on activism and education to prevent conflicts
rather than solving existing ones.
The Middle East is one of the most severe water crisis zones. More likely, that
future wars in the middle east will be fought over water than over oil. Only
1% of the world’s freshwater is available to over 5% of the global population.
Disputes over river basins can spiral out of control in an already volatile area.
Euphrates, Tigris and Jordan rivers.
Jordan runs through Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine.

Water shortages affect businesses, economies and populations and no

country is immune to the effects of running out of water. It had no apparent
solution other than compromise and cooperation.
One reason why borders and rights are so complex is because of the value of
the large bodies of water or aquifers beneath them.
For some geographers, the map of precipitation is the most important map
of the world for understanding life on earth.
Controlling visible sources of water causes a lot of attention and visibility,
there are invisible sources of water like groundwater that cause conflicts too.
Groundwater supplies nearly half of the world’s drinking water. In the
middle east and north Africa, an estimated 90% of freshwater crosses one or
more borders, involves multiple stakeholder and political conflicts and is
embedded in a complicated physical geography.
They sit under a subtropical high-pressure belt which means very little rain
falls and the climate is dry or arid. There can even be a mixture deficit which
means that the amount of moisture evaporating is more than the returns as
precipitation.
Most countries have a groundwater stress rate of 100% which means that
they are using groundwater faster than it can be refilled or recharged.
Ground water is the part of the hydrosphere stunk within the lithosphere.
When it rains any water that absorbs into the grounds moves through a zone
of aeration where the rocks and soil aren't fully saturated and there’s both air
and water. As gravity pulls it deeper, the water reaches the zone of saturation
which is the layer where every space in the bedrock, regolith and soil are filled
with water. The very top of this zone is called the water table.

The water table might be deeper or shallower depending on the physical

characteristics of the region, the input from precipitation, and the output
into lakes, streams and marshes or during periods of drought.
The precipitation patterns like the rivers guide where people settle and
commence agriculture.
Life can also flourish in oases where land erosion has lowered the land level
and a relatively high water table means the zone of saturation is close to the
surface.
How much water can be absorbed in the zone of saturation, or its porosity,
and whether or not it’s permeable and lets water flow, depends on the
make-up of the soil and rock. That includes the mineral composition, how
the particles are arranged, their grain size and what’s between them.
Aquifers are really permeable rock masses that easily store groundwater and
act as a water supply. The groundwater slowly moves down horizontally
through porous soil and rock in mountainous areas.
In general, layers of sedimentary rock like sandstone or limestone or deposits
of sand and gravel are good aquifers because they’re permeable and can hold
a large amount of groundwater. Clay and shale beds are relatively
impermeable and called aquitards.
Factors that affect groundwater are the amount of precipitation, rate of
evaporation, the character of the ground, amount and type of vegetation,
and porosity of soils and rocks making it a vastly unequal resource.

The Arab-Israeli conflict is often seen as a land resource conflict but it's also
about the life-giving water on and beneath the land. The Levant or the
eastern Mediterranean region where highly productive aquifers made of
limestone and dolomite cross boundaries.
The Six-Day War between Israel, Egypt, Syria and Jordan rearranged the
water resource landscape and distribution in favour of Israel. Israel gained
control of the west bank of the Jordan.
The Mountain Aquifer is the largest and most important resource for Israel
and the sole remaining water resource for Palestinians. Since 1967, Israel with
strict water use policies have come into effect creating an inequitable system
in which Palestinians’s access to the shared resources is highly regulated and
restricted. Israel uses 80% of the water while palestinians can use only 20%.
Families have to spend 20-30% of their income buying water from Israel.
Palestinians of the Jordan valley have traditionally been herders and
cultivators but they are unable to cultivate the land. In contrast, the Israelis
have been able to develop high-tech dairy farms and orchards.

Discriminatory water policies and practices that restrict or deny people access
to water block development and lead to unemployment and poverty.
Hydropolitics is political leverage and control over water.

Water Dispute in India

Inter-state river water disputes are one of the most contentious issues in
Indian federalism. River water disputes in India have hampered relationship
between states and has given leverage to political parties to use the issue for
electoral gain.
Reasons
● The quasi-federal structure of the country
● Lack of integrated approach in water governance ignoring social,
cultural and ecological processes
● MSP regime favouring only wheat and paddy which has led to skewed
cropping pattern
The constitution provides legal provisions for water.
The interstate water disputes act deals with conflicts and establishment of
tribunals to adjudicate on disputes when negotiations have failed.
Failure of the tribunals
 ● Delays in formation of tribunal
● Longer period of deliver awards
● Delays in notifying the Official Gazette
● Delays lead to cost increase and loss of investment
● Includes Only judicial members and no expert members
● Concerned state governments have rejected the tribunal awards
In 2019, the Inter-state river water disputes (amendments) bill was
introduced in the Lok Sabha
● Setting up Dispute Resolution Committee upon receiving a request to
any water dispute
● If no settlement reached by DRC, then the dispute would be referred
to the Inter-state river water disputes tribunal
● Provides for a single inter-state river water disputes tribunal and
dissolves all others
● The new tribunal would also have multiple benches
● The amendment also makes the decision of the tribunal binding on the
parties

Krishna Water Dispute

Krishna is an east flowing river and merges with the bay of bengal. Originated
in Mahabaleshwar. Forms a vast basin of 33% of the four states.
In 1969, the KWDT was set up to give an order on the sharing of water. It
was set up under the Inter-state water dispute act. It published its report in
1973.
In 2004, the 2nd KWDT was created and submitted a report in 2010.
AP has challenged this report in 2011 in the SC. Maharashtra, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are involved. Maha and K’taka jointly agreed
to oppose the AP application to relook the 2010 tribunal Krishna water
dispute. Basically the sharing of water between the four states.
AP challenged it through a special leave petition. It has asked to include
Telangana as a separate entity because before it was a part of AP. It then split
from AP in 2014.
Maha and K’taka view that the allocation made to Telangana should be made
from AP’s share. AP views Telangana as a separate state and it should get its
own allocation.

Energy
The capacity to do energy is known as energy. All living creatures on earth
need energy to perform their vital functions.
The earth is a vast storehouse of energy. Fossil fuels, wind, water, plants,
sunlight, are all sources of energy.
Needs:
● Industry 40%
● Domestic 30%
● Transportation 24%
● Agriculture 6%

Non-renewable
Available in limited amounts and developed over a long period of time It
forms at a rate that is much slower that the rate at which it is consumed. It
takes longer than a person’s lifespan to be replaced.
Due to indiscriminate use, they are likely to be exhausted in the near future.
Coal, mineral oil, natural gas, nuclear power.
Fossil fuels are the remains of the organisms that lived 200-500 million years
ago. Finite in quantity, non-renewable and are formed inside the earth’s crust
through heat and compression of organic matter buried underneath.
Coal is used for domestic cooking, industrial heating and for production of
electricity in thermal power plants. Mining and use of coal is very harmful to
the environment. It causes air pollution through CO2 emission and
respiratory diseases.
Petroleum included petrol, diesel, kerosene etc. Saudi Arabia has 25% of the
world’s oil
Natural gas is a mixture of methane, ethane, propane and butane. CPG and
LPG, propane and butane, are forms of natural gas used by society. Low cost
and pollution and small transportation costs.

Renewable Energy
These sources are on the rise and could hold the key to combating climate
change.
Renewable energy is generated from sources that naturally replenish
themselves and never run out. They are replaced at the same rate in which
they are used. They can regrow or be replaced within a person’s lifespan.
The most common are solar, wind, hydro, geothermal and biomass like
firewood, cow dung etc.
Over 80% of energy consumed by humans is derived from fossil fuels.
Renewables are the fastest growing source in the world. It has many benefits
● Combat climate change because it has no direct greenhouse gas
emission. The indirect emissions are those that result from
 manufacturing parts, installation, operation and maintenance. These
are minimal.
● Decrease pollution and reduce threats to health. Almost have no
emissions or are lower than non-renewables.
● Reliable source of power. They never run out because they are
replenished. Once built, these facilities cost very little to operate and
the fuel is often free. Their prices tend to be stable over time.
Downsides
● Difficult to generate power at the same scale as fossil fuels
● Building wind farms and dams can disturb wildlife and the
environment and lead to ecological destruction.
● Solar and wind are intermittent. They only generate when available.
Batteries can store for later use but are costly.
There are some challenges but provides a friendly alternative to fossil fuels
and their pollution. Advances in technology make it more accessible, efficient
and inexpensive.

Solar Energy
It is derived by capturing radiant energy from sunlight and converting it into
heat or electricity. Photovoltaic systems or PV can convert direct sunlight
into electricity through the use of solar cells.
Benefits
● Limitless supply of sunlight
● Relying on renewables can help improve public health and
environmental conditions.
● Short term - reduce energy cost and long term - eliminate energy cost
Limitations
 ● Significant investment and cost
● Need adequate sunlight and space

Wind
Wind farms capture the energy of wind flows using turbines and converting
it into electricity.
Commercial grade wind farms, single wind turbines and Utility scale wind
farms.
Wind is caused by the sun, geography of the earth and rotation of earth
Benefits
● Clean energy source, doesn’t produce CO2
● Investments can open new avenues in job and training
Limitations
● Built in rural or open areas and far from urban and cities where energy
is needed
● Dominant skylines and produce noise
● Threaten local wildlife like birds

Geothermal
Heat trapped beneath the earth’s crust. Large amounts escape naturally but
all at once resulting in volcanic eruptions and geysers. It can be captured and
used to produce energy through heated water pumping below the rising to
the surface and used to operate a turbine.
Benefits
● Significant potential for energy supply
● Built underground and leaves less footprint on land
Limitations
 ● High cost
● Vulnerability to earthquakes

Oceans
It can produce thermal and mechanical energy.
Ocean thermal energy relies on warm water surface temperature to generate
energy through systems.
Mechanical energy uses the ebbs and flows of the tides to generate energy.
Benefits
● Wave energy is predictable and easy to estimate the amount of energy
produced. It is consistent
● Most populated cities are near harbours and seas making it easier to
harness the energy
Limitations
● Landlocked states won’t have access to the energy
● It can also disturb the oceans delicate ecosystem
● Large machinery needs to be built nearby which can cause disruptions
to the ocean floor and sea life.
● Rough weather changes the consistency of the waves producing lower
output when compared to normal waves.

Hydrogen
Hydrogen needs to be bonded to another element or itself as it does not
occur naturally. When it is separated, it can be used for both fuel and
electricity.
Benefits
● Clean burning fuel, clean environment and less pollution
 ● Used for fuel cells which are similar to batteries and used for powering
a motor
Limitations
● Needs energy to be produced
● Inefficient when it comes to preventing pollution

Biomass
Organic matter that comes from recently living plants and organisms.
Energy is used by burning biomass, harnessing methane gas produced by the
natural decomposition of organic materials in ponds or landfills
Benefits
● Used for personal and business.
● Burning creates CO2 but the addition of new plants balances it out
Limitations
● Plants take time to grow
● No technology to use biomass in place of fuels

Global Energy Demand

Right now we need 170 million gigawatts of energy. Still 1.2 billion people
with little or no access to electricity.
In the future, the earth is going to need 217 million gw more.
It is not just increasing population. It is also the rising number of people
rising out of poverty. Becoming a more digitised civilization, we need more
electricity to power the gadgets. Through globalisation and increased
interconnectivity, we need to to transport more items and ourselves. Energy
will also be required for the increased amount of gadgets, cosmetics and
other items to be created.
By 2040, renewable will account for 40%, the rest needs to come from a mix
of everything else.
While wind, solar and hydro plants will try to produce enough energy for the
increased demand, natural gas will play an important role with less pollution
and high energy output.
The key is to balance the demand for energy with all the sources of energy
available to us.
 Unit 4

Yep