IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 1

Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society

Shreya Mozumdar

IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL

Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society

4.1. Introduction to water systems

• The water budget is a quantitative estimate of the amounts of water in storages and flows
of the water cycle.
• EARTH’S WATER BUDGET
o 97% of the water is ocean water (salt water)
o 2 – 6% of the water is freshwater
§ 68.7% of this is in ice caps and glaciers
§ 30.1% is in ground water
§ Only 0.3% is in lakes, rivers and swamps on Earth
o 0.001% of the water is stored as water vapour in the atmosphere
• Turnover time is the time it takes for a molecule of water to enter and leave a part of the
system.
• Water can be considered a renewable or non-renewable resource depending on where it is
stored.
o Renewable water resources can be found in the atmosphere and in rivers.
o Middle-ground water resources (neither renewable nor non-renewable) can be
found in groundwater aquifers.
o Non-renewable water resources can be found in the oceans and ice-caps.
o Poor management of renewable and middle-ground sources can lead to them
becoming non-renewable.
• THE HYDROLOGICAL (WATER) CYCLE

(Image source: Environmental Systems and Societies Course Companion by Jill Rutherford
and Gillian Williams)
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 2
Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

o Transfers:
§ Advection (wind-blown movement)
§ Flooding
§ Surface run-off
§ Infiltration
§ Percolation
§ Stream flow
§ Precipitation
o Transformations
§ Evapotranspiration – liquid to water vapour
§ Condensation – water vapour to liquid
§ Freezing into solid snow and ice
o Storages
§ Oceans
§ Soil
§ Lakes
§ Rivers
§ Atmosphere
§ Glaciers and ice caps
o The hydrological cycle is the natural sequence through which water passes into the
atmosphere as water vapour, precipitates to Earth in liquid or solid form, and returns
to the atmosphere through evaporation.
o Advection is the horizontal movement of water in the atmosphere. It is the wind-
blown movement of water.
o Evaporation is the process by which water in a liquid state changes to a gaseous
state (water vapour) due to an increase in temperature.
o Transpiration is the process by which plants absorb water through the roots and
transport it to the leaves where it is lost as water vapour.
o Sublimation is the process by which water changes from a solid to a gaseous state
without a liquid phase.
o Evapotranspiration is the sum of evaporation, sublimation and transpiration from
land and ocean surfaces to the atmosphere.
o Condensation is the process by which water vapour in the air is changed into liquid
water by forming clouds.
o Precipitation is water that falls to Earth from the atmosphere. (e.g. rain, snow, sleet,
hail, dew, frost)
o Surface run-off/overland flow is precipitation that flows over the surface of the
land when the soil is saturated with water.
o Throughflow is water flowing sideways through the soil.
o Infiltration is the passage of water into the soil.
o Percolation is the downward vertical movement of water within soil or rock.
• HUMAN IMPACT ON THE WATER CYCLE
o Agriculture
§ Undisturbed soils have high infiltration rates than cultivated soils.
§ Cultivated soils are easily compacted which reduces the size of pore
spaces, reducing the infiltration rate.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 3
Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

§Continued rainfall can cause further compaction that leads impermeable

crusts to form on the soil and this could lead to soil erosion when rain
falls on the soil.
o Deforestation
§ Deforestation causes:
• Reduced infiltration
• Increased surface runoff
• Low groundwater recharge
• Increased soil erosion
• Greater flood risk
§ The main cause for this is the reduced rate of interception by trees and
vegetation.
§ It usually slows the movement of water and is an important part of the
natural balance of water movement.
§ The absence of trees holding the soil together also increases the risk of
soil erosion.
o Urbanisation
§ Urbanisation increases the amount of surface runoff.
§ It replaces permeable vegetated surfaces with impermeable surfaces of
concrete, tarmac, brick and tiles.
§ Soil in parks and other open areas is very compacted due to recreational
use and thus has low infiltration rates.
§ The design of buildings with pipes, drains and pitched roofs and the
design of roads that allow water to drain off, leads water to move more
quickly into river systems due to higher surface run-off, increasing the
risk of flooding.
o Withdrawal of water for domestic, industrial and agricultural uses leads to a
decrease in water storages.
• OCEAN CURRENTS
o Ocean currents are movements of water both vertically and horizontally in the
ocean. They move in specific directions and can be found in both surface and
deep water.
o Ocean circulation systems are driven by differences in temperature and salinity.
Differences in water density drive the ocean conveyor belt, which distributes
heat around the world, affecting precipitation and other aspects of climate.
o THE GLOBAL CONVEYOR BELT
§ The conveyor belt begins near Greenland and Iceland. Dry, cold winds
from northern Canada chill the ocean surface.
§ The chilling surface waters, evaporation and formation of sea-ice
produces cold, salty, deep water in the North Atlantic.
§ This deep water sinks and flows along North and South America
towards Antarctica, where it flows east around Antarctica.
§ The deep water mixes with Antarctic water. The resulting mix flows
north into the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
§ The deep water gradually warms and mixes with surface waters as they
flow into the northern hemisphere, continuing the conveyor belt.
o Surface currents are found in the upper 400m of the ocean and are moved by
wind. The Earth’s rotation deflects them increases their circular movement.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 4
Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

o Deep water currents, or thermohaline currents, make up 90% of ocean currents

and form the oceanic conveyor belt.
o IMPORTANCE OF THE CONVEYOR BELT
§ Redistributes the Sun’s heat around the globe
§ Supplies heat to polar areas and regulates amount of sea ice
§ Warm currents make areas warmer in winter than they otherwise would
be
§ Upwelling of deep water in cold currents brings nutrients to the surface.
This stimulates phytoplankton growth, which attracts fish to the area.
They lead to the formation of fishing grounds.
§ Cold currents reduce the incidence of rainfall and make places dry.
Deserts are located near cold currents (e.g. Namib near Benguela current,
Atacama Desert near Humboldt Current)

4.2. Access to Freshwater

• There is a lot of water on Earth, but most of it is saline.
• The freshwater available to us is limited and not managing water resources will lead to a
continued water crisis.
• USES OF FRESH WATER
o Domestic – water used in households for drinking, washing, cleaning, cooking, etc.
o Agriculture – irrigation, for feeding to animals
o Industry – manufacturing, mining, etc.
o HEP generation
o Transport
• Water scarcity is not just a measure of how much water is available but also of how much
is being used.
• TYPES OF WATER SCARCITY
o Economic water scarcity occurs when water is available, but is inaccessibly or
unusable due to lack of infrastructure or pollution.
o Physical water scarcity occurs when there is not enough water physically available
in a place. This could be due to low precipitation or other climatic factors.
• FRESHWATER SOURCES
o Surface freshwater – rivers, lakes, streams, etc.
o Aquifers – layers of porous rock sandwiched between layers of impermeable rock.
§ Aquitards – layers of rock that limit the movement of water (can be non-
porous)
§ Aquicludes – layers of rock that cannot hold water (impermeable)
o Aquifers are often used unsustainable because water flow in them is very slow.
• Water stress is when demand for water exceeds supply of water, causing water shortages.
• CAUSES OF GROWING WATER DEMAND
o Population growth – more people demand more water
o Increasing affluence – increased standards of living lead to greater demand for
water as people want flush toilets, green gardens, swimming pools, etc.
o Increasing demand for food – agricultural use makes up 70% of the water usage.
Water is needed for irrigation, for crops like rice, and also for livestock farming.
o Increasing industrial demand – increasing population and affluence leads to
increased demand for industrial products. Production often uses a lot of water, such
a metal-making, mining, etc.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 5
Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

o Energy production – producing coal and oil requires a lot of water. Nuclear power
also utilises a lot of water.
• CAUSES OF LESS WATER SUPPLY
o Climate Change
§ The release of water from ice caps and glaciers leads to less availability of
freshwater.
§ It leads to increased aridity in some areas.
§ It increases the risk of flooding which can lead to contamination of water.
o Groundwater depletion is unsustainably extracting water from aquifers, which
can lead to:
§ Salinization is an increase in the salinity of the water. Salt concentration
increases when water is extracted faster than it can be replaced.
§ Saltwater intrusion is leaking of seawater into coastal aquifers.
§ Subsidence is the collapsing of ground due to over-extraction of water.
o Sewage – dumping raw sewage in the water leads to economic water scarcity.
o Pollution
§ From fertilisers and pesticides
§ From detergents and soaps
§ From heavy metals and chemicals
§ From untreated sewage
o Political disputes – disputes over shared water bodies lead some countries to have
an unequal share.
• ISSUES OF WATER SCARCITY AND DEGRADATION
o Climate change disrupts rainfall patterns, changing monsoon rains and causing
inequalities of supply.
o There are low water levels in rivers and streams.
o Slow water flow in lower river courses leads to sedimentation which makes the
river shallower.
o Underground aquifers are being exhausted leading to less water available for
agricultural, industrial and domestic use.
o Freshwater is being contaminated by pollution.
o Irrigation leads to soil degradation and salinization.
o Fertilisers and pesticides pollute streams and rivers, leading to eutrophication.
o Industries and thermal power plants release warm water into rivers. It has less
dissolved oxygen than cool water, which leaves less oxygen for the aquatic
organisms.
• SOLUTIONS TO THE ISSUES
o Increasing freshwater supplies:
§ Reservoirs
§ Redistribution of water
§ Desalination – removing salt from seawater
§ Rainwater harvesting systems
§ Artificial recharge of aquifers
o Reduce domestic water use by using water-efficient showers, dishwashers and
toilets.
o Wash cars in car washes that have a closed water system. This reduces water
pollution by oil.
o Recycle grey water. This is water from showers, baths, laundry, kitchen sink, etc.
It is largely clean and can be used to flush WCs, water gardens, clean cars, etc.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 6
Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

o Irrigation: Using drought-resistance crops reduced the need for irrigation. In areas
where water is very scarce to grow crops, raising cattle is an alternative. Using
closed pipes instead of open canals and using drip irrigation instead of sprinklers
reduces the water that is lost to evaporation.
o Reduce usage of fertilisers and pesticides to prevent water pollution.
o Prevent spraying fertiliser/pesticide directly into streams or other water bodies.
o Use selective pesticides that are organic rather than normal ones which could be
harmful, or use biological control measures instead.
o Use organic fertiliser rather than chemical ones. They release nutrients slower at a
rate that is easy for plants to absorb.
o Enforce laws that force industries to treat wastewater in water treatment plants.
o Regulate temperatures of water used for cooling that is released. Use cooling towers
that evaporate the water rather than releasing it directly.

4.3. Aquatic food production systems

• Marine productivity in coastal regions occurs on the continental shelf. This is the extension
of continents under the sea and oceans. It creates shallow water.
• IMPORTANCE OF CONTINENTAL SHELF
o Upwellings bring nutrient-rich water to the continental shelves that allow organisms
to thrive.
o Light reaches shallow areas here so that producers can photosynthesise and support
food chains.
o Many other resources are also available there for countries to exploit – e.g. oil.
• The UN Convention on Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS) designated continental shelves as
belonging to the country from which they extend.
• It designated a 200 nautical-mile (370 mile) limit as an exclusive economic zone (EEZ)
belonging to that country.
• Beyond this zone are international waters that are not controlled by anyone. This has
impacted fishing in these areas, as well as pollution.
• MARINE FOOD CHAIN

Large fish

Commercially fished

Small fish

Zooplankton
(single-celled animals that
feed on phytoplankton and
their waste)

Phytoplankton
(single-celled
photosynthesisers that are the
main producers)
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 7
Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

• MARINE ORGANISMS
o Benthic – live on or in the sea bed
o Pelagic – live surrounded by water from above the sea bed to the surface
• Fisheries exist when fish are harvested in some way. It includes capturing wild fish,
aquaculture and fish farming.
• Fish are high in protein, low in saturated fat and have vitamins like A, B and D in them.
• Most of the world’s fisheries are fully exploited, declining, depleted or too low to allow
recovery.
• Demand for fish is rising but fishermen cannot find or catch enough fish.
• Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms in both coastal and inland areas,
involving intervention in the rearing process to enhance production.
• People eat more fish than meat now – but they used to eat more meat than fish in the past.
• Most extra fish come from fish farms, because catching wild fish has reached its limit
despite improvements in technology.
• HOW FISH FARMING IS BECOMING SUSTAINABLE
o Fishmeal uses trimmings and scraps of fish that were wasted earlier.
o Livestock and poultry processing waste is used instead of fishmeal.
o Some fish can get nutrients from other sources without eating other fish.
• IMPACT OF FISH FARMING
o Loss of habitat
o Pollution from feed, antibiotics, medicine
o Disease spread
o Escaped GMOs organisms which survive to breed with wild fish
o Escaped species outcompete native species and cause the population to crash.
• Aquaculture includes producing seafood from fish and shellfish that are hatched in ponds,
then grown to sell commercially in tanks.
• Marine aquaculture takes place in containers in the ocean.
• It improves food supply and can help LEDCs to support economic and social development.
• When farmed fish are exported, it contributes to the economy of the exporting country.
• Once found, fish populations can be depleted very quickly due to improvements in
technology.
• WHY IT IS EASY TO CATCH THE FISH UNSUSTAINABLY
o Commercial fishing uses the latest satellite and GPS technology to locate schools
of fish.
o Factory ships capture fish constantly and can remain at sea for months.
o Nets have a small mesh size and captures all the fish regardless of whether they are
the required species or not. Young, immature fish are also caught and cannot swim
out. These unwanted fish, called bycatch, are often thrown back into the sea, dead.
o Trawlers drag large nets along the sea bed, which affects the organisms living in it,
marine topography, and can also harm coral reefs by catching onto the structures.
o Harmful techniques like dynamite fishing are also used, where dynamite is
exploded in the sea, causing a shock that kills fish for miles around. Many fish die
even if they are not wanted.
• REASON FOR OVERFISHING: THE TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS
o The Tragedy of the Commons shows the tension between the good of everyone
and individual needs, and the conflict between them.
o A resource that is not owned by anyone in particular is more liable to be exploited
as much as possible by an individual. The individual stands to gain an advantage
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 8
Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

and benefit himself most before others can exploit the resource. If he does not reap
the maximum benefit he can from a resource, someone else will take the benefit,
leaving insufficient amounts for him.
o The solution to this is regulating and legislating a limit to the amount of the common
resource that a person can exploit.
• Sustainable yield (SY) is the increase in natural capital that can be exploited each year
without depleting the original stock and its potential to be replenished.
• Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is the highest amount that can exploited without
depleting the stock permanently.

• Carrying capacity depends on:

o Reproductive strategy
o Longevity (life expectancy)
o Resources of the habitat/ecosystem
%&%'( )*&+',, '% %*+- %./ %&%'( )*&+',, '% %*+- %
• 𝑆𝑌 = -0-123
− -0-123
• 𝑆𝑌 = (𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ + 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡) − (𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ + 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
• Harvesting maximum sustainable yield normally can lead to loss of resources:
o The population dynamics/level of resource left are normally predicted (modelled)
rather than being counted this may result in inaccuracies.
o It is not usually possible to be precise about the size of a population.
o Estimates are made on past experience and patterns may change.
o The model cannot monitor the dynamic nature of the harvest (e.g. the age and sex
ratio). The harvest may specifically target juvenile individual, reproductive females,
etc, which may have a much worse impact on the population than if the harvest had
only targeted males/mature individuals. The model assumes a balanced ratio of
population which may not be true.
o Disease may strike the population.
• A safer option is to use optimal sustainable yield (OSY). It requires less efforts than MSY,
and maximises the differences between total revenue and total cost.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 9
Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

4.4. Water pollution

• Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies by pollutants, either directly or
indirectly.

Anthropogenic
(human)
Source
Natural
(volcano, algal
blooms)

Point-source
Source
Identification
Non-point-
Water Pollution source

Organic
Type
Inorganic

Direct
Effect
Indirect

Type Pollutant Example Effect

Organic Sewage Human waste Eutrophication

Bad odour
Animal waste Manure/slurry
Biological detergents Washing powders
Food processing waste Fats and grease
Chemicals from industry PCBs, drugs, hormones May be carcinogenic,
growth-promoting
hormones
Toxic and cause
disease and death of
humans and aquatic
organisms
Pathogens Waterborne and faecal Disease
pathogens
Invasive species Cane toad Outcompetes
indigenous species
causing their decline
Inorganic Nitrates and phosphates Fertilisers Eutrophication
Phosphates Washing detergents Loss and change of
biodiversity
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 10
Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

Heavy toxic metals Industry and motor Bioaccumulation and

vehicles biomagnification in
food chain
Poisonous to
organisms and humans
Hot water (thermal pollution) Power stations Changes physical
properties of water
Kills fish
Change/loss of
biodiversity
Oil Industry Floats on surface
preventing
photosynthesis
Contaminates seabirds
and animals
Reduces oxygen levels
Radioactive materials Nuclear power stations Radiation sickness

Light Cities, beach hotels Disrupts turtle nesting

Noise Aircraft sites
Upsets whale
navigation
Changes plant growth
Upsets bird cycles
Both Suspended solids Silt from construction Damages corals and
sites filter feeders
Solid domestic waste Household garbage Plastics suffocate and
cause starvation

• FRESHWATER POLLUTION SOURCES

o Agricultural run-off
o Sewage
o Industrial discharge
o Solid domestic waste
• MARINE POLLUTION SOURCES
o Rivers
o Pipelines
o Atmosphere
o Human activities at sea
o Operational and additional discharges
• MEASURING WATER POLLUTION
o Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
§ Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of
dissolved oxygen required to break down organic material in a given volume
of water through aerobic (using oxygen) biological activity by
microorganisms.
§ If enough oxygen is present, aerobic decomposition by microorganisms will
continue until no waste is left.
§ PROCESS
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 11
Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

• A dissolved oxygen probe (DO probe) is used to measure the initial

amount of oxygen in the water sample.
• The sample is sealed and kept in the dark.
• After 5 days, a second DO reading is taken.
• The change in oxygen levels is the amount of oxygen
used/demanded by microbes for decomposition.
o Biotic Indices and Indicator Species
§ Indicator species are plants and animals that show something about the
environment they live in by their presence, absence, abundance or scarcity.
§ A biotic index indirectly measures pollution by assaying the impact on
species within the community according to their tolerance, diversity and
relative abundance.
§ Indicator species are most sensitive to change and are an early indicator of
the health of the ecosystem.
Species Mayfly Dragonfly Freshwater Hoglouse Sludge No life
nymph nymph shrimp worm
Pollution Low Low Slight Medium High Extreme
Level (stream) (pond)
§ For biotic indices, a scale of 1-10 is used to give a measure of the quality of
the ecosystem.
§ The pollutants are not directly measured, rather, their effect on biodiversity
is measured.
§ Invertebrates are used to measure the levels of pollution because they are
sensitive to decreases in oxygen concentration in the water.
§ Biotic indices based on indicator species are often used alongside BOD.
BOD gives the amount of pollution at one particular time, while indicator
species show the recent history.
o Direct measures of water quality
§ pH (pH meter)
§ Nitrates or ammonia
§ Dissolved oxygen (DO probe)
§ Conductivity (indicates dissolved pollutants in water or presence of
heavy metals)
§ Turbidity (Secchi disc)
§ Faecal Coliform Test
• EUTROPHICATION
o Eutrophication is when water bodies receive inputs of nutrients (nitrates and
phosphates) which result in an excess growth of algae, plants and phytoplankton.
o Severe eutrophication results in dead zones in oceans or freshwater bodies. In dead
zones, there is not enough oxygen to support life.
o Eutrophication causes excess plant growth. Biodegradation of this organic material
uses up oxygen, leading oxygen concentration of the water body to deplete further.
It can also release toxic gases like methane, hydrogen sulphide and ammonia.
o SOURCES OF EXCESS NUTRIENTS
§ Detergents
§ Fertilisers
§ Drainage from livestock farms
§ Sewage
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 12
Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

§ Erosion of topsoil into the water

o IMPACTS OF EUTROPHICATION
§ Oxygen-deficient water
§ Loss of biodiversity and shortened food chains
§ Death of higher plants
§ Death of organisms – invertebrates, fish, amphibians
§ Increased turbidity (cloudiness) of the water
o PROCESS OF EUTROPHICATION
§ Fertilisers/nutrients form any other source wash into the river or lake.
§ High phosphate levels allow algae to grow faster.
§ This causes algal blooms that block light from reaching plants below,
leading to plant death.
§ Algae die and are decomposed.
§ Since there are more algae, there is more food for the zooplankton, which
are food for fish. The fish multiply as there is more food which eventually
leaves too few zooplankton to eat the algae, leading to less food for the fish.
§ The increased fish and algae deaths to depletion of oxygen in the water as
more and more organisms need more oxygen to decompose. This causes
further deaths and the food chain collapses.
§ Oxygen levels fall lower. Dead organic material forms sediments on the
lake/river bed and turbidity increases.
§ Eventually, all life disappears to leave a clear body of water once sediment
settles.
§ E.g. The Gulf of Mexico has the largest dead zone in the USA. Excess
nitrates and phosphates from the Mississippi River due to agriculture have
caused it. The solution was nutrient trading which searched for cost-
effective ways to reduce nutrient use in agriculture and industry. Reducing
nutrients at a low cost allowed firms to sell credits to those with higher
reduction costs who needed more credits.
o RED TIDES
§ Eutrophication can also occur in coastal waters and lead to algal blooms.
§ If the algae are of dinoflagellate species, the algal bloom looks red.
§ This type of algae is dangerous because it produces toxins that kill fish and
bioaccumulate in shellfish, which can cause loss of biodiversity and also
harm humans who consume the animals.
o In slow-moving water bodies, eutrophication severely reduces biodiversity.
o In fast-moving water, it causes a temporary decrease in biodiversity downstream
which is followed by recovery and restoration of clean water.
o SOLUTIONS TO EUTROPHICATION
Method of reducing Examples of actions
pollution
Altering the human Ban or limit detergents with phosphates
activity producing Use eco-detergents with no phosphates or new technology in
the pollution washing machines
Plant buffer zones between fields and water courses to absorb
excess nutrients
Stop leaching of slurry or sewage from the source.
Educate farmers about fertiliser application.
Treat wastewater to remove phosphates and nitrates
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 13
Topic 4: Water, food production systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

Regulating and Divert or treat sewage waste effectively.

reducing the Minimise fertiliser use on agricultural land or use organic fertiliser.
pollutants at the
point of emission
Clean-up and Pumping air through lakes
restoration Dredging sediments with high nutrient levels from lake and river
beds.
Remove excess weeds physically or with herbicide and algicide.
Reintroduce appropriate species into ponds and water bodies.