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USE OF ENGLISH

FOR
AERONAUTICAL TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
DIPLOMA COURSE (ATED)

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GENERAL OBJECTIVES

1. Acquire necessary language skills.

2. Understand the nature of language.
3. Understand the basic rules of grammar.
4. Understand the essential qualities of a paragraph.
5. Appreciate literary works in English.

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1.0 ACQUISITION OF BASIC SKILLS

Introduction

In this section, we are going to be looking at various language related skills required for students
to effectively use the English language as well as how this skill can be utilized in academic
pursuit.

Specific Learning Outcomes

1.1 Acquire good note-taking techniques

1.2 Differentiate methods of note-taking
1.3 Use the dictionary effectively
1.4 Use the library effectively
1.5 List the types of information sources in the library
1.6 Acquire good reading habits
1.7 List the different methods of reading
1.8 Use the different methods of reading in 1.7 above

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1.1 Why do I need to acquire good note –taking skills?

Basically, effective note makers are efficient learners. Effective note making is a skill that helps
one achieve the following:

1. Recognize the main ideas during a lecture or while studying.

2. Helps one to know which information is relevant to their purpose.

3. Helps one use their own words (as well as specialist words) to aid understanding

4. Helps one to capture the ideas and thoughts that come to mind as they listen or read and relate
this to an assignment, or how the information might be used

5. The capturing of thoughts that comes to mind while note taking also provokes useful
questions or critical comments

1.2 Note-Taking Techniques

Annotation involves you adding comments to a text that explain or critique what you have read.
These can be written in the margins and may accompany words you have highlighted to identify
key information.

Diagrams are a more visual form of taking notes. They could be mind-maps, charts, tables,
graphs, or perhaps a drawing to capture a process or cycle for example.

Paraphrasing means your ability to express the ideas and information of others in your own
words. Writing the original material in your own words helps you to understand it.

Summaries are focusing on the main points of the source material so you can view them almost
at a glance.

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It should be noted that note –making can be done electronically on a computer, tablet, i-Pad or
smartphone for example. A variety of note-taking software and mobile applications are available
for this purpose.

1.3 Use of Dictionary

A dictionary is collection of words in one or more specific languages, often listed
alphabetically, with usage of information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics,
pronunciations, translation, and other information.

A broad distinction is made between general and specialized dictionary. In theory, general
dictionaries map word to definition, while specialized dictionaries first identify concepts and
then establish the terms used to designate them. There are other types of dictionaries that do not
fit neatly in the above distinction, for instance bilingual (translation) dictionaries, dictionaries of
synonyms (thesauri), or rhyming dictionaries. The word dictionary is usually understood to refer
to a monolingual general-purpose dictionary.

Of the approximately 1 million words in the English language, the average English speaker
knows 60,000 of those words. Besides helping with spelling and word meanings, being able to
use a dictionary effectively and regularly is a perfect way to improve your English language
skills through the dictionary's range of other helpful information on everyday language usage and
grammar

Steps to consider in the effective use the dictionary.

1. Choose the right dictionary.

It is a good idea to upgrade your dictionary every now and then so that you have access to the
latest new words that are added to the dictionary every year. You could consider buying
specialist dictionaries if they would be useful in your study or career. Some examples of
specialist dictionaries include language dictionaries, technical dictionaries, rhymes, crossword,
subject dictionaries (for example, for math, chemistry, biology, horticulture, etc.), illustrated
dictionaries (excellent for learning another language or for technical knowledge), slang and
idioms, etc.

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2. Read the introduction.

The best way to learn how to use your particular dictionary effectively is to read its introductory
section to find out how the entries are arranged. The introductory section of your dictionary will
explain important information such as the abbreviations and pronunciation symbols used
throughout the entries.

Introductions to dictionaries explain things like how entries are arranged (they typically give the
word, and the variations of the word; which part of speech the word is; pronunciation of the
word; definition, etc.). Reading the introduction will give you a handle on how to find words and
how to use the information that you do find. There may also be information on pronunciation of
words with similar spellings; this can be helpful if you have only heard a word and you are not
sure of its spelling. For example, if you hear "not", it might also be "knot" but the "k" is silent,
and this list can help you with suggestions.

3. Learn the abbreviations.

Dictionaries often have abbreviations in the definitions for a word. This can be confusing if you
do not know what the abbreviations stand for. Typically a dictionary will have a list of
abbreviations near the front of the book; either in the introduction, or after it.

For example "adj." stands for "adjective" and will tell you what kind of word the word you are
looking up is. "Adv." or "advb." can stand for "adverb; adverbially."

4. Learn the guide to pronunciation.

The pronunciation guide can be difficult to figure out without an idea of the symbols of phonetic
sounds. The pronunciation of a word will be placed between two reversed virgules (\ \) and will
typically be printed in italics.

A single stress mark (') precedes the strongest syllable in a word. A double mark precedes the
syllable with a medium (or secondary stress) ("), and the third level of stress has no marker. For
example: penmanship would look like this \'pen-man-"ship\

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A simple guide to finding words in a dictionary.

1. Find the section of the dictionary with first letter of your word.
Dictionaries follow alphabetical order. For example, "dog" begins with "d" which means that it
will be in the section after "c" and before "e". Don't forget the possible spellings for trickier
words, such as "gnome" begins with a "g", or "psychology" begins with a "p", or "knock" begins
with a "k", etc.

If you are not entirely sure what the first letter is, start with the letter it sounds like. If you cannot
find the word under that section, then try other sections. For example if you did not know that
"psychology" begins with a "p" you might start looking in the "s" section. When you are unable
to find it there, you might try looking in the "p" section next because you can think along the
lines of "psychic" and "psychosis."

Also, keep in mind that certain words sound alike that are spelled very differently. For example,
"throne" and "thrown" are spelled differently and mean very different things. So be careful that
you end up with the correct word.

2. Read the guide words.

These are the two words at the top of the page that tell you what types of words are on the page.
These words will help you find the word you are looking for in the right letter section.

For example if you are looking for the word "bramble" you would begin looking in the "B"
section. You would look at the tops of the pages as you go through it until you get to the page
with the guide words "braid bread." This tells you that all the words between braid and bread are
on this page. Since "bramble" starts with "b-r-a" it will be in this section.

3. Scan down the page for your word.

If you were looking for the word "futile," for example, you would move past "furry" and "fuse"
and "fuss". Since the example word begins with "f-u-t", go past all the "f-u-r" and all the "f-u-s"
words alphabetically until you reach the "f-u-t" area of the page. In this example, move right
down through "fut" and "Futhark" and this is where you will find "futile."

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4. Read the definition.

Once you have located the word it will tell you exactly what it means (and if it has more than one
meaning, it will tell you the most common one first), how to pronounce it, how to capitalize it (if
it is a proper noun), what part of speech it is and so on.

Quite a few people get daunted by the definitions themselves, because they can involve words
that you have to then look up. Do not feel discouraged. See if you can figure out the meaning
from the example sentences provided and if not, look up the words you are not sure of.

Uses of the Dictionary

Apart from finding word definitions, dictionaries can also sometimes give the synonyms (words
that mean the same thing as your word) and the antonyms of a word (words that mean the
opposite of your word).If your word is “ futile” for example some synonyms might be "fruitless"
or "unsuccessful" and some antonyms might be "effective" or "helpful." You can also find near
neighbor words such as "futility".

You might also find an etymology, derivation, or history of the word. Even if you do not know
Latin or Ancient Greek, you may find that this information helps you to remember or understand
the word.

Dictionaries also often provide spellings in other English derivations (US English, British
English, Australian English, etc.).

Online Dictionary

These days, there are online dictionaries available for use. Online dictionaries are easy to use.
Choose a suitable free online dictionary. Type in the word you are looking for. The search engine
will return the word to you and the definition section should contain most of the elements
discussed above.

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Further Uses of a Dictionary

1. Use the dictionary to find standard letter forms. Hard copy dictionaries (rather than online
ones) often have standard letters for jobs.

2. Research various facts. Dictionaries often have more than just words and their definitions.
Some of them have lots of information about the world, usually in the form of various lists.
These include geographical information (like maps, countries, cities, capitals, etc.)

Also, hard copy dictionaries often have different weights and volumes, as well as conversion
tables. This can come in handy if you need to convert pounds to kilograms or vice versa.

You can also usually find statistics on population in various cities and countries, as well as lists
of the flags of different countries, states, provinces, and regions around the world.

Many dictionaries also have lists of famous or historical people, which you can peruse.

1.4 Use of Library

Libraries are places where information services are rendered to users. To meet the needs of
these users, libraries provide access to information sources. There are different services and
facilities offered to users by libraries in order that the quest of the prospective users might be
met. The services provided by the libraries can be grouped into three main categories. These are:

(a) The provisions of materials to use:- This includes selection of materials, acquisition,
processing, organization of materials and the placements of these materials on the shelves for
use. All the activities under this category is called “behind the scene services” in librarianship;

(b) Making materials available to users is the other category of services rendered by the library.
This is usually carried out under the reader services where the library makes available all the
processed materials to the intending users through the activities of the circulation units of the
library;

(c) The reference services is the third category of services provided by the library. Materials kept
under the reference section of the library are consulted only when one wants some particular

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information. This section provides reference materials such as dictionaries, Encyclopedias,

Directories, gazettes, Handbooks and some other bibliographic materials.

In summary, reference materials aid users in their pursuit for quick, ready-made and factual
information needs.

Other information services provided by academic libraries across the globe include:

Lending Services: The library staff at the circulation desk is responsible for charging /
discharging of textbooks to users. It is perhaps the most important services provided by a library.
In borrowing library materials, however, certain processes must be followed. It is only the
registered user of the library that can pick books/other library materials from the open shelves in
the collection area, such a book must be taken to the circulation desk for proper processing and
recording by the staff on duty. This enables the librarian/staff to know who loaned an item out of
the library and how long it has been out.

Inter-Library Lending Services: There is no library in the world that can boast of having all
library materials-books and non-books its users need. No matter how large the stock of a library;
there would still be a lack in certain areas. To be able to satisfactorily meet users’ demands,
libraries within the same geographical location could agree to share their resources. This is called
inter-library lending.

Referral Services: There are situations in which a reader might be directed to another library or
to an alternative source of information such as research institutes like IITA library Ibadan,
individual specialists for example Chief Afe Babalola’s Chamber library or Professional
Organizations that can meet the requirement of a reader. Readers are advised to collect a letter of
introduction to take to the library where they are directed to from the reference librarian. This
service is called referral service.

It is to be noted however that there are other information services provided by the academic
librarians, these includes reservation services which provide avenue for the users to make use of
some books or any other library materials for in-house use only.

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1.5 Type of information sources in the library

Library resources are those materials which enable libraries to carry out their functions
effectively. They are made up of books and other information bearing media. Library resources
can be divided into groups according to their functions and level of scholarship or according to
their different formats. In academic libraries, the resource, fall into two major categories
according to the level of scholarship and their functions. These are study/teaching materials and
research materials.

Study/Teaching materials are the resources required by students for their study. They consists of
recommended textbooks, books to support class texts, journals, past examination papers,
reference books, monograph, etc. while the research materials are used by higher degree students
and lecturers. These are made up of periodicals, documents of different kinds, treaties,
manuscripts, pamphlets, government publications, conference proceedings and papers etc.

Resources in the library can also be grouped according to formats. The main formats are:

• Printed materials

• Non-printed/media materials

• Electronic materials

Printed library materials/resources are made up of all items that are printed on paper. This
consists of books, periodicals, government publications, graphics and other illustrative materials
such as maps and atlases. Books may be written by one or several authors and may come in a
single volume or in multiple volumes. Periodicals/serials come at regular or irregular intervals
and are meant to continue indefinitely. They are characterized with distinct titles and several
authors or contributors contributing to each issue. Other printed materials include judicial
publications, indexes and abstracts, legislative publications, Ephemerals etc.

Non-printed materials or media are often referred to as audio visual resources. They are the
product of advanced Technology, some of which require special equipment to operate. Non
printed media can be grouped into three.

(a) Audio:- This has to do with hearing. They are sound recordings produced on magnetic tapes.
Only the auditory senses are required for their appreciation. Examples are Mp3, CD audio, etc.

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(b) Visual- This appeals to the eyes. Materials in this group include photographic, three
dimensional objects, painting and other information bearing resources that the eye can focus on
and abstract information.

(c) Audio-Visual- These combine both the auditory and the visual. Examples are Sound, film,
slides, video tapes, video cassettes, video compact disk (VCD) etc.

Electronic Resources: In this age of information technology (IT), libraries in both developed
and the developing countries provide resources to their teeming users on-line. Electronic services
are characterized by state of the art computer equipment which is fast at processing and
retrieving information and relatively cheap to maintain.

1.6 Good reading habits.

Here are some reading habits that are good and would help improve your reading skills:

1. Read! Practice reading to improve. Make a habit of collecting 3-5 books, comics,
magazines, graphic novels or newspapers. Read on the same topic or in an author or genre series
for a long time if you wish.

2. Read to someone, with someone, and by yourself every day. If students get stuck reading
only in their just-right levels, they will not learn how to select interesting books. Read texts 1-2
years below their reading level, on their reading level, and 1-2 years above their reading level -
every day if you can. This includes all the reading you do in and out of school. You could also
keep a list of the books read and use a coding system to remember books (or authors) you love
and would read again, books to recommend to friends, and books they abandoned.

3. Build sustained personal reading time to 90 minutes. Provide time in school to build
reading time to 90 minutes in one sitting. Every other Friday, build sustained reading time. Start
by reading 20 minutes. In 2 weeks, try 40. In 2 more weeks, try 60. If you are not able to keep
this pace, slow it down. At the end of each reading session, make notes about what you noticed:
if and when you got tired, whether reading the beginning or the end of a book held your attention
the most, whether you need to switch from hard to easy reads to sustain reading time etc.

4. Read in phrases, not word for word. We ---- don’t ---- talk ----- like ---- this ----- so ---- why
are ---we ---reading ---- like this? Readers should look ahead as they read to chunk words
together that seem to go together. There are no rules for how to phrase. It is a matter of

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experimenting and training your eye to look ahead. We practice on sentences in our books. Most
people would read this sentence as: The playful dog --- ran --- under the fence. Some students
hyper-focus on reading every word correctly and they lose comprehension.

5. Learn vocabulary! Collect words! : (1) Find new, interesting, important, or FUN words. (2)
Record them in a composition notebook. (3) Read the context and write your guess about what
the word means. (4) Look up the word. (5) If you are right, check it (√). If you are wrong, choose
the definition from the dictionary that matches and write it in your own words. You can set aside
15 minutes a couple times a week to sit with 2-3 friends and share vocabulary they found or
words with which they need help.

6. Ask constantly, "Does this make sense?" If not, reread or use other strategies until it does!
Often readers just keep reading even when the book stops making sense or when the reader quits
paying attention. A simple habit to get into is to STOP when the reader realizes he’s lost.
Rereading, reading slower, whisper reading, physically getting up and moving, or asking
someone what a word means are all actions readers can take to get back on track.

1.7 Methods of Reading

There are different styles of reading for different situations. The technique you choose will
depend on the purpose for reading. For example, you might be reading for enjoyment,
information, or to complete a task. If you are exploring or reviewing, you might skim a
document. If you are searching for information, you might scan for a particular word. To get
detailed information, you might use a technique such as SQ4R. You need to adjust your reading
speed and technique depending on your purpose.

Many people consider skimming and scanning search techniques rather than reading strategies.
However when reading large volumes of information, they may be more practical than reading.
For example, you might be searching for specific information, looking for clues, or reviewing
information.

Web pages, novels, textbooks, manuals, magazines, newspapers, and mail are just a few of the
things that people read every day. Effective and efficient readers learn to use many styles of
reading for different purposes. Skimming, scanning, and critical reading are different styles of
reading and information processing.

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Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read the newspaper,
you are probably not reading it word-by-word; instead you are scanning the text. Skimming is
done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People often skim when they have
lots of material to read in a limited amount of time. Use skimming when you want to see if an
article may be of interest in your research

There are many strategies that can be used when skimming. Some people read the first and last
paragraphs using headings, summaries and other organizers as they move down the page or
screen. You might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations. Consider reading the
first sentence of each paragraph. This technique is useful when you are seeking specific
information rather than reading for comprehension. Skimming works well to find dates, names,
and places. It might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts.

Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or
dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you are looking
for, so you are concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving your eyes
quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when you first
find a resource to determine whether it will answer your questions. Once you have scanned the
document, you might go back and skim it.

When scanning, look for the author's use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the
words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different font
size, style, or color.

Studying: (The SQ4R Method of Studying)

What is SQ4R?

SQ4R is a versatile study strategy because it engages the reader during each phase of the reading
process. Readers preview/SURVEY (S) the text material to develop predictions and set the
purpose for the reading by generating QUESTIONS (Q) about the topic. They READ (1R)
actively, searching for answers to those questions. They monitor their comprehension as they
summarize WRITE (2R) & RECITE (3R). They evaluate their comprehension through
REVIEW (4R) activities.

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How to Use SQ4R

1. Survey what you are about to read by reading systematically. Think about the title and ask
yourself the following questions: What do you know about the subject? What do I want to know?
Glance over headings and/skim the first sentences of paragraphs, look at illustrations and graphic
aids, read the first paragraph and read the last paragraph or summary.

2. Question-Turn the title into a question. This becomes the major purpose for your reading.
Write down any questions that come to mind during the survey.-Turn headings, subheadings,
illustrations and graphic aids into questions. Write down unfamiliar vocabulary and determine
the meaning.

3. Read Actively-Read to search for answers to the objectives. Respond to objectives and use
context clues for unfamiliar words. React to unclear passages, confusing terms, and questionable
statements by generating additional questions.

4. Recite-Look away from the answers and the book to recall what was read. Recite answers to
the objectives aloud or in writing. Reread text for unanswered objectives.

5. wRite-Make "maps" for yourself.-Reduce the information, reread or skim to locate and prove
your points. Write down the key terms and ideas in outline form. Always read, ask questions and
recite before taking down notes. Check yourself against the text, make necessary corrections and
add to your answer.

6. Review-Answer the major purpose questions. Look over the answers and all parts of the
chapter to organize the information. Summarize the information learned by creating a graphic
organizer (concept map) that depicts the main ideas, by drawing a flow chart, by writing a
summary, by participating in a group discussion, or by writing an explanation of how this
material has changed your perceptions or applies to your work.

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2.0 The nature of Language

Introduction

In this section, we would be looking at the nature of language in general, the characteristics and
functions of language and the four basic language skills. We would also study the uses of the
English language in Nigeria.

Specific Learning Outcomes

2.1 Explain the concept of language.

2.2 List the characteristics of language.
2.3 Demonstrate the four language skills.
2.4 List the functions of language.
2.5 List the uses of English language in Nigeria.

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2.1 Concept of Language

Language is a system of communication based on words and the combination of words into
sentences. Communications could be by linguistic means (language) or non-linguistic means e.g.
laughing, crying, clenching of fist etc. Human beings are able to communicate in both ways to
exchange beliefs, opinions, feelings etc. but our system of communication before anything else is
language. Non-human species also exchange information primarily by non-linguistic means like
yelling, clenching of fists etc. but none of them is known to have a system of communication
with a complexity that is comparable to language.

A number of considerations enter into a proper understanding of language as a subject:

1. Human beings typically acquire in childhood, the ability to make use of a system of
communication that comprises a circumscribed set of symbols (e.g., sounds, gestures, or written
or typed characters). In spoken language, this symbol set consists of noises resulting from
movements of certain organs within the throat and mouth. In signed languages, these symbols
may be hand or body movements, gestures, or facial expressions. By means of these symbols,
people are able to impart information, to express feelings and emotions, to influence the
activities of others, and to comport themselves with varying degrees of friendliness or hostility
toward persons who make use of substantially the same set of symbols.

2. Different systems of communication constitute different languages; the degree of difference

needed to establish a different language cannot be stated exactly. Generally, systems of
communication are recognized as different languages if they cannot be understood without
specific learning by both parties. Different systems of communication that may impede but do
not prevent mutual comprehension are called dialects of a language.

3. People acquire a single language initially—their first language, or native tongue, the language
used by their parents or by those with whom they are brought up from infancy. Subsequently,
“second” languages are learned to different degrees of competence under various conditions.
Complete mastery of two languages is designated as bilingualism; in many cases—such as
upbringing by parents using different languages at home or being raised within a multilingual
community—children grow up as bilinguals. In traditionally monolingual cultures, the learning,

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to any extent, of a second or other language is an activity superimposed on the prior mastery of
one’s first language and is a different process intellectually.

2.2 Characteristics of Language

1. Human language is learned. It is either acquired through cultural transmission or speakers of

one language can learn another.

2. Language is in units – language consists of minimal units

3. It is combinable. The minimal units that make up language can be combined in infinite
varieties

4. It is intuitive. The structural knowledge of a language is not necessarily conscious or

articulated by its speakers

5. It is interchangeable. Any speaker potentially can create and utter any message

6. It is reflexive – people can talk about language; language has the ability to refer to itself

7. It is arbitrary – Its meaning depends on arbitrary association of meaning with sign or symbol,
on conventions shared by sender and receiver of message.

8. It is redundant – language contains redundant communicative elements (message may be

conveyed or reinforced twice in same utterance).

9. It can displace – language can convey imaginary, distant, past, present, future, conjectural,
and/or counterfactual statements (including lies).

10. It is productive – a speaker can create totally novel statements and a listener can understand
them.

2.3 Language Skills

Language can be described in terms of the four basic language skills which are learned in the
following order:

Listening: When people are learning a new language they first hear it spoken.

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Speaking: Eventually, they try to repeat what they hear.

Reading: Later, they see the spoken language depicted symbolically in print.

Writing: Finally, they reproduce these symbols on paper.

Note that these four language skills are sometimes called the "macro-skills". This is in contrast to
the "micro-skills", which are things like grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling.

2.4 Functions of language

Functions of Language By Roman Jakobson

According to Jakobson, we can align/understand the functions of language based on six factors
which are required for communication: (1) context, (2) addresser (3) addressee, (4) contact, (5)
common code, (6) message. A message is sent by the addresser (a sender) to the addressee ( a
receiver). The message cannot be understood outside of a context. “A Code” should be common
fully or at least partially to the addresser and addressee. A contact which is physical channel and
psychological connection between addresser and addressee is necessary for both of them to enter
and stay in communication.

Jacobson communication model

(1) Context

(3)Sender-------------------- (2) Message------------ (4) Receiver

(5) Channel

(6) Code

The six functions of language are:

1) REFERENTIAL FUNCTION: It is a denotative and cognitive function which is oriented

toward the ‘context’. To show things or facts, the referential function is the most obvious
function of language: for example: “The earth is round.”, “Water boils at 100 degrees.”

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2) EMOTIVE FUNCTION: It is also known as “expressive function”. This function focuses on

the ‘addresser’. This function comes out when we want to express our emotions although we do
not speak to give information. In this function, we communicate for ourselves more than other
people who hear us or not. For example: the interjections, which are words or phrases used to
express sudden surprise, pleasure or annoyance such as: “Bah!”, “Oh!”, “Yuck!” “Ouch”, these
are not components but equivalent of sentences. Moreover, as Roman Jakobson’s example in
“Linguistics and Poetics”, only from the changes in the sound shape of the same two words (like
“this evening”), we can make a list of forty or more emotional situations by diversifying its
expressive tint.

.3) CONATIVE FUNCTION: The conative function is an orientation toward ‘addressee’. This
function finds it purest grammatical expression in vocative and imperative sentences, and it helps
us to make people do something and it includes orders and prayers. For example: “Drink!” or
“Go Away”

.4) PHATIC FUNCTION: The phatic function which sets for ‘contact’ establishes, prolongs or
discontinues the communication. We use this function to know whether channel works or
whether the contact is still there. Our purpose in this functions firstly to maintain the contact with
the person we are talking to. For example: “Hello!” “Are you listening?” “Do you hear me?” It is
also the first verbal function which is acquired by infants before they are able to send or receive
informative communication.

5)METALINGUAL FUNCTION: ‘Code’ performs the “ metalingual function” which is used

whenever the addresser and the addressee need to check whether they use same code and when
the language is used to speak about language. For example: “What do you mean by “krill”?”,
“What is plucked?” In the process of language learning, the acquisition of mother tongue
includes wide use of metalingual actions; for example aphasia may be described as a loss of
capability for metalingual actions.

6) POETIC FUNCTION: The poetic function which is orientation toward “message” and “the
focus on the message for its own sake”. This function includes more than poetry, linguistics
cannot limit itself just to the field of poetry. When we say “John and Margery” instead of
“Margery and John” or when we say “horrible Harry” instead of “terrible Harry, dreadful Harry”
which have same meaning, we use the poetic function of language.

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When we analyze the functions of language for a given unit such as a word, a text, or an image,
we specify which functions are present or absent, to which class or type this unit belongs and
which characteristics these functions have regarding hierarchical and other relations that can
operate between them.

2.5 Uses of the English Language in Nigeria

The English language plays very prominent roles in Nigeria. Ethnic divisions in Nigeria are often
along linguistic lines. It is assumed that the existence of many languages means the existence of
many basically antagonistic nationalities trying to form nation. In essence, there is mutual
antagonism amongst the ethno linguistic regions of the country making the issue of the national
language question a difficult one.

Basically, each of the majority language asserts its supremacy over the others. The implication
then is, adopting any Nigeria language as a national language would be political. A resource is
then made to the use of the English language to meet our national communicative needs, more
because of its neutrality in the country. The adaptation of the imperial tongue as a language for
wider communication dates back to 1862 when Lagos was formally established as the colony by
the British invaders. The teaching of English in Nigeria is not done unjustifiably; the nascent
desire for the acquisition of this metropolitan language by every Nigerian is ignited by the fact
that the language had occupied an enviable and prominent position in the nation`s imperialistic
colonial heritage.

The following are functions of the English language in Nigeria:

1. English is the language of education. This seems to be the most important function of
English in our society. In all the levels of education in Nigeria, the English language is the most
widely used language of instructions in schools. This has been given backing by the Nigerian
Educational Policy (1977) which makes it mandatory for the English language to be the only
language of instructions in our schools especially at the secondary and the tertiary levels. The
indigenous languages are used at the primary school level, though rarely, as every school
considers the English language as the most suitable language of teaching and learning.

2. It is the language of the government. The English language is the language of government in
Nigeria because almost all the transactions in government offices are carried out in the English
language. Minutes, official correspondences, memoranda, circulars, instructions and directives

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are given out in the English language. Proceedings of meetings are written and conducted in
English in government offices. Most government protocol and propaganda are carried out in
English.

3. It is the language of commerce and industry in Nigeria. Transactions in commerce and

industry are mostly carried out in the English language and Pidgin English as well as in some
local languages. English is the only language used in the boardrooms during meetings by
members of staff. Inter and intra business transactions are done in the English language.
Transactions in the banking halls are carried out in English. Trading in the stock exchange
market is also performed in the English language.

4. It is the language of the media. The English language is the most extensively used language
in the Nigerian media. When we refer to the Nigerian media, we mean both the print and the
electronic media.

5. It is the language of international communication. When Nigerians want to engage in

international business or transaction of any kind with persons beyond Nigerian geographical
boundary, English becomes a readily available language to be used either in the country or
outside the country.

6. It is the language of law and legal drafting. Almost all the books in law and legal drafting
are written in English. All the volumes of the Nigerian constitution from inception till date are
written in English. All the law books used in all the courts in Nigeria like the Supreme Court, the
court of Appeal, the High courts, the Magistrate courts and their proceedings are conducted in
English. Sparsely, are Latin and Greek vocabularies used.

7. The language of science and technology in Nigeria is English. It is true that most names of
chemicals and scientific formulae are written in English; perhaps the Nigerian indigenous
languages have not developed enough to handle some of these scientific and chemical names. In
information and technology, the language used is equally English. Since science and technology
have their bases in foreign countries, their terminologies have to be transferred to us in the
language of the country of origin which is obviously English.

8. It is the language of social interaction in Nigeria. If a Nigerian meets another Nigerian for
the first time, the first language s/he is likely to use in communication will be English which
could be Pidgin, Broken or Standard English. It is after the state of origin has been established
and perhaps the language the acquaint ants used as s/he first language that s/he may revert to an
indigenous language both of them understand.

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3.0 Grammar

Introduction

In this section, we are going to be looking at the rules that govern the grammar of English
language. We would learn how to construct sentences correctly, look at punctuation marks and
their uses. We would also study idioms and figures of speech.

Specific Learning Outcomes

3.1 Define Grammar

3.2 List the parts of speech

3.3 Use the parts of speech in sentences

3.4 Correct common errors in the use of parts of speech in sentences

3.5 Construct sentences with correct syntactic arrangement

3.6 List punctuation marks

3.7 Use punctuation marks in a given passage

3.8 List idioms and figures of speech.

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3.1 What is grammar?

Grammar is a component of language structure which is concerned with the relations

between words in sentences. The concept of the word is a grammatical concept; in speech,
words are not separated by pauses, but they are recognized as recurrent units that make up
sentences. Classes of words or parts of speech are distinguished because they occupy different
places in sentence structure, and in most languages some of them appear in different forms
according to their function (e.g. In English man, men; walk, walked; I, me; and so on).In
general, languages differ in the extent to which word-form variation is used in their grammar.

3.2 Parts of Speech

Part of speech is the common name for a word class--a category into which words are placed
according to the work they do in a sentence. To what part of speech a word is, we have to look
not only at the word itself but also at its meaning, position, and use in a sentence. There are eight
traditional parts of speech.

1. Nouns

2. Pronouns

3. Verbs

4. Adverbs

5. Adjectives

6. Conjunctions

7. Interjections

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8. Preposition

3.3 Use of Parts of Speech in Sentences

Noun

A noun is the part of speech which acts as label or identity tag for all objects, articles or
things, around us it is the name of a person, an animal, place or thing, quality or state
(condition) e.g. Musa, John, Lagos, Ghana, bottle, Table, honesty, peace etc.

1. Proper nouns: A proper noun is name of a particular person, place or important things, all
proper nouns begin with capital letters. Example of such nouns are; Musa, Ladi, Chioma, Tolu,
Lagos, Abia, Red Sea, Nile. The names of days of the week and months also begin with capital
letters e.g. Monday, Tuesday, January, December etc.

2. Common Nouns: they are the names given to all people place or things of the same kind that
is, the name is common to creatures or things of the same class or group e.g. man, boy, teacher,
doctor, pastor, animal, bird, book and girl. It is a general name for creatures or things.

3. Abstract Nouns: These are names of things we can neither see nor touch, but which
can be felt at times. Examples of such nouns are death, thirst, air, wind, justice, corruption, storm
or hurricane.

4. Collective Nouns: these are the names of a group or a collective people, animal or
things e.g. flock, gang, audience, class, congregation and bench. E.g. “Flock” is a collective noun
for a group of birds or sheep while

“Congregation” is a group of people that worship in a church.

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5. Concrete Nouns: These are the name of things we can touch and see as opposed to
abstract nouns. Examples are chair, bottle, pen, plate, duster, books, ruler etc.

LIST OF COLLECTIVE NOUNS

A clutch of eggs A gang of robbers

A battalion of soldier A Library of books

A brood of chicken A pack of cards

A class of students/pupil A swarm of bees

A fleet of ship/cars A team of players

A set of teeth A troop of soldiers/lions

A bench of judges A zoo of wild animals

A board of directors A heap of stones

A forest of trees A troop of dancers

Note: A noun could also act as an adjective (adjunct) or as a verb (gerund).

Pronouns

A pronoun is a word used to replace or substitute a noun. Pronouns are used to avoid
repetition of nouns and therefore occupy positions in sentence which are normally occupied by
nouns.

For example: Charles asked for Charles meal

To avoid repetition of the noun “Charles”, the sentence can be rewritten as Charles asked for his
meal. In this sentence, the pronoun “his” replaces Charles in the sentence.

Type of Pronouns

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(1) Personal pronouns

(2) Possessive pronouns

(3) Reflexive pronouns

(4) Reciprocal pronouns

(5) Relative pronouns

(6) Interrogative pronouns

(7) Demonstrative pronoun

1. Personal Pronouns

These pronouns are of three types the first, second and third person

(a) First person - the person speaking or reporting e.g. I, us,

(b) Second person - the person being spoken to or being addressed e.g. you

(c) Third person - the person being spoken about or being

discussed. E.g. her, he, them, their

2. Possessive Pronouns: these pronouns indicate possession. They are of two forms. i.e my
belt, your car, the other form is without a noun e.g mine, yours, ours.

EXAMPLES

(1) My pen is in my bag

(2) The dog is mine

(3) Their team won the match

(4) The table is yours

3. Reciprocal Pronouns

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These indicate an exchange of action between two or more people when the action is shared by
two people, we use each other, when the action is shared by more than two people, we use one
another.

EXAMPLES

Soji and Uwa love each other

The team members congratulated one another after the victory

4. Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronoun is a word that shows that the action performed by someone has its effect on
the person or the thing that does it, that is, the effect of the action is on the doer(s) or
performer(s) of such action.

Examples

(1) I did the work myself

(2) He intentionally killed himself

(3) I like to do it myself

(4) They decided to go there themselves

(5) You can print the paper yourself

(6) You are the one that destroyed yourselves because of your ignorance

(7) The goat climbs the fence by itself

5. Relative Pronouns

A relative pronoun is used to connect a clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun. You see them
used every day with the most common relative pronouns being: who, whom, which, whoever,
whomever, whichever, and that.

They are: which, who, when, whose, that

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e.g. (1) The boy is good

(2) He buys a nice book

Compound: the boy is good and he buys a nice book

Complex: the boy who/that is good buys a nice book

In the above complex sentence who or that has replaced “and” and he in the compound sentence

6. Interrogative Pronoun

They are relative pronoun used as questions e.g. who, when, which, what, whose.

Examples

1. Who is that man standing there?

2. Whom do you want to see?

3. Which of the three boys is a rogue?

4. What is your nationality?

5. Whose book do you want to read?

7. Demonstrative pronouns

This, these, that, those

Examples

This is my ball

These are my books

That is my book

Those are my books

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Verbs

A verb is an action word, it tells what a pronoun does in the sentence. The actions or
activities of persons or things are made known through the use of verbs.

There are certain verbs that takes “-s or es” inflections when used with the third person singular
pronouns and singular nouns and those that don’t take any inflection

Examples:

1) He drinks a bottle of wine

2) She always goes to school

3) It rains heavily in Lagos

4) Godwin sings a song

The verbs that are used with other pronouns other than the third person singular pronouns need
no “-s or es” inflections.

5) I drink a bottle of wine

6) We always go to school

7) You drink wine everyday

8) They sing a beautiful song

9) Yemi and Deji always fight each other

Lexical and Auxiliary verbs

Lexical verbs are verbs that stand on their own. They are otherwise known as main verbs. The
main verb is the prominent verb that really carries the major meaning or tells us exactly what a
noun or pronoun does in the sentence.

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Auxiliary verb cannot stand on its own. It can only help main verb to form a sentence. It assists
the man verb.

Examples:

1) Biola writes a letter (Lex verb)

2) John ate rice (Lex verb)

3) She dances to the music (Lex verb)

4) He is writing a letter (Aux verb)

5) John was eating rice (Aux verb)

6) They are worshipping God (Aux verb)

7) You will travel with him (Aux verb)

8) They have travelled to Lagos (Aux verb)

Adverb

An adverb is a word that adds to the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
That is, it modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb and prepositional phrase

How adverb modifies verbs

a) The man walks slowly

b) Ada sings melodiously

c) Ada and Chioma dance beautifully

How adverb modifies adjectives

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a) Your work is very good

b) These children are too happy today

c) Gbenga was very sad when he saw his result

How adverb modifies another adverb

a) The man walks too slowly

b) Nweze sings very melodiously

c) He plays football really well

How adverb modifies prepositional phase

a) They pasted the paper well on the wall

b) She proclaimed it right away to his face

c) The answer has gone quiet out of my mind

In examples a-c given above, the adverbs well, right away and quiet modifies the prepositional
phrases “on the wall” “to his face” and out of mind respectively.

Adjectives

An adjective modifies a noun.

Example:

a) He is a handsome man.
b) She is a hardworking woman.
c) He is a tall man.

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Conjunction

It is a word that joins words, phrases and clauses.

Example:

a) And
b) But
c) Yet

Interjection

These are words that we use to express emotions.

Example:

a) Ah
b) Woops
c) Ouch

Preposition

It shows the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and other words in a sentence.

Example:

a) Tom climbed up the wall.

b) The boy went over the wall.
c) He is leaning against the wall

3.4 Common errors in the use of parts of speech

Below are a list of common errors in the use of parts of speech and their corrections.

a) The excessive use of conjunctions to run on sentences

Example:

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Wrong: For perhaps the first time in their lives, this group recognized themselves and others as
learning resources and learned through practice of interpersonal behaviors and skills such as
giving and receiving feedback.

Right: For perhaps the first time in their lives, this group recognized themselves and others as
learning resources.

They learned through practice of interpersonal behaviors and skills such as giving and receiving
feedback.

b) Lack of subject - verb agreement. Happens especially when the subject of the
sentence is far away from the verb.
Example:

Wrong: The positive qualities under expression component of an essay includes clarity and
general appropriateness.

Right: The positive qualities under expression component of an essay include clarity and
general appropriateness.

The writer could not identify qualities as the subject of this sentence but was attracted by the
nearest noun an essay.

c) Examples of frequently misused expressions.

1) Affect (verb) / Effect (noun)

2) consist of (to be used with preposition-of) / comprise (to be used without ‘of’)

3) Its (possessive) / It`s (it is)

4) Less (smaller amount of; takes singular verb) / fewer (takes plural verb)

5) There (location) /their (possession) / they`re (they are)

d) The problem of pre-modification

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Example:

Wrong: Students reading ability.

Right: Students` reading ability or a student`s reading abilities.

3.5 Construction of sentences with correct syntactic arrangement.

The basic parts of a sentence can be combined and arranged in countless ways. To construct
sentences with the correct syntactic arrangement, it is important to understand what the basic
structures of sentences are and how to use them effectively.

Four Basic Sentence Structures

There are four basic sentence structures in English:

i. A simple sentence is a sentence with just one independent clause (also called a main clause):
Mary laughed.

ii. A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses: Mary laughed and Musa
cried.

iii. A complex sentence contains an independent clause and at least one dependent clause:
Jimmy cried when Judy laughed.

iv. A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and at least one
dependent clause: Judy laughed and Jimmy cried when the clowns ran past their seats.

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From the above, we can see that the basic parts of a sentence are the subject, the verb, and (often,
but not always) the object. The subject is usually a noun--a word that names a person, place, or
thing. The verb (or predicate) usually follows the subject and identifies an action or a state of
being. An object receives the action and usually follows the verb.

Examples:

1. Mary laughed. (Subject + verb)

2. Musa painted the car. (subject+verb+object)

Basic sentences can be expanded using modifiers--words that add to the meanings of other
words.

The simplest modifiers are adjectives and adverbs.

Adjectives modify nouns: The tall girl laughed.

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs: Musa painted the car beautifully.

Adjectival clauses and adverbial clauses are a more complex way of expanding a sentence
correctly.

Adjectival Clauses

They are used to show that one idea in a sentence is more important than another and are
dependent on the main clause. They make good examples of complex sentences. The most
common adjective clauses begin with one of these relative pronouns: who, which, and that.

e.g. The man, who came to the office yesterday, is back again.

Adverbial Clauses

Like an adjective clause, an adverb clause is always dependent on (or subordinate to) an
independent clause. Like an ordinary adverb, an adverb clause usually modifies a verb, though it
can also modify an adjective, an adverb, or even the rest of the sentence in which it appears. An
adverb clause begins with a subordinating conjunction--an adverb that connects the subordinate
clause to the main clause.

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E.g. they danced all night, yet they never got tired.

3.6 Punctuation marks

The fourteen punctuation marks in English grammar are:

the period, question mark, exclamation point, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, hyphen,
parentheses, brackets, braces, apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipses.

3.7 Uses of Punctuation marks

The period, question mark, and exclamation point

These three punctuation marks are appropriate for use as sentence endings.

The period (.) is placed at the end of declarative sentences, statements thought to be complete
and after abbreviations.

For example:

 As a sentence ender: Jane and Jack went to the market.

 After an abbreviation: Her Mar. birthday came and went.

A question mark (?) is used to indicate a direct question when placed at the end of a sentence.

For example: When did Jane leave for the market?

The exclamation point/mark (!) is used when a person wants to express a sudden outcry or add
emphasis.

 Within dialogue: “bloody cow!” screamed Jane.

 To emphasize a point: My mother-in-law's rants make me furious!

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Comma, Semicolon and Colon

The comma, semicolon and colon are often misused because they all can indicate a pause in a
series.

The comma is used to show a separation of ideas or elements within the structure of a sentence.
Additionally, it is used in letter writing after the salutation and closing.

• Separating elements within sentences: Suzi wanted the black, green, and blue shoes.

• Letter Salutations: Dear Uncle John,

• Separation of two complete sentences: We went to the movies, and we went to the beach.

The semicolon (;) is used to connect independent clauses. It shows a closer relationship between
the clauses than a period would show.

For example: John was hurt; he knew she only said it to upset him.

A colon (:) has two main uses:

The first is after a word introducing a quotation, an explanation, an example, or a series.

E.g. an explanation: She had two obsessions: movies and ballet. Everything else was
inconsequential.

In a series: You have three choices: buy a car, buy a ticket, or save the money and take a nap.

The second is within time expressions. Within time, it is used to separate out the hour and
minute: 12: 15 p.m.

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Dash and the Hyphen

Two kinds of dashes are used throughout written communications. They are the endash and the
emdash. An endash is a symbol (-) that is used in writing or printing to connect numbers or to
connect elements of a compound adjective, such as 1880 - 1945 or Princeton - New York trains.

However, the emdash has more complicated grammatical use. The symbol of is used to:

-Indicate a break in thought or sentence structure

-Introduce a phrase added for emphasis, definition, or explanation

-Separate two clauses

Use it in the following manner: We only wanted to get two birds - but the clerk talked us into
four pregnant parakeets.

A hyphen (-) is the same symbol as the endash. However, it has slightly different usage rules. A
hyphen is used between the parts of a compound word or name or between the syllables of a
word, especially when divided at the end of a line of text.

Examples of this in use include:

• Between a compound name: Mrs. Smith - Reynolds

• Within a compound word: back - to - back

Brackets, Braces and Parentheses

Brackets, braces and parentheses are symbols used to contain words that are a further
explanation or are considered a group.

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Parentheses ( () ) are curved notations used to contain further thoughts or qualifying remarks.
However, parentheses can be replaced by commas without changing the meaning in most cases.

For example: John and Jane (who were actually half brother and sister) both have red hair.

Brackets are the squared off notations ([]) used for technical explanations. Dictionaries use them
when you look up word definitions. At the bottom of each definition page, brackets surround a
technical description of where the word originated.

Braces ({}) are used to contain two or more lines of text or listed items to show that they are
considered as a unit. They are not commonplace in most writing, but can be seen in computer
programming to show what should be contained within the same lines.

Apostrophe, Quotation Marks and Ellipses

The final three punctuation forms in English grammar are the apostrophe, quotation marks and
ellipses. Unlike previously mentioned grammatical marks, they are not related to one another in
any form.

An apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word, the
possessive case, or the plurals of lowercase letters.

Examples of the apostrophe in use include:

• Omission of letters from a word: An issue of Nat’l importance.

• Possessive case: Sara's dog bites.

• Plural for lowercase letters: Six people were told to mind their p's and q's.

Quotations marks (“”) are a pair of punctuation marks used primarily to mark the beginning
and end of a passage attributed to another and repeated word for word. They are also used to
indicate meanings and to indicate the unusual or dubious status of a word.

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Single quotation marks (') are used most frequently for quotes within quotes.

The ellipses mark is generally represented by three periods (. . . ) although it is occasionally

demonstrated with three asterisks (***). The ellipses are used in writing or printing to indicate an
omission, especially of letters or words. Ellipses are frequently used within quotations to jump
from one phrase to another, omitting unnecessary words that do not interfere with the meaning.
Students writing research papers or newspapers quoting parts of speeches will often employ
ellipses to avoid copying lengthy text that is not needed.

It is also used to indicate a pause in the flow of a sentence e.g.

“ I am wondering…” Joan said, bemused.

3.8 Idioms and Figures of Speech

Idioms are a group of words that we cannot figure out their meaning by examining the
phrase alone, e.g. “dime a dozen” which means something is common and easy to obtain and
does not remotely mean a dime or a dozen. As a non-native speaker of English, the best way to
understand idioms is to memorize their meanings from the standpoint of a native speaker.

Examples of some English idioms and their meanings:

1. Piece of cake – When someone says that the assignment they just finished was a piece of cake,
it does not mean that their instructor gave them a cupcake for their midterm paper, what piece of
cake actually means is that something is very easy to complete.

2. Costs an arm and a leg – It would be a strange world we lived in if buying that fancy shiny
purse literally required us to chop off our body parts to give as tribute to the Louis Vuitton gods.
When something costs an arm and a leg it actually means that something is very expensive.

3. Break a leg – You are about to take an exam that you dread and before you head into your
classroom your roommate texts you, “Break a Leg!” You think in your head, would he ever wish

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that upon me? Well, your roommate surely does not want your bones to break while walking to
your seat in the exam room. Break a leg actually means good luck.

4. Hit the books – If you are a student in an English speaking environment you will probably be
hearing this phrase a lot. Hit the books actually means to study.

5. Let the cat out of the bag – This last idiom actually means to disclose a secret that was
supposed to be kept, well, as a secret. It has nothing to do with a cat or a bag.

A figure of speech expresses an idea, thought, or image with words which carry meanings
beyond their literal ones. Figures of speech give an extra dimension to language by stimulating
the imagination and evoking visual, sensual imagery; such language paints a mental picture in
words. Some types of figurative language are the following:

(1) Simile: This is a figure of speech in which a comparison between two different things is
made using as or like. It simply means comparing two different things using as or like.
Examples:

(1) He gently walked into the room like a bold lion that is afraid of no one.

(2) He fought as bravely as a lion would fight to defend its den.

(ii) Metaphor: metaphor is also a form of comparison in which the qualities or attributes of one
object or person are directly compared with that of another without the use of as or like.

In a way, it is imposing the attribute of one thing directly on another.

Examples:

(1) The cars kept swimming past the crowd until the president's car arrived.

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(2) The lady's actions at the party has shown her to be a leopard.

(iii) Personification: This is a figure of speech in which human attributes or qualities are given
to inanimate objects. This means that non-living things and inanimate objects are described as
though they are human beings.

Examples:

(1) As soon as the clouds began to move, we knew that the smiling sun would soon disappear
leaving the heavens to weep dropping tears.

Here, sun has been made to smile and heaven to cry or weep. This is giving human qualities to
non-humans.

(2) The thunder is a sign that the heaven is groaning in the pains of weeping.

(iv)Hyperbole: This is also known as exaggeration. It is a figure of speech in which an over-

statement is made about the ability of something. It simply means exaggeration.

Examples:

(1) The man who appeared later was as tall as Mount Everest

(2) The distance between my house and the school is exactly like the distance between
heaven and earth

(v)Euphemism: This figure of speech is used in expressing a very harsh experience through a
mild statement. Examples:

(1) The lady finally kicked the bucket. (Died)

(2) The school authorities advised the bad boys to stop coming to
school (expelled)

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(vi)Metonymy: This is a figure of speech in which an object or item closely associated with an
office or position is used to represent that office or position.

Examples:

(1) The guns were certainly beginning to take control of every available state apparatus,

(2) The crown invited every participant to a banquet.

(vii) Synecdoche: This is a figure of speech in which a part of an object is used to

represent the whole of that thing or the whole is used to represent a part. Examples:

(1) Ten hands descended on the thief after he was caught.

(2) Two eyes witnessed the death of the young thief.

(3) Australia lost by two goals.

(viii) Irony: This means expressing the opposite of what the speaker or writer actually means.
Its meaning can be got from the context in which it is used.

Examples:

1. James is the tallest boy in the class (whereas he is the shortest).

2. The boy expressed his intelligence when he couldn’t read the first five letters of the
English alphabet.

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4.0 Essential Qualities of a paragraph

Introduction

We would be looking at the paragraph, its parts, how to develop one and the qualities that make a
paragraph coherent.

Specific Learning Outcome

4.1 Define a paragraph.

4.2 List the parts of a paragraph.
4.3 List the thematic qualities of a paragraph.
4.4 Explain the methods of paragraph development.
4.5 Explain methods of ordering details in a paragraph
4.6 Write a paragraph to illustrate 4.2-4.5 above.

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4.1 What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a group of closely related sentences that develop a central idea. It

conventionally begins on a new line, which is sometimes indented.

In the following paragraph, observe how the writer develops a central idea (a friendly clown), by
moving from a description of the head of the clown (in sentences two, three, and four), to the
body (sentences five, six, seven, and eight), to the unicycle underneath (sentence nine). Notice
also how the concluding sentence helps to tie the paragraph together by emphasizing the personal
value of this gift.

A Friendly Clown

On one corner of my dresser sits a smiling toy clown on a tiny unicycle--a gift I received last
Christmas from a close friend. The clown's short yellow hair, made of yarn, covers its ears but is
parted above the eyes. The blue eyes are outlined in black with thin, dark lashes flowing from the
brows. It has cherry-red cheeks, nose, and lips, and its broad grin disappears into the wide, white
ruffle around its neck. The clown wears a fluffy, two-tone nylon costume. The left side of the
outfit is light blue, and the right side is red. The two colors merge in a dark line that runs down

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the center of the small outfit. Surrounding its ankles and disguising its long black shoes are big
pink bows. The white spokes on the wheels of the unicycle gather in the center and expand to the
black tire so that the wheel somewhat resembles the inner half of a grapefruit. The clown and
unicycle together stand about a foot high. As a cherished gift from my good friend Tran, this
colorful figure greets me with a smile every time I enter my room.

4.2 Parts of a Paragraph.

A paragraph is made of three parts:

A) Topic sentence
B) Body
C) Concluding remarks (closing sentence)

Topic Sentence

The topic sentence tells the reader what the paragraph is going to be about. It also helps the
writer keep his writing under control. This is why a topic sentence is sometimes called the
"controlling idea" of a paragraph. A good formula for constructing a topic sentence is choosing a
specific subject and a specific feeling you have in relation to the subject. Example: Mr. Brown
must have been in the military before he became our rector.

Body

The body is the main part of the paragraph. This is where you tell the reader about your topic by
including specific details. All of the sentences in the body must relate to the specific topic of the
paragraph and help it come alive for the reader. That is, all of the sentences in the body should
contain details that make the topic more interesting or help explain it more clearly. These
sentences should be organized in the best possible order see the example of ‘A friendly clown’ in
4.1

Concluding Remarks

The closing sentence comes after all the details have been included in the body of the paragraph.
The closing sentence reminds the reader what the topic of the paragraph is really all about, what
it means. For example, if the topic sentence of a paragraph is "Mr. Brown must have been in the
military before he became our rector." A closing sentence for this paragraph could be something

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like the following: “I am surprised that Mr. Brown does not make us march into the shower room
after each class.”

4.3 Thematic Qualities of a Paragraph

The Qualities of a well written paragraph are:

1. Unity – This is when a paragraph contains a single main idea.

2. Coherence - This is when sentences follow one another in such a way that the writer`s ideas
are expressed in a clear logical manner without sudden shifts or gaps of thought. This can be
achieved by arranging the details in a logical order to avoid thought gaps. Also, by using
transitional devices or signals to link the thought sequence.

3. Emphasis – In this principle of composition, important ideas are made to stand.

4. Order – This is the quality that gives the paragraph a specific direction. It guides the readers
mind towards the point the writer wishes to make or directs the reader towards the understanding
of that point.

4.4 Methods of Paragraph development

Here are some methods useful for the proper development of paragraph:

Classification: The classification paragraph is usually expository and is a process of grouping

terms or ideas that are related in some specific way.

Example or Illustration: Examples and illustrations are used in almost all types or modes of
writing to help support points that the writer is making. The example paragraph reaches a
conclusion (topic sentence) as a result of observing a number of examples and then forms a
generalization called induction. One of the most effective ways to support the validity of a
conclusion is to relate a few typical examples that led you to such a conclusion in the first place.

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An example is a specific detail used to attempt to make an abstract idea concrete or a general
idea specific. The illustration paragraph is similar to the example paragraph because it, too, is
specific in time, place, and action. The main difference is that the illustration paragraph is a story
(true or untrue) that supports or develops a main point (the topic sentence). When using an
illustration to support the validity of a conclusion, make sure that the illustration is concise and
to the point, so that the reader does not lose sight of the main idea of the paragraph. The chief
value of illustration is its potential to be interesting because all readers like a story.

Comparison or Contrast: Another method of developing paragraphs is through comparison or

contrast. Comparison shows similarities while a contrast shows differences.

The main reason for using this method is to explain an unfamiliar object or idea by comparing or
contrasting it to a familiar object or idea. The writer may develop the paragraph or essay by first
discussing all of one subject and then fully presenting the second subject, or the writer might
discuss one like or different trait with each subject and then move to other characteristics, thus
discussing both subjects together.

Problem/Solution: In a problem/solution paragraph the writer begins by explaining theProblem

(causes and effects may be used) and then presents a solution or several solutions. If the writer is
trying to convince the reader of a best solution, the aim is persuasive.

Definition: A paragraph that is developed by definition answers the question “What is it?”
Usually expository or informational, the definition may be one sentence or extended to be a
paragraph, theme, or even a book. It is usually combined with other methods of development.

The definition is intended to clarify meaning; thus, it should identify essential qualities and limit
the term’s meaning.

4.5 Organizing details in paragraphs

These are the various methods we can use to arrange the content of a paragraph. Some of these
methods are:

Chronological order: This means arranging events in the order in which they happened. An
example of chronological order is as follows: "Todd woke up, went to the store, stopped by the
post office and then he returned home."

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Spatial order: sentences flow smoothly from one to the next, describing the order in which
things appear or are placed. For example, a spatially organized paragraph's sentences can move
the subject from north to south, near to distant or left to right. ." Spatial order is illustrated with
this sentence: "To drive from Charleston to Asheville, take I-26 west until you reach Asheville."

Order of importance means writing along the array of least important to most important or vice
versa. ." An order of importance sample follows: "We will discuss the matters at hand. We must
put customer service first. Customers are number one. They are the reason we have a job. The
next matter at hand is money or tips. After that, we can discuss where to put the 'Employees
Only' sign so the customers will see it."

The motion of a paragraph can also move from general to specific or specific to general. For
example, specific to general: "A woman down the street is five feet tall, of medium build, and
has black hair, blue eyes and a mole on her chin. She eats a lot and watches movies. Women like
to watch movies." The last organization strategy is general to specific an example is: "There has
been a growing interest in voice typing. Statistics show that 80 percent of Americans are using
this innovative concept."

4.7 Exercise
Write paragraphs to illustrate 4.2 to 4.5 above.

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5.0 Appreciating Literary Works in English

Here we will be looking at the term literature, the meaning of literature and its development over
time. We would examine the different literary genres and explore the functions of literature. We
would also read a literature text.

Specific Learning Outcomes

5.1 Define Literature

5.2 Explain the development of literature
5.3 Differentiate between literary genres
5.4 List the functions of literature
5.5 List and explain the various terminologies of prose fiction
5.6 Read and analyze a literature text.

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5.1 Definition of Literature

Literature is a term used to describe written or spoken material. Broadly speaking, "literature" is
used to describe anything from creative writing to more technical or scientific works, but the
term is most commonly used to refer to works of the creative imagination, including works of
poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfiction.

Therefore, we can define literature as a branch of art which essential medium of expression
is writing. It comprises imaginative and artistic writing as well as an imaginative verbal
construct that emerges from the creative consciousness of a literary artist.

5.2 Development of literature

The story of literature is not one of slow incremental growth, of literary decisions arrived at after
deliberate and calculated innovation. Literature grows in spurts, evolving within the context of
remarkably periods, in which a number of factors converge to take the art of writing in a
markedly different direction.

These paradigmatic shifts include periods such as the Renaissance, during which William
Shakespeare`s writings were popular. By the late 1880s, literature was largely in the sway of the
Romantic era. The style and substance of their writing adhered to Romantic ideals. These ideals

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included heightened emotion, idealized and imaginative situations, and heroic, larger-than-life
characters.

By the 1890s a new method of writing, called Realism, soon became the fashion, and began to
eclipse Romanticism. The goal of writing was to capture the raw material of life in all of its
messy details. Realism is precisely what it sounds like. It is attention to detail, and an effort to
replicate the true nature of reality in a way that novelists had never attempted

Modernism set in, in the years from shortly after the beginning of the twentieth century through
roughly 1965. In broad terms, the period was marked by sudden and unexpected breaks with
traditional ways of viewing and interacting with the world. Experimentation and individualism
became virtues, where in the past they were often heartily discouraged .Modernism came about,
through a series of cultural shocks. The first of these great shocks was the Great War, which
ravaged Europe from 1914 through 1918.

In Nigeria, western influences began affecting our literature as early as the eighth century AD
when Arabic ideas and culture were introduced to Africa. During the fourteenth century, written
and spoken Arabic flourished in northern Nigeria and by the seventeenth century, some Hausa
literature had been translated into Arabic. Christian missionaries accelerated the importation of
western education into Nigeria during the nineteenth century.

In various parts of the country, novels developed around 1930. Centered upon fantastic, magical
characters of humans and fairies, Hausa novels, called "non-realistic novels," were based on
folktales. The "mysterious" characters transmuted into other beings; fairies, animals, and humans
all conversed among one another.

However, a major shift in literary style from fantasy to realism resulted from the founding of the
University College of Ibadan in 1948. There were calls for a new literary style from scholars
educated in the western tradition at the University. Conferences, journals, and newspapers urged
the shift to realism. This became possible when the Ministry of Education sponsored a novel-
writing competition in 1963, and stated that "the kind of story they wanted to see was the story
that dealt with the kind of things we could see with our eyes in Nigeria today."

Yoruba writers of the time reacted appropriately, eliminating the fairies in favor of human
characters, omitting the animal-to-human conversation found in the non-realistic literature.
Leaving behind group-specific references and literature styles, the authors worked with broader
themes. A new literary tradition was adopted by many Yoruba novelists who dealt with such

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universal themes as religion, labor, corruption, and justice and who employed human characters
and concrete symbols.

More Nigerian authors meant more authors writing in English, including Wole Soyinka, Chinua
Achebe and their contemporaries. Today, we have a host of Nigerian authors, at home and
abroad. These Nigerian writers of the new generation have pushed Nigerian literature to the
pinnacle by winning some of the most prestigious literary prizes. Ben Okri won the Booker Prize
for his The Famished Road in 1991, Helon Habila, Segun Afolabi and E. C Osondu, won the
Caine Prize for their Prison Story, Monday Morning and Waiting, respectively. Chimamanda
Ngozi Adichie also won the Commonwealth Prize for Literature and the Orange Prize with her
novel, Half of a Yellow Sun.

5.3 Literary Genres

When we talk about the genres of literature, we mean the classification or categorizations of
literature. Literary works are categorized based on form, outlook, structure and purpose. They
are classified commonly into three main genres:

Prose-fiction

Poetry

Drama

There is also a fourth genre which is not as common as the above mentioned because it does not
depend much on imaginative thinking and creative story telling. This is the non-fictional prose.

Prose Fiction

Prose fiction is the genre of literature that most reflects our conventional, every day kind of
story telling activity. In the work of prose, a writer narrates a story on paper in the straight
forward, continuous form as any teller of folktales or any narrator of an exciting event. It is the
most common and most patronized form of literature in the modern world

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It comprises of three types; the novel, the novella and the short story. The distinguishing factor
between these three has to do with the length. The novel is longer than the novella and the short
story is the shortest of the three.

Poetry

Poetry is a genre of literature that provides a writer with the medium to pour out his
emotions and feelings persuasively, effectively and convincingly. Good poetry is said to come
from the soul and not the head because it talks about strong feelings coming from an inspired
mind which may not find appropriate expression under ordinary, less inspired situations.

In his oft-quoted description of poetry which appears in the preface to the Lyrical ballads,
William Wordsworth sees good poetry as “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings” We
see poetry in situations like the song of lament a woman sings on the occasion of her dead
husband`s funeral, or an enraptured lover declaring unrestrained the depths of his overflowing
affection for his mate and so on.

A distinctive factor of poetry is its language. It is dense, concentrated and charged with meaning.
The linguistic medium of poetry is not just ordinary, everyday speech pattern but a more refined
and sublime set of utterances. It is characterized with verse, sound and compression of statement.

Drama

Drama is a genre of literature designed to convey its message in a combination of words

actions and words. In drama, the characters assume life and act out the story of the play. Even
when plays are written on paper, they are written with intention of being eventually presented on
stage.

Drama has being described as the genre of literature closest to life because, it tells a story that
reflects the lives of the people and the audience see the story unfold in their presence, performed
by human beings like themselves, thus having the most immediate impact on them.

The dramatic forms of literature are: tragedy, comedy and tragi-comedy. The tragic drama
usually ends sadly, the comic drama ends on a light-hearted while the tragicomic drama
combines tragic features and comic elements.

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Non-Fictional Prose

A fourth literary genre though not commonly referred to as such is the non-fictional prose. These
comprise of stories that come from real life. Works of nonfiction are all based on real world
experiences. Examples are biographies, autobiographies, essays etc.

Nonfiction can also use figurative language; however, it is not as abundant as in poetry and even
fiction prose. Figurative language in this genre generally comes through common phrases which
are well known and used on a daily basis by many.

These pieces are written in prose, like fiction, and sometimes even in chapters. An example is the
autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi which describes real life experiences of the man when he was
alive.

5.4 Functions of literature

Here are some functions of literature:

1. Literature is a tool of cultural education. Chinua Achebe `s Things Fall Apart is more or
less a cataloguing of the cultural practices of the Igbo people in pre-colonial times. Wole
Soyinka`s works also reveal aspects of the Yoruba culture, for example the poem
“Abiku” reflects the Yoruba society`s belief in the “spirit child” who dies a few years
after birth and returns some years later to the mother`s womb.
2. Literature has served as a historical document in virtually all world cultures. Historians
have found literary artifacts very useful in investigating and tracing the historical high
lights of a people. In Nigeria for example, literature has helped us record and store
information concerning the period of slavery, the pre-colonial periods etc.
3. Literature teaches moral lessons. Through drama especially, a clear distinction is made
between good and bad, right and wrong, the acceptable and the unacceptable. It has the
capacity to prove why positive character attributes should be emulated and negative ones,
condemned.
4. Literature teaches us how to speak, read and write. In reading literature we come across
language in very specialized and stylized versions as well as new words.

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5. Literature as a branch of art has the capacity to entertain while at the same time passing
on a message. It could therefore, be said to contribute significantly to the maintenance of
a psychological balance in individuals. An example, is the comedy play “The gods are
not to blame” by Wole Soyinka. The comedy makes one laugh and feel relaxed while at
the same time shows one pre-colonial Nigeria.

5.5 Prose Fiction Terminologies

Story: there must be a story to tell before you can write a prose fiction. The writer of prose
fiction must not only be a good story writer but also have interesting stories to tell.

Plot: this refers to the arrangement of events in a story. This must be done in such a way that
guarantees meaningful reading, appreciation and enjoyment.

Characterization: Characters are the people about whom a story is been told. They are the ones
to whom the actions of the story happen. The protagonist is usually the good character that
people like and the antagonist is the bad one.

Style: This refers to the manner in which the story is written. These include surprise element,
violence, flashbacks and of course the manner in which language is manipulated to convey the
intended message.

Setting: This refers to time and place; that is, the particular era or period when the events of the
story takes place as well as the actual place of occurrence.

Point of view: This refers to the perspective from which the writer tells his or her story. The
writer could tell the story, narrating from the position of a participant in the action of the story. In
this case, the writer uses the first person, “I” while narrating. On the other hand, he could tell the
story as an observer who does nothing but ‘witness’ the events. He uses the third person, also
known as the ‘omniscient narrator’.

5.6 Exercise
Answer questions based on the foregoing on the literature text which you have read.

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BIBLOGRAPHY

Fromkin,V. Rodman, R & Hyams, N. (2011). An Introduction to Language (9th Ed.) U.K:
Wardsworth Learning Centre.

Greenbaum, S. & Quirk, R. (1990). A Student's Grammar of the English Language. Hong Kong:
Longman Group (FE) Ltd.

Hurford, R. J. (2012). The Origin of Grammar: Language in the Light of Evolution. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.

Olaofe, I. & Alti, K. (2013). Grammar and Usage for Writers of English. Zaria: Yahaya
Ventures.

Olaofe, I. (2009). Teaching English in Second language adverse Situations. Zaria: ALLE Centre

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Onukaogu, A. A. & Onyerionwu, E. (2009). 21st Century Nigerian Literature; an Introductory

Text. Ibadan: Kraft books,

Sinclair, J. (ed.) (1990).  Collins Cobuild English Grammar. London: William Collins Sons &
Co

Yule, G. (2010). The Study of Language (4th Ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

En.wikipedia.org/wiki/adverbial-clause October 2014

www.grammar.about.com retrieved in October 2014

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