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Journal of Human Lactation

Qualitative Sampling Methods
2020, Vol. 36(4) 579–581
© The Author(s) 2020
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​DOI: ​10.​1177/​0890​3344​20949218
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Sara L. Gill, PhD, RN, IBCLC, FAAN1 ‍ ‍

Abstract
Qualitative sampling methods differ from quantitative sampling methods. It is important that one understands those differ-
ences, as well as, appropriate qualitative sampling techniques. Appropriate sampling choices enhance the rigor of qualitative
research studies. These types of sampling strategies are presented, along with the pros and cons of each. Sample size and
data saturation are discussed.

Keywords
breastfeeding, qualitative methods, sampling, sampling methods

Qualitative research findings are useful to inform practice Types of Sampling

and policy. In the last issue of the Journal of Human
Lactation, Berndt (2020) discussed sampling methods for Common qualitative sampling methods are convenience,
quantitative studies. In this issue, I discuss sampling meth- also called volunteer sampling, snowball, purposive, and
ods for qualitative research. Qualitative methods differ from theoretical sampling. Qualitative researchers may use more
quantitative methods in many ways including philosophical than one sampling approach in their study. Table 1 presents
underpinnings, use of theory, research designs, and much common sampling strategies, definitions, and pros and cons
more. Sampling strategies are also different. for each strategy.
The purpose of qualitative research is to discover mean-
ing grounded in human experience (Sandelowski, 2004). A Sample Size
number of qualitative research methods exist, for example,
phenomenology, ethnography, grounded theory, or narrative Qualitative researchers must pre-­determine the sample size
inquiry. Sampling strategies and sample sizes may differ for their study to satisfy human subjects’ review or ethics
based on which qualitative approach is utilized. committees, grant proposals, and/or funding agencies (Young
Sampling methods, while rigorous, are different from & Casey, 2019). While there are no specific “rules” for deter-
those used in quantitative research. All qualitative samples mining sample size, researchers must collect enough quality
are non-­random; only non-­probability sampling methods are data to answer the research question. Often, the pre-­
used. The qualitative researcher interviews people (partici- determined sample size is not feasible or the area of study
pants) who can help the researcher understand the study phe- requires additional participants; it is understood that the
desired sample size may change as the research progresses.
nomenon. They may observe situations or settings, and/or
Generalizability, important for quantitative research, is
review documents, artifacts, photographs and/or drawings as
not a goal of qualitative research; therefore sample sizes are
possible data sources.
much smaller than those needed for quantitative designs.
The qualitative researcher identifies participants who can
provide information (data) to answer the research question.
Participants who have “direct and personal knowledge”
(Sandelowski, 1995, p. 180) of the study topic and are able to 1
School of Nursing, University of Texas Health Science Center, San
share and reflect on the experience of interest are recruited. Antonio, TX, USA
Additionally, participants must be willing to spend the time Date submitted: July 19, 2020; Date accepted: July 22, 2020.
necessary to share their experiences (Morse, 1998).
The process of sampling may change as the research pro- Corresponding Author:
Sara L. Gill, PhD, RN, IBCLC, FAAN, School of Nursing, University of
cess is iterative. Participants are identified, data are collected, Texas Health Science Center, 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., San Antonio, TX,
and the data are analyzed. The sampling approach is refined USA.
as data collection and analysis proceed (Farrugia, 2019). Email: ​gills@​uthscsa.​edu
580 Journal of Human Lactation 36(4)

Table 1. Sampling Methods With Definitions.

Sampling Method Pros Cons
Convenience (volunteer) sampling: Potential participants Easy, efficient, economical. May not provide participants
volunteer to participate in the research study. who can supply the best
information.
Snowball (chain) sampling: Current participants recommend Practical, cost-­efficient, persons Quality of referrals may be
persons who might be willing to participate in the study. appropriate for study, less time problematic and/or limited.
to gain trust.
Purposive sampling: Also call purposeful, judgmental, Ability to select participants most May be challenging to locate
or selective sampling. The researcher intentionally beneficial to the study, cost-­ information-­rich participants.
selects participants who are knowledgeable about the efficient, variety of strategies.
phenomenon being studied. Includes maximum variation
sampling, homogeneous sampling, typical case
sampling, extreme (deviant) case sampling, and critical
case sampling.
Theoretical Sampling: Researcher samples to generate Essential to generate theory in GT  
theory. Developed by Glaser & Strauss and is the studies, clarifies researchers
hallmark of Grounded Theory (GT). understanding of emerging theory.

Note. Adapted from “Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice” (10th ed.), by Polit and Beck (2017).

Qualitative researchers typically use large samples, deter- included in their analysis. They found that sample size suffi-
mined by a power analysis, while qualitative samples are ciency was not reported in the majority of the articles and
smaller in order to examine a phenomenon in depth. that sample size justification was not based on the number of
The goal of qualitative sampling is to recruit enough partic- interviews. Most often, authors justified sample size using
ipants and/or observations that provide rich, in-­depth data, in the principle of data saturation.
order to understand the phenomenon studied (Hennink et al.,
2019). “Sample size in qualitative research may refer to num-
bers of persons, but also to numbers of interviews and observa-
tions conducted or numbers of events sampled” (Sandelowski, Data Saturation
1995, p. 180). Sample size must be sufficient to generate qual- Data saturation is linked to sampling strategies and sample
ity data that provides a rich understanding of the experience size; sufficient sample sizes are necessary for quality data.
(Sandelowski, 1995). The goal of qualitative sampling is to
Qualitative researchers often report that they have collected
choose enough participants and/or observations that provide
enough data to “reach saturation,” although confusion about
rich data in order to understand the phenomenon studied
the meaning of saturation is common. Data saturation occurs
(Hennink et al., 2019).
when no new information is obtained from interviews and/or
Determining an adequate sample size in qualitative research observations (Morse, 1995).
is ultimately a matter of judgement and experience in eval-
uating the quality of the information collected against the Estimating the number of participants in a study required to
uses to which it will be put, the particular research method reach saturation depends on a number of factors, including
and sampling strategy employed, and the research product the quality of data, the scope of the study, the nature of the
intended. (Sandelowski, 1995, p. 183) topic, the amount of useful information obtained from each
participant, the number of interviews per participant, the use
Qualitative researchers may find that few guidelines exist of shadowed data and the qualitative method and study de-
to determine how best to ascertain an adequate sample size, sign used. (Morse, 2000, p. 3)
although recently some authors have posited strategies to
determine sample size a priori (Sim et al., 2018). Vasileiou
et al., 2018 systematically analyzed interview-­based qualita- Studies with a broad scope may require more participants
tive studies over 15 years reported in three journals: British or observations; clear topics require fewer participants. Some
Medical Journal (BMJ), British Journal of Health participants are able to share eloquently about the phenome-
Psychology (BJHP), and Sociology of Health & Illness non under study while others are not. When participants pro-
(SHI), to determine how sample sizes were characterized vide quality data, fewer participants are needed. Few
and justified by the study authors. Twenty-­one articles from researchers provide details about how they reached data
BMJ, 53 articles from BJHP, and 140 articles from SHI were saturation.
Gill 581

Conclusion Morse, J. M. (1998). What’s wrong with random selection? Qualitative

Health Research, 8(6), 733–735. ​doi:​10.​1177/​1049​7323​9800​
Authors of qualitative studies must convince the reader that the 800601
sample was appropriate and sufficient to justify the findings. Morse, J. M. (2000). Determining sample size. Qualitative Health
Minimally, the author should report how the sample was Research, 10(1), 3–5. d​ oi:​10.​1177/​1049​7320​0129​118183
selected, the number of participants and/or observations with a Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2017). Nursing research: Generating
rationale for that number, and the participant characteristics. If and assessing evidence for nursing practice (10th ed.). Wolters
the author reports data saturation, they must provide evidence Kluwer.
as to how they determined data saturation was achieved. Sandelowski, M. (1995). Sample size in qualitative research. Research
in Nursing & Health, 18(2), 179–183. ​doi:​10.​1002/​nur.​4770​
ORCID iD 180211
Sara L. Gill, PhD, RN, IBCLC, FAAN ‍ ‍https://​orcid.​org/​0000-​ Sandelowski, M. (2004). Using qualitative research. Qualitative
0003-​4766-​7518 Health Research, 14(10), 1366–1386. ​doi:​10.​1177/​1049​7323​
04269672
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