A

SUMMER TRAINING REPORT ON

“WOVEN SACK MANUFACTURING AND

GENERALMAINTENANCEOF MACHINE”
HELD AT

TECHNICAL TRAINING &RESEARCHCENTRE (A

DIVISIONOFLOHIACORP.LTD.)KANPUR,(U.P.)
SUBMITTED INPARTIALFULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FORTHEAWARDOF THE DIPLOMA OF

PLASTIC MOULD TECHNOLOGY

(PLASTICS ENGINEERING)
SUBMITTED BY
VIKAS TRIPATHI (E21220135800016)
PRABHAT DUBEY (E21220135800042)
VINAY KASAUDHAN (E21220135800023)
VIKAS MAURYA (E21220135800024)
ANKIT SINGH (E21220135800001)

AT

GOVT. POLYTECHNIC LUCKNOW

LUCKNOW ( U.P.)
(AUGUST - SEPTEMBER 2023)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my pleasure to be indebted to various people, who directly

or indirectly contributed in my training and who influenced my
thinking, behaviour and acts during the period of training.
I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Rajeev Kumar Dwivedi,
director of “TECHNICAL TRAINING AND RESEARCH
CENTRE” (A DIVISION OF LOHIA CORP. LTD.), KANPUR
for providing me an opportunity to undergo summer training at
TTRC, KANPUR for the period of Three weeks.
I am also thankful to Mr. Jitendra Kumar Arya, Technical Head
of TTRC, KANPUR. Who provided his valuable suggestions
and precious time in accomplishing my training report.
I also extend my sincere appreciation to Mr. Ram Narayan
Goswami & Mr. Anand Kumar Yadav, sir for their support,
cooperation and motivation provided to me during training for
constant inspiration, presence and blessings.
Lastly, I am thankful to my parents for their moral support and
my friends with whom I share my day-to-day experience and
received a lot of suggestions that improved my quality of work
during training period.
Shubham Mishra (1818987052)

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 PREFACE
The objective of this summer training is to get detail about the
operation process which is carried in the “” industries and
mo“WOVEN SACK MANUFACTURING AND GENERAL MAINTENANCE OF
MACHINE” re about the equipment used in this field. It’s another
attractive feature is to learn industrial management and
discipline which is equally important in life.

Being student of plastic engineering and getting industrial

training is itself an experience of responsibilities on me. This
training is certainly the best chance to get an exposure to the real
Indian industrial atmosphere to learn discipline and to see how
people work and bring profit to the company by team work.

The industrial exposure really added nourishment to my

growing technical knowledge.

This report submitted hereby is based on training consist of

“WOVEN SACK MANUFACTURING AND GENERAL MAINTENANCE OF

MACHINE” process including quality control& testing that follow

systematic presentation of industrial training.

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 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the summer training report on “ is an

authent“WOVEN SACK MANUFACTURING AND GENERAL
MAINTENANCE OF MACHINE” ic record of my own work as
requirements of 3-week summer training during the period from
31 August to 16 September to fulfil the requirement for the
award of degree of Bachelor of Plastics Engineering from
CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF PLASTICS ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY CIPET LUCKNOW Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J.
Abdul Kalam Technical University

Date:16/09/2021 Name -Shubham Mishra

Roll no. - 1818987052

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 CERTIFICATE

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

I hereby certify that Mr. Shubham Mishra Roll.No

1818987052 of CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF PLASTICS
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, LUCKNOW has
undergone 3-week summer training from 31 August to 16
September at our organization to fulfil the requirement for the
award of degree of Bachelor of technology in Plastics
Engineering, He worked on during his train“WOVEN SACK

MANUFACTURING AND GENERAL MAINTENANCE OF MACHINE” ing

period.

During his tenure we found him sincere and hard working.

We wish him a great success in the future.

Training In-charge:

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Countersigned by:
(Head/Director of organization)
Stamp/Seal of organization

CERTIFICATE

It is hereby declared that the summer training report on “”is an

authentic record of “WOVEN SACK MANUFACTURING AND GENERAL
MAINTENANCE OF MACHINE” the workof Mr. Shubham Mishra
(student of B.Tech. 3rd year, CIPET, LUCKNOW) as
requirements of 3-Week summer Training during the period
from 31 August to 16 September for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Plastics Engineering, CIPET,
LUCKNOW, (U.P.), Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
Technical
University, Lucknow
All the data/descriptions/experiments are true which are attached
with this report and all are his own hard work.

Mr. Jitendra Kumar Arya(Technical head of TTRC)

Mr. Ram Narayan Goswami (Training Incharge of PPL)
Mr. Anand Kumar Yadav(Training Incharge of WTL)
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introducfion
Background of the organizafion
1.2 Introducfion to Woven Sack/Raffia
2. Classificafion of Woven Sacks
2.1 According to weaving
2.2 Based on applicafion
3. Polymeric materials for Woven Sack
3.1 High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
3.2 Polypropylene (PP)
3.3 PP vs. HDPE
3.4 Other materials
3.5 Addifives
3.6 Effect of polymer variables
4. Process steps for Woven Sack
4.1 Manufacturing of tapes
4.2 Weaving of tapes
4.3 Laminafion
4.4 Prinfing
4.5 Bag conversion
5. Tapeline (Manufacturing of Tapes)

Extrusion of Cast film

5.2 Quenching
5.3 Orientafion
5.4 Annealing
6. Weaving Technology
6.1 History of Weaving
6.2 Principle of Weaving

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 6.3 Classificafion of Loom
6.4 Weaving process
7. Bag Conversion System
7.1 Machine specificafion
7.2 Part detail
8. Troubleshoofing
8.1 Tape line
8.2 Circular Weaving machine/Loom
8.3 BCS
9. Tesfing and Quality control
9.1 Tesfing of Raw material
9.2 Intermediate product tesfing
9.3 Final product/Sack tesfing
APPENDIX-A Pracfical Log sheets
APPENDIX-B Various calculafions
APPENDIX-C Glossary
REFERENCES

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 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
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 BACKGROUND OF THE ORGANIZATION
The needfortrained manpower or the skilldevelopment for Raffia
Industry has been high ligh tedinvarious forms from time to time.The
skillleveland
Educatiol background of the
workforcedeterminestheproductivity,quality & professionalism of any
Manufacturing Industry.
At present, theskilldevelopment in Plastics Woven Fabric or Raffia
Industry is taken care intheinformalway,i.e.personsacquire
skillatthework-place(On the Job). There has been an imperative need to
create a Formal Training set up to train & produce Operators,
Supervisors/Production Executives for Raffia Industry to improve
technical competence of the employed manpower, which resulted in the
establishment of TECHNICAL TRAINING AND RESEARCH
CENTRE (TTRC) a division of LOHIA CORP. LTD., CHAUBEYPUR,
KANPUR.

FIG. 1

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LOHIA CORP. LTD. has envisioned establishing a state of art
Technology/Technical Training & Research Centre (TTRC) at Kanpur
with prime objective to develop skilled technical manpower for the
Plastics Woven Fabric or Raffia Industry. It would be the first of its kind
initiative in India for the Raffia industry to meet the consistent demand of
trained operators & supervisors.

PRIME OBJECTIVE:- A.Hands on technical training to x pass students

for creating employability skills as Operators/Technicians for Tapeline and
Loom.

B. Act as a technical training and support centre for the existing

Operators, Supervisors and Managers of the Raffia industry of India and
abroad.

C. Provide in-house training to technical staff, new recruits of LOHIA

CORP. LTD.in the area of Tapeline, Circular loom, and Bag conversion
system.

D. Organize custom made/tailor made training courses for raffia industries

of India and abroad.

E. Project guidance to the new Entrepreneur.

The notion of the “Technical Training & Research Centre” has been
evolved out of the LOHIA CORP. LTD. think tank to integrate “2Ms,
Machinery & Manpower” to exclusively support the global Raffia
industry- A unique approach for the first time by a machine manufacturer.

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 FIG.2

RESOURCES TO MEET OBJECTIVES:-A. Well developed

Academic facilities for conduct of theory & practical sessions on technical
facets of Plastic Woven Sack / Raffia Industry.

B. Dedicated residential campus with a professional management setup.

C. Library with rich collection of Text & reference books.

D.Management & Faculty, trainers of TTRC is drawn from the

experienced pool of Professionals, Academicians, Technocrats whose
experience & knowledge blended with able guidance of Group’s
Chairman Shri Raj Kumar Lohia will facilitate in developing TTRC as
the National Technical Training & Support centre for raffia Industries in
India.
E. State of Art Infrastructure and Workshop for practical training &
research.
F.Assistance in placement for successful candidates.

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 INTRODUCTION TO WOVEN SACK/RAFFIA
Weaving is one of the oldest skills known to humans, dating back to
prehistoric times. Clothes have given a distinct identity to almost all
civilizations of the world. India especially stands out in this regards. It has
glorious past in the production of textiles, the use of printing blocks in
India goes as far back as 3000 B.C., and some historians are of the view
that it may have been the original name of textile printing. The export of
printed fabric (from India) to China can be dated to the fourth century
B.C., where they were much used and admired, and later imitated. The
industry in India grew at such a pace that it became major supplier of
textiles to the rest of the world. Evidence of Indian textile dread in ancient
times has been recorded from China in the east to Italy in the west.
These textiles were very expensive and used to bring enormous wealth to
India.
Weaving is the process of making fabrics by interlacing the threads
lengthwise and width wise commonly known as “Warp” and “Weft in a
regular order. The operation is performed in a machine known as “loom”.
Two sets of yarns are interlaced, almost always at right angles to each
other. One called warp, runs lengthwise in the loom, the other, called the
filling weft or woof, runs crosswise. The raising and lowering sequence of
warp threads in various sequences gives much possible weave structure.
Now a day different type of packages are used in the market such as
for cement, fertilizer, heavy duty goods etc
SCENARIO OF WOVEN SACK INDUSTRIES IN INDIA:-Woven sack
Industry has started in late 1970’s with the help of Blown film plant and
Flat Loom which have been later switched over to cast film line and high
speed circular weaving machine. This development of high-speed circular
weaving machine and cast film line came to our country sometime around
1982. due to non-availability of sacking material from jute industry
because of low production of jute. The initial utilisation of woven fabric
has gone to packing of fertiliser. The industry has experienced good
growth between 1983 to 1987. During this period, there were about 520

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Units been registered with Govt. Of India for producing woven sacks for
fertiliser industry. Around mid 1987 IDBI marked this industry in the
negative list as well as the same time jute reservation bill have been
introduced due to which there were about 100 odd units went to closure.
No doubt, the basic reason was demand supply gap due to non-
development of new product as well as poor management of machine,
man & money. There were units having 100 kg per hour tape output plant
with only 4-6 looms instead of 12 looms. Similarly units with 150 kg tape
output plant with 10 looms instead of 12/16 looms which created non
viability of the project because the main machine i.e. tape extrusion line
was not balanced with appropriate number of looms. Similarly, people
have gone for low cast machine, which could not give required production
leading to payment of dues to financial institute.

Similarly the manpower cost of various small units were not

properly planned due to which the overhead cost have increased which
lead to low realisation. Regarding management of money initially, people
have planned the units with working capital of 30 days whereas in our
country no supplier gets payment before 60-90 days. Hence, due to poor
finance planning the various small and medium scale units come to
closure.
After going through the above problems in the industry we have
suggested financial institute about the various applications of woven
sacks industry and due to our regular follow up and display the people
from the cement industry came forward and accepted the woven fabric for
cement packaging. So by 1990 people have really understood the industry
operation and profitability up to some extent and by 1991 the 2 ndphase of
expansion has started which continued up to 1995. At present, the total
number of units in operation is 750. Out of which 500 units are in small
scale, 215 units are in medium scale and 35 units are large scales. Total
polymer processed by woven sacks industry is around 4,43,000 MT.
Even on reaching to this stage of 750 woven sacks units, it is
heartening to know that majority of new units are still not aware about the
working and the profitability of woven sacks units. Therefore, i would
like to mention the key areas of woven sack industry which is as under.

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1. The viability of the project comes with a unit size of minimum 30
looms which means pay back of plant and machinery will come in 3 years
whereas payback of the total project can be considered as 4/5 years.

2. The conversion cost at the factory comes to around Rs 15/- whereas

from the market one gets around Rs 22/- per kg. Therefore profitability
becomes only Rs. 7/- per kg of material processed.

3. The saving of electricity, wastage and overload cost becomes a key

factor for profitability venture.

4. To start with 30 looms project the cost of the project comes to Rs. 6
crores. Therefore, one has to loan for at least 25 crores project within 5
years duration if one wants to become more viable and profitable.

People who want to start in a smaller capacity in the beginning to learn

the technique of the trade. It is advisable to start with minimum 12-16
looms project with a project cost of around 7 million fertiliser sacks or 11
million cement sacks. But at the same time, one should keep sufficient
space for the expansion with second line within two years period.
No doubt, we have very large packaging material’s requirement for
the country of our size. Therefore, one should also plan a different product
mix to cater to different market segment and after getting sufficient
exposure, one can then venture to export market also.

A woven sack of woven fabric does not have limitation of

marketing all over India from any part of the country because
transportation cost per sacks is not very high. Therefore, people should
consider India, as a market not localised market.
One very important issue to be considered for woven sack industry
is Manpower training. Therefore, it is necessary for woven sack industry
to consider in-house training programme enabling them to train
manpower on regular basis.

So to summarise for successful industrialist it is necessary to

concentrate on management of machine, man, money and reduce power
cost, wastage cost and overhead cost.

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CHAPTER-2

CLASSIFICATION
OF WOVEN SACKS
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DIFFERENT TYPES OF WOVEN FABRIC/SACK According
to applications/shapes of woven fabric we can classify the woven sack as
following.

PLAIN/NORMAL FABRIC:-Plain/Normal fabrics are commonly used

in packaging of materials and covering, such as for packaging of cement,
fertilizer & for heavy duty goods FIBC (flexible intermediate bulk)
container is used.
LENO FABRIC:-Leno fabrics are used for packaging of vegetables like,
onion and potatoes etc. Leno bags are low mesh (4x6,6x4,4x4) fabrics.
ANTISKID FABRIC:- These type of fabrics are used where we want long
piles of bags for storage. Problem of slippage is not there if we make a
pile of many bags, because surface of these bags are rough due to twisting
of warp tapes.

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VENTILATED FABRIC:-Ventilated bags are special type bags which
are used for packaging of fruits and that things which in which air passing
is necessary. In ventilated bags there are alternative groups of warp tapes
supported by yarn.

APPLICATION WISE CLASSIFICATION OF WOVEN

BAGS AND THEIR SPECIFICATIONS AS PER STANDARD
We can classify the woven sacks according their applications as cement
bags, fertilizer bags, and tarpaulin, FIBC and sugar bags. Their
specifications are also given below as per BIS standard.
1. CEMENT BAG

Bag material- Polypropylene (PP)

Type- Valve type without lamination

Printing- Mainly two colours

Std. Capa Size Mesh Weight Tape Fabric GSM %
city (lxw (gm) Denier strength of Elonga
) (kgf) fabric tion
BIS:11652 50(k 71x4 10x10 70(±6%) 900 87 82 20
-2000 g) 8 (±6%)
cm.

2. FERTILIZER
Bag material- HDPE or PP with UV

Type - Reverse laminated

Printing - mainly 2 colors

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 Std. Capa Size Mesh Weight Tape Fabric GSM %
city (lxw (gm) Denier strength of Elonga
) (kgf) fabric tion
BIS:9755- 50(k 92x6 10x10 120-130(± 1000 69- L 88(±6 20
2003 g) 1cm. 6%) 87- w %)

3. FOOD GRAIN

Bag material- HDPE or PP with UV

Type - Antislip Weave

Printing - Single or Two Colors

Std. Capa Size Mesh Weight Tape Fabric GSM %
city (lxw (gm) Denier strength of Elonga
) (kgf) fabric tion
BIS:14887 50(k 100 12X12 120-130(+ 1000 90 105 20
-2000 g) X57 6,-3%)
cm.

4. SAND BAG
Bag material- PP with UV

Type - Bags are used with Tying Cord (PP rope)

Printing - Single or Two Colors

Std. Capa Size Mesh Weight Tape Fabric GSM %
city (lxw (gm) Denier strength of Elonga
) (kgf) fabric tion
BIS:14252 50(k 84X 10X10 55(±6%) 850 75 76 20
-2003 g) 38c
m.

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5. FIBC
Bag material- PP with UV

Type - Various designs

a- Lifting arrangement

b- Top filling arrangement

c- Bottom discharge arrangement

Printing - Single or Two Colors

BIS STANDARDS FOR FIBC PRODUCTS:

IS 14738 (Part1):1999– Definitions related to FIBC

IS 14738 (Part 2):1999 – Specifications, requirements, certifications and

marking
IS 14738 (Part 3):1999 – Test Methods- Cyclic Top Lift Test

IS 14738 (Part 4):1999 – Test Methods- Compression/Stacking Test

IS 14738 (Part 5):1999 – Test Methods- UV Resistance Test

Part Weight Fabric Tape Tape Strength % Elongation
of (GSM) mesh denier denier
FIBC warp weft
warp weft warp weft
Body 160-230 12x14- 1300-1 1300-2 230 250 20 18
16x16 600 100
Base 180-240 13x13- 1300-1 1400-2 250 270 20 15
18x18 800 200
Top 100-140 12x12- 1000-1 1000-1 160 160 16 16
panel 14x14 300 300

Spout 100-120 10x10- 800-10 800-10 140 140 16 16

12x12 00 00

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6. SUGAR BAG

Bag material- HDPE or PP with UV

Type- Bags are used with inner Liner

of LDPE/LLDPE

Printing - Single or Two Colors

Std. Capa Size Mesh Weight Tape Fabric GSM %
city (lxw (gm) Denier strength of Elonga
) (kgf) fabric tion
BIS:14968 50(k 90X 12X12 125(±6%) 1000 90 105 20
-2001 g) 59c
m.

7. TARPAULIN
Bag material- HDPE

Type - Laminated on both sides,

Bonding of 2 fabrics by heat sealing

Std. LXW Mesh Fabric Tape Fabric %
cm. weight denier strength Elongation
(kgf)
BIS:7903- - - 200 (+5& 600-750 100 20
2005 -2.5 %)

Common Sizes of Tarpaulin in market

Quality GSM Sizes in feet (in all GSM)
Light 95 06x04 07x05 06x06 08x06
Medium 120 09x06 09x09 12x09 12x12
Heavy 135 15x09 15x12 18x12 18x15
Super 60 21x15 21x18 24x12 24x15
Deluxe 70 24x16 24x18 24x21 27x16
Special 225 30x20 30x21 30x24 30x27
Ex. strong 250 30x30 36x30

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 TYPES OF FIBC BAGS
FIBC bags can be classified on the basis of lifting method and on the
basis of loading/discharging of material from the bag.
ON THE BASIS OF LIFTING METHODS:-

On the basis of lifting of the bag we can classify the FIBC bags in
following four types.
(A) Cross corner loops

(B) Side seam loops

(C) Sleeve lift

(D) Hood lift

ON THE BASIS OF LOADING DISCHARGING METHODS:-

On the basis of loading and discharging of the material from bag, FIBC
can classify as follows.
(A) Discharging spout

(B) Iris protection

(C) Sewn cover

(D) Protection flap

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CHAPTER-3

POLYMERIC
MATERIALS FOR
WOVEN SACK
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Plastics are having a wide range of properties, due to which they are used
in the woven sack industries, the one and very important reason of using
plastics in woven sacks is that plastics have very low density than other
materials so, they are very light in weight & also process ability of the
plastics are very easy. Weaving of plastic tapes are also a easier process
than weaving of other materials. Following are somereasons due to which
plastic materials are used frequently in woven sack industries.

A) Light in weight.

B) Higher strength to weight ratio

C) Easy process ability.

D) Low energy required for manufacturing.

E) Minimum post finishing required.

F) Corrosion Resistant.

G) Better aesthetics.

H) Wide colour range.

Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Nylon, & Polyesters are commonly used

raw materials for making woven sacks. Polypropylene has emerged as a
leader in the woven sack industry because of its light weight, ease of
extrusion and orientation, higher strength and low cost. Following are the
some materials used for woven sack.

HIGH DENSITY POLY ETHYLENE(HDPE)

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High density polyethylene is a highly crystalline polymer, having very
low density after polypropylene.At one time ethylene for polymerization
was obtained largely from molasses, a by product of sugar industry. From
molasses may be obtained ethyl alcohol and this may be dehydrated to
yield ethylene. Today the bulk of ethylene is obtained from petroleum
sources. When supplies of natural or petroleum gas are available the
monomer is produced in high yield by high temperature cracking of
ethane and propane. Good yield of ethylene may also be obtained if the
gasoline (petrol) fraction from primary distillation of oil is ‘cracked’.

FIG.3 HIGH DENSITY POLY ETHYLENE

2.1.2 PROPERTIES OF HDPE:- High density polyethylene is a more

crystalline polymer than any other polyethylene as LDPE or LLDPE, it
has many advantageous properties which are very important for woven
sack industries, These are as following.

➢ Low density (0.940~0.965)

➢ Melting range (130-135)

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 ➢ Very good chemical resistance
➢ High tensile strength, stiffness and creep
➢ Better abrasion resistance and hardness
➢ Excellent low temperature toughness
➢ Good thermal stability
➢ Good insulation properties
POLY PROPYLENE (PP)
Polypropylene is a linear polymer, composed of repeating unit of
isopropaneor propylene. propylene monomer is obtained mainly from
petroleum, natural gas, or from fractions of naphtha. By refining of oil
and gas production propane is obtained and by dehydration of propane
monomer of polypropylene, Propylene is obtained.

FIG.4 POLYPROPYLENE

PROPERTIEES OF POLY PROPYLENE:- Poly propylene has lowest

density to any other polymer due to this property pp has a broad market
in the field of woven sack due to very less weight. PP also has many
advantageous properties which are given below.

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➢ Very low density (0.890~0.905)
➢ Melting range(160-165C)
➢ Good surface hardness and scratch resistance
➢ Good dimensional stability
➢ Outstanding hinge properties
➢ Excellent electrical properties
➢ Good chemical resistance
➢ Steam sterilizable
PP VS HDPE
There are following differences between properties of HDPE and PP for
woven sacks.

➢ PP is having lowest density among all the known thermoplastics and is

5% lower than that of HDPE. Hence, the fabric made from it will be
lighter than that of HDPE fabric.
➢ PP has superior tenacity values.
➢ PP has a tertiary carbon atom on its back bone chain which is highly
liable. Hence, during processing at higher temperature and storage of
product in open, PP is more prone to degradation in comparison to
HDPE. This is very important point especially due to environmental
conditions in India. Use of UV stabilizer adds to cost.
➢ PP is stiffer than HDPE and hence tape produced from PP gets easily
fibrillated. To avoid this, anti fibrillating agent based on calcium
carbonate (CaCo3) master batch has to be incorporated.

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➢ However, CaCo3 being abrasive material, increases wear and tear of
the screw and barrel. Hence PP extruder required moremaintenance
compared to HDPE tape plant.
OTHER MATERIALS
Worldwide PP and HDPE consumption is more than any other polymeric
materials. About 98% market of woven sack or monofilament is covered
by these two very suitable materials for woven sack, Polypropylene and
High density polyethylene. But now a dayin woven sack industries some
other materials are also used as Nylons, Polyesters etc.

ADDITIVES
Additives for plastics are materials which incorporated in to the monomer
or polymer to improve the processing parameters the performance of the
finished product. They are added in the basic resin in the form of the
master batches in small quantities. In case of woven sack mainly used
additives are Antifibrillating agent, UV stabilizers, Acid neutralizers and
Lubricants.
Antifibrillating agents are use to decrease the splitting tendency of
polypropylene and to give strength to it. Calcium carbonate is used as
Antifibrillating agent, which is used in woven sack at the time of tape
manufacturing. Upto 10% of calcium carbonate is allowed, After its limit
strength decreases continuously, But now a day industries are using
calcium carbonate upto 50% as a filler material which is very cost
effective. UV stabilizers are also used in case of polypropylene tapes from
2 to 4%. UV stabilizers are used to protect the fabric from UV radiation in
sun light, and increase the life of woven fabric. These are amines
(hindered), benzoates, or carbon black.

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 EFFECT OF POLYMER VARIABLES
Polymer variables as molecular weight, Molecular weight distribution
(MWD), Stereo regularity have significant effect on properties of tape.
MOLECULAR WEIGHT (MELT FLOW):-Molecular weight of
polypropylene has a significant effect on processing and tape properties.
Melt flow index is a indication of molecular weight. As molecular weight
increases (melt flow index decreases) tenacity increase and % elongation
decreases at a particular draw ratio. However as molecular weight
decreases, tenacity and % elongation decreases.
Polypropylene grades of higher melt flow tend to process easier than
lower melt flow grades i.e. extrusion pressures are lower for a given
extrusion rate.
Repol H030SG has a melt flow index of 3 gm/10min by virtue of which it
gives anoptimum balance of tape properties and processability.

MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION (MWD):- Molecular

weight distribution is a functionof catalyst system and polymerisation
process. Molten PP is shear sensitive i.e.Apparent viscosity decreases as
applied pressure increases. PP with broad MWD ismore shear sensitive
than the one with narrow MWD. Hence broad MWD PP's are easier to
process than one with narrow MWD. MWD is found to have little effect
onphysical properties of PP.
Repol H030SG is a moderately broad molecular weight distribution
polymer. Hence it exhibits good processability.

STEREOREGULARITY:-Polypropylene has a methyl group attached

to every other carbonatom. Unless these methyl groups are arranged in
one position relative to the chain(isotactic arrangement), PP cannot
crystallise. The crystallinity is responsible for thestrength, stiffness and
solvent resistance of PP. Higher the isotactic content, better thephysical
properties of the tape. Xylene soluble determines the percentage of lower
molecular weight fraction in polypropylene. Higher Xylene soluble will
lead to decreased tenacity, increasedshrinkage, stickiness and weaving
problems. On the other hand, lower soluble will lead to tape splitting and
drawbacks.

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CHAPTER- 4

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PROCESS STEPS
FOR “WOVEN
SACK”

PROCESS FLOW CHART FOR WOVEN SACK

MANUFACTURING

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Plastics woven sacks are usually made out of Polypropylene/High density
polyethylene. These are either laminated, or supplied without lamination

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depending upon end application. PP/HDPE woven sacks are most cost
effective and functionally superior alternative to traditional packaging.
PP/HDPE woven sacks are suitable for providing tailor made
specifications as required for various sectors of packaging.

For manufacturing of a woven sack following steps are used in which

some are optional, can be used depending upon the end application.

➢ Manufacturing of Tapes
➢ Weaving of Tapes
➢ Lamination
➢ Printing
➢ Conversion of fabric in to bags
So, above steps are used to make a woven sack. Printing and Lamination
are the additional or we can say optional steps for a woven sack. These are
not necessary for all woven sacks. Lamination and Printing is done
depending on end application of the sacks.

MANUFACTURINGG OF TAPES
The tape used for woven sack manufacturing is generally produced by
Cast Film Extrusion. In this process, thermoplastics material (HDPE/PP)
in the form of small beads or granules (often called resin in the industries)
is gravity fed from a top mounted hopper in to the barrel of the extruder.
Additives such as colorants and UV stabilizers (in either liquid or pellet

Form) are often used and can be mixed with granules of HDPE/PP prior
to feeding into hopper. Then, the material enters through the feed throat
(an opening near the rear of the barrel) and comes into contact with the
screw. The rotating screw forces the granules forward into the barrel
which is heated to the desired melt temperature of the molten plastic

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(Which can range from 200C to 275C depending on the polymer). In most
processes, a heating profile is set for the barrel in which three or more
temperature controlled heater zones gradually increase the temperature of
the barrel from the rear (where the plastic enters) to the front. This allows
the plastic granules to melt gradually as they are pushed through the barrel
and lowers the risk of overheating which may cause degradation in the
polymer. The melt flows through the screw flights & then passed through
a T-die to form a film.
This film is quenched in water bath and is conveyed by nip and top
roller to the Slitting unit where film thus formed, is slit in to the form of
strips/tapes. These strips are then oriented by stretching them under
heated condition at a predetermined ratio. Finally the tapes are wound on
cheese winders.

WEAVING OF TAPES
Weaving the tapes in to fabric in a process similar to weaving of textiles.
These flat tapes are then woven into circular fabric by circular weaving
machine. Thus woven circular fabric is then cut into required dimension.
Thread from the bobbin in the circular loom’s creel stand is woven into
tubular cloth the weaving of raffia tapes into cloth is carried out in circular
looms, which produce circular fabric of desired width.
The process of weaving is Automatic and continuous in nature.
Numbers of circular looms are installed so as to match the effective output
of raffia tape manufacturing plant. The fabric produced by each loom is
continuously wound on rotating pipes of PVC.

LAMINATION OF THE WOVEN FABRIC

This is an additional process depending on the end application of the
woven sacks. Lamination is the process in which premade or extruded
film is bonded onto the surface of the fabric, generally with thermal or
adhesive bonding. A typical lamination plant COATEC 1600/90 has
following parts.
EXTRUDER UNIT:-The extruder unit has a universal barrier screw

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for high output and excellent melt-quality, which is achieved by
controlled heating and cooling in barrel zones and proper mixing of melt
using static mixer before die. The extruder unit is mounted on the rigid
structure on top and moves perpendicularly to the machine axis. The
extruder unit is withdrawn outside from its working position whenever
the machine is stopped. The coating die has a profile for perfect flow
properties of the melt with highly polished flow channels.
DIE AND CHILL ROLL:-The Laminator unit is equipped with Corona
Treater, a preheating roll and a chill roll. The inner construction of chill
roll ensures better temperature uniformity on its surface. Internally cooled
construction in pressure roller ensures that temperature of rubber surface
does not go high while coating. The chill roll is mounted on a frame
which can be adjusted in all three axes.
WEB REVERSING UNIT:-The tubular woven fabric is reversed during
running through a turn bar arrangement so as to coat on both sides of the
fabric tube in a single operation. This helps in saving of space, energy and
also gives flexibility of production.
The continuous rewind system uses an AC motor driven contact roller for
wrinkle free rewinding of the coated fabric. This unit has a semiautomatic
roll change over feature. For roll splicing, the web is automatically cut
with the help of a rod less cylinder and the beginning of the new web is
pasted into new core. The coated fabric roll is hydraulically moved by
unloading arms and delivered onto the ground.

The winding shaft once removed, is prepared and loaded again with help
of loading arms on the unit.

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 FIG.5 TYPICAL LAMINATION PLANT (COATEC 1600/90)

PRINTING OF BAGS
Printing of the fabric is also an optional process depending upon end
application. Printing of the fabric can be done after cutting and stitching
of bags or before it.
LOHIA CORP. LTD. have combined their expertise and experience
with Pelican Rotoflex Pvt. Ltd. to offer high speed Flexographic printing
press up to 6 colours for tubular PP/HDPE woven fabric films. Pelican is
established maker of flexographic and rotogravure printing machine for
flexible packaging substrate and has global presence with more than 300
installations.
Flexography (often abbreviated to flexo) is a form of printing process
which utilizes a flexible relief plate. It is essentially a modern version of
letterpress which can be used for printing on almost any type of substrate,
including plastic, metallic films, cellophane, and paper. It is widely used
for printing on the non-porous substrates required for various types of
food packaging (it is also well suited for printing large areas of solid
colour).

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 FIG.6 PRINTING PLANT (SOLOPRINT 4150 WVN 6 CL850)

BAG CONVERSION SYSTEM

After lamination & printing, fabric goes to bag conversion system where
final shape of sacks is given. A bag conversion system consists of mainly
following steps.
CUTTING:- By cutting of fabric of desired length we can get the sack.
Cutting can be of two types, first process is called hot cutting in which,
heated cutter is used. This type of cutting is used in unlaminated bags.
And second one is called cold cutting in which, cold cutter is used. This
type of cutting is done into laminated bags.
FOLDING:-After cutting of the bag of desired length, bags are conveyed
to folding unit by conveyer assembly. There are two type of folding one is
single folded and other is double folded, depending on end application.
STITCHING:-After folding stitching is done to close the bottom portion
of the bag. For stitching sewing machine is used and high strengthyarns
are used for stitching. Stitching can be of any mesh (no. Of stitches in 10
cm. length) depending upon end application. After stitching, stacker unit
is there which makes the stacking of final bags.

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CHAPTER-5

TAPE LINE
(MANUFACTURING
OF TAPES)

LINE DIAGRAM OF LOREX MODEL

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1. Main Motor9. T-Die/Coat hanger die

2. Gear Box10. Quenching Tank

3. B. Component Dozing & Mixing Unit11. Slitting Unit

A. Main Hopper12. Holding Unit

4. Feeder Box (sleeve)13. Edge trim Unit

5. Barrel 14. Hot Air Oven

6. screw 15. Stretching Unit

7. Screen and Breaker plate 16. Annealing Unit

8. Melt Pump 17. Winder Assembly

18. WCB (Waste Collection Box)

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LINE DIAGRAM OF DUOTEC MODEL
1. Main Motor9. T-Die/Coat hanger die18. Annealing Unit

DUOTEC TAPELINE

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2. Gear Box10. Quenching Tank19. Winder Assembly

3. B. Component Dozing & Mixing Unit11. Beta Gauge20. WCB

A. Main Hopper12. Slitting Unit

4. Feeder Box (Sleeve)13. Holding Unit

5. Barrel14. Edge Trim Unit

6. Screw15.ISU (intermediate stretching unit)

7. Screen & Breaker plate16. Hot Air Oven

8. Melt Pump17. Stretching Unit

DUOTEC TAPELINE

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LOREX TAPELINE

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Stretched tapes are uniaxially oriented thermoplastic semi finished
products with a highwidth to thickness ratio. These tapes can be converted
into twines, ropes, woven andknitted fabrics. A range of applications for
stretched tapes have expanded considerably from woven sacks to
tarpaulins, primary carpet backing, industrial fabric, carpet yarn,
Ropes, geotextile fabrics, concrete reinforcement etc.

MANUFACTURING OF TAPES
The principle stages involved in tape manufacturing are:

➢ Extrusion of film
➢ Quenching of film
➢ Slitting of film into tapes
➢ Orientation of tapes
➢ Annealing of tapes
➢ Winding of tapes
FILM EXTRUSION PROCESS:-Polyethylene or polypropylene (main
material used) can be formed into film by two processes.
BLOWN FILM PROCESS:- The raw material is melted in extruder and
pumped through the circular die, where it is extruded as a tube in vertical
direction. The tube is inflected with air and blown to a bubble. The
bubble is then flattened by a collapsing frame before it is passed through
the slit between the nip rolls.
The recommended die gap is around 1.0 mm & Blow up ratio
(bubble diameter/Die diameter) used is 1:1 which is much less than used
for normal high density films. This method is not practiced due to many
technical & practical reasons such as poor physical properties & cooling
efficiency in adequate gauge control, denier variation problems etc.
CAST FILM PROCESS:- In this process, Plastic material is
extruded in the form of flat film through a slit die and then quenched in
the water bath but in blown film process, air is used for cooling hence,

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Cooling efficiency of blown film is poor than cast film. Blown film is
therefore stiffer and opaque than cast film. Blown film also requires
higher stretch ratio during orientation to achieve optimum physicals. Due
to slight orientation during the film blowing operation, transverse
direction strength is higher in blown film as compared to that of cast film
and hence tendency to fibrillate is less in blown film. The cast film is
preferred due to better gauge control and thereby producing tapes with
minimum denier variation and higher output.
PP/HDPE can be processed on conventional extruders with three zone
screws viz. feed,compression and metering. Barrier type of screws are
used for cast film extrusion, for PP barrier and HDPE barrier screws are
used for cast film extrusion of PP and HDPE respectively. The output
obtained from PP/HDPE depends upon the L/D ratio(Length to Diameter
Ratio). Higher the L/D ratio, higher will be the output perrevolution of
screw. For good melt homogeneity and optimum output, extruders
withL/D ratios of 24:1 up to 30:1 are preferred, whilst compression ratio's
between 3.0 - 3.5should be used. Screw diameters range from 65 upwards.
The type of die used is referred to as a coat hanger die / T-die which
provides a good streamlined flow.

FIG.7(A) MANIFOLD T-DIE (B) DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIES

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QUENCHING OF THE FILM:-The polymer melt is partly oriented
during extrusion through a die. To prevent meltrelaxation the melt is
quenched rapidly after exiting from the die. Fast cooling promotes
a finer crystalline structure of polymer in the film which in turn improves
theperformance of film during the stretching operation, apart from
rendering betterphysicals.

In cast film, the cooling is done by quenching the film in a water tank.
The film from thedie is directly taken into the tank filled with water. Film
quality and performance of theresulting tapes mainly depend on the
quenching conditions. During quenching, thesignificant parameters which
control the physicals of the tapes are die-water distance (airgap) and
quench water temperature.

Operation with a lower air gap will reduce the time for melt
relaxation and result in films,with higher strength. A very fast rate of
quench will result in a very fine crystal structurein the film, which will
give higher clarity and strength, than a film which is quenched atslower
rates. To achieve optimum strength and elongation, air gap in PP is 30-40
mm at the temperature 18-45C of water bath and in HDPE air gap is
recommended between 20-30 mm at the temperature 20-30C.

After quenching film is conveyed further by nip roll and a top

roller, an air knife is also used below the top roll to make the surface of
the film free from water. After top roller an Aspiration unit which is
optional is sometimes used to suck remaining water from the film surface.

FIG.8 QUENCH TANK

SLITTING OF FILM INTO TAPES:-Both flat and tubular films after

quenching are slit into tapes of specific width according to the end

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use requirement. The slitting tools generally used are industrial or surgical
blades with sharp edges. Blunt blades produce poor cuts, which leads to
problems in drawing, winding and weaving of tapes. The blades are
equally placed on a bar using spacers and are set at an angle of 30 to 60
degree within the film. Initial tape width is adjusted by selecting
appropriate spacer.
Spacer width of 5-6.2 mm is recommended for cast film line and
6-8 mm for blown film line. After slitting unit a two godet holding unit is
there to give proper tension to the tapes, then a small edge trim unit is
used to take the side tapes which are not uniform in thickness and width,
there is a cutter in this unit by which unwanted tape is cut into pieces and
goes to main hopper by recycling pipe and recycling hopper and
reprocessed.

ORIENTATION OF TAPES:-Partially crystalline thermoplastics,

namely e.g. Polyethylene (HDPE) and polypropylene (PP) are ideal
materials for making oriented products. In a stretching process, the macro
molecules are given an orientation in the direction of draw, called machine
direction (mono axially orientation). The orienting ability of polymer is
determined by its spherules structure. When tension is applied,
amorphous regions get oriented first between folded lamellae and
spherules boundaries. During drawing or stretching, energy conversion
takes place. The oriented structure is heated nearly to its melting
temperature to reduce amorphous region tension and subsequent
shrinkage of tapes is avoided.

Orientation is accomplished by stretching the tapes while passing

them through a hot air oven or a hot plate, maintained at the temperature
just below the melting temperature of the polymer. Stretching of the tapes
is done by passing them over two sets of rollers, one is before oven and
other is after oven called holding and stretching unit respectively,
operating at different speeds. Ratio of speed of second set of rollers (S2),
operating at high speed, to that of first set (S1) is termed as stretch ratio
(SR). Stretch ratio is recommended for tape is 5 to 7. Stretching of tapes
in presence of heating media imparts in molecular/chain orientation and
thus greatly increases the mechanical strength of tapes.
Either hot plate or hot air oven is used for heating media during
orientation.

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4.1.4.1 HOT AIR OVEN:- Tapes from the first set of godet (S1) are taken
through an oven on to the second godet rollers (S2).Hot air is blown in the
oven, counter current to the movement of tapes, and recirculatedthrough a
blower - heater system at linear flow rate of 10-30 metre/sec. Higher flow
rateof circulating air is preferred as it enables faster and more uniform
heating of the tapesand lower the risk of leaving some areas in tapes
undrawn or underdrawn. Once therequired tape properties are obtained,
the orientation temperature and the stretch ratio arekept constant and
checked randomly throughout the process.

In hot air oven system, uniform heating of the tapes takes place, which
ensures better tape properties compared to the Hot plate system. The
length of this unit is around 6 meters and its width is slightly more than
that of the godet rolls, for all the tapes to traverse freely. A good
temperature control system with accuracy of atleast ±5°C is required. Hot
air circulation in the oven should be adequately controlled to avoid
excessive turbulence.

5.1.4.2 HOT PLATE:-Hot plates are heated by electrical heaters or by

circulating hot oil. In this system, tapes are in close contact with the hot
surface while they are oriented. Some processors prefer hot plate oven for
HDPE processing due to better strength & higher filler loading.

ANNEALING OF TAPES:-Drawn tapes are "annealed" immediately after

stretching operation. This helps to minimize tape shrinkage which may
occur as a result of residual stresses in the oriented tapes. Annealing is
done by heating the stretched tapes while they are passing over from
second godet rollers to third godet rollers; the latter being maintained at a
slightly lower speed (5% less) than the former. The annealing ratio is a
function of second and third godet rollers. The annealing temperature is
slightly lower (5-10°C) than the orientation temperature, Then there is
two sets of rollers which are cool. For PP, it is between 125-145°C, while
for HDPE it is between 100-110°C. Alternatively, tapes can be annealed
by using hot godet rolls, which are usually heated electrically or by
circulating hot oil. Relaxation takes place over a short gap (the distance
between the rolls).

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WINDING OF TAPES:-Generally speaking, the winding section in
woven sack industry has been a concern as well as neglect. Concern
because the loom dynamics and fabric quality depend a lot on the
condition of the bobbin, the neglect because even a bad bobbin works on
the loom.
The last few years have seen a significant rise in the manufacturer’s
awareness of the winding section.
A winder assembly does three functions:
➢ To revolve the bobbin such that it takes up the tape at a speed in which
the extruder produces it the motor does this job.
➢ To lay the tape uniformly across the bobbin, this is achieved by the
motion of the cam shaft-slider-thread guide assemble.
➢ To control the winding tension throughout the bobbin diameter. This is
achieved by the dancing arm mechanism in inverter winders and the
magnetic coupling mechanism in the magnetic type winders.

Following are some terms used in winding:

(a) LINE SPEED:-The speed at which tape is produced by the extruder
expressed in meters per minute.
(b) WINDING RATE:-The surface speed of the tape at the diameter of
winding. This is variously termed as winding speed, wind rate, take up
speed etc.
(c) CROSS RATIO:-the number of spindle rotation in one complete cycle
of tape transverse, angle at which each crossing winds at bobbin. For a
mechanical type winder cross ratio is 11.24 and 13.30 for a auto type
winder.
(d) TRAVERSE LENGTH:- Length at which tapes are wound on the
cheese pipe or bobbin.

How the winding speed is accommodated when the extruder is producing

tape at a constant line speed?

The tape pulls at the motor as the diameter increases, and thus puts an
increased load, which in turn reduces the motor speed. This reduction in
motor rpm brings down the winding rate. Inverter winders increase the
load on the motor by the dancer mechanism thus attaining a fairly
constant winding rate. In magnetic winders, as motor load increases, the

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magnetic clutch speed, which is a non-positive drive, keep slipping
behind the motor speed. Hence, in practice, the increase in winding rate is
never realized even through the diameter builds up.

FIG.9 WINDER ASSEMBLY

EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES ON PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES OF TAPES
DRAW/STRETCH RATIO:-As draw ratio increases, tenacity increases
and % elongation decreases. Higher draw ratio increases the alignment of
the polymer molecules.

A draw ratio between 5:1 to 7:1 is optimum for obtaining a tape

with good combinationof mechanical properties, non fibrillating tendency
and curl free tapes. The draw ratio also determines initial cross section of
the slit strip/monofilament which is required forobtaining final width of
the tape or size of monofilament.

TEMPERATURE:-Extrusion temperature i.e. the temperature profile on

the extruderaffects the melt temperature and extruder output.

Quench temperature is also another important variable as the rate of

cooling has asignificant effect on the strength and characteristics of the
product. In the stretched tapeprocess, rapid cooling with low quench
temperature produces a film of highercrystallinity which results in poor
orientation. Also the tendency to fibrillate is less.

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EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON TAPE PROPERTIES:-

FIG.10 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SHRINKAGE

As in above graph, as orientation temperature is increased, the residual

shrinkage decreases.

FIG.11 EFFECT OF ORIENTATION TEMPERATURE ON

TENACITY

NOTE:- As the orientation temperature increases, tenacity increases and

% elongation remains relatively constant. Eventually a temperature is
reached where tenacity decreases rapidly, with corresponding increase in
% elongation.

NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN EXTRUSION SYSTEM FOR

TAPE LINE

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BACKGROUND:-the technology to produce polyolefin tapes is known
since almost 30 years. Inspite of occasional deviations, the basic principle
has remained the same. In co-operation with raw material producers and
the machine manufacturers have improved the aggregates and line
concepts to such a degree that a new line concept has emerged.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS:-Since the first line was introduced,
extrusion technology has advanced considerably, as far as cost
effectiveness and production quality is concerned. The cost effectiveness
has been improved by:
➢ Increasing the specific output capacity
➢ Better utilization of energy
➢ Improved production stability
➢ Reduction of film thickness variation
➢ Recycling of scrap generated up to 20%
All the components of the tape line have contributed to these
improvements. However, the development in the extrusion system has the
highest impact on the reduction in cost/kg of output of tapelines. This has
been mainly possible due to the fact that the consumption of raw material
could be reduced without increasing energy and investment costs.
Currently, the conventional extruders used in tape extrusion lines
can be classified in regard to their feed bushing as:
(a) Grooved bush

(b) Plain bush

Advantages and disadvantages of extruders with smooth and with grooved

bushings are as follows.
(a) GROOVE BUSHING:-

Typical applications for this kind of extruder are:

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➢ (+) Extrusion of different polyolefins (for example HDPE and PP)
with one screw.
➢ (+) High throughput on small extruders.
➢ (+) Extrusion of polymers with high viscosity.
➢ (+) Process with high pressure drops at the die (500 bar).
➢ (-) Reduced lifetime caused by wear (because of high pressure level)
➢ (-) Not capable of processing high contents of film flakes.
(b) SMOOTH BUSHING:-

This kind of extruder is standard extruder, if a producer is processing only

one type of polymer with medium or low viscosity. The pressure drop at
the die should not exceed 200-250 bar in combination with a smooth
feeding.
➢ (+) Good homogenization and mixing
➢ (+) Long lifetime
➢ (-) Low specific throughput
➢ (-) Throughput depending upon back pressure
With the existing technology as the backdrop let us evaluate the new
technology. A break-up of the cost of production for woven sacks
indicates the following.
➢ Raw material 82%
➢ Interest 9%
➢ Power 4%
➢ Labour 3%
➢ Other heads 2%
Hence, it is clear that any reduction in the raw material cost will have
major effect on the product cost/profitability. The following attributes are
important for improvement in extrusion system.
➢ Improving of the thickness tolerance of the un stretched film.
➢ Improving of the efficiency of the line

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➢ Processing of high contents of shredded tapes (start up waste without
influencing the tape properties)
The above will lead t cost reduction of raw material. To fulfil all these
requirements an extrusion system, which gives more flexibility than
standard extruders but at the same level of investment cost is required.
The extrusion system consists mainly of a 27 L/D long
adiabatically functioning extruder in conjunction with a gear pump. The
pump allows the extruder to work at a lower pressure level, therefore
allowing optimization of the screw geometry for process steps feeding,
melting and homogenizing and making it possible to achieve a low melt
temperature coupled with excellent temperature constancy even at a high
screw speed.

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CHAPTER-6

WEAVING
TECHNOLOGY
(WEAVING OF
TAPES)
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CIRCULAR WEAVING MACHINE/LOOM
(LSL-6)

FIG.12 LSL 6 (6 SHUTTLES)

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Weaving is one of the oldest skills known to humans, dating back to
prehistoric times. Clothes have given a distinct identity to almost all
civilizations of the world. India especially stands out in this regards. It has
glorious past in the production of textiles, the use of printing blocks in
India goes as far back as 3000 B.C., and some historians are of the view
that it may have been the original name of textile printing. The export of
printed fabric (from India) to China can be dated to the fourth century
B.C., where they were much used and admired, and later imitated. The
industry in India grew at such a pace that it became major supplier of
textiles to the rest of the world. Evidence of Indian textile dread in ancient
times has been recorded from China in the east to Italy in the west.
These textiles were very expensive and used to bring enormous wealth to
India (as pliny, historian of ancient Rome, complains in the writings).
Weaving is the process of making fabrics by interlacing the threads
lengthwise and width wise commonly known as “warp” and “weft in a
regular order. The operation is performed in a machine known as “loom”.
Two sets of yarns are interlaced, almost always at right angles to each
other. One called warp, runs lengthwise in the loom, the other, called the
filling weft or woof, runs crosswise. The raising and lowering sequence of
warp threads in various sequences gives much possible weave structure.

HISTORY OF WEAVING
Weaving is the process of formation of fabric with interlacement of two or
more sets of yarn or tapes using a stable machine called loom. Human
beings have started using the woven fabrics since the drawn of the history.
➢ Egyptians made fabric some 6000 years ago.
➢ Silk was one of the most important products in china 4000 years ago.

➢ In the third century shading mechanism introduced in Europe.

➢ In 12th century invention of first wooden hand loom in England.

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➢ In 1733 shuttle invented by John key but that is hand operated.
➢ In 1785 invention of power loom.
➢ In early 1800 power loom operated by steam power.
➢ In 1895 loom operated by electric engines.
➢ At beginning of 1930, each weaving machine driven or operated by
individually electric motor.
➢ This loom drive concept has remained in use until the present.
➢ Continuous weft insertion on circular loom was proposed before the
end of the 19th century.
➢ After mid. 90 multiphases circular weaving machines were invented.
➢ In India too, there existed some of the finest hand woven fabrics. There
are references in Tamil literature, that the great poet, Thiruvalluvar was
a hand loom weaver.
THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF WEAVING
Weaving consists of making textile from yarn. The yarn can be made of,
such as wool, cotton, and silk, polymers or glass fibres. In the weaving
process the threads are stretched parallel on the weaving machine. These
stretched threads are known as warp threads (wound on the cheese pipe or
warp beam). Other threads, known historically as the woof or weft but
now referred to as the filling, are inserted one by one through a gap (the
shed) in the warp threads, at right angles to them. As each filling thread is
inserted it is pressed up against the previous ones, in a process known as
beating up.

The basic principle has remained unchanged throughout the centuries. A

textile is formed by weaving the filling threads one by one between the
warp threads. In the loom the warp threads are led through eyes in metal
rods known as heddles, one for each thread. Alternate heddles are joined
together in a frame. There are at least two frames, together making up the

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harness. The purpose of harness is to move the warp threads up and down.
By moving one frame up and other down, an opening (the shed) is formed
in the warp threads, through which the filling thread is inserted. The
frames are then moved in possible directions, binding the filling thread
into warp. Each time a filling thread is inserted, it is pressed against the
previous ones by a reed. The reed is a large, circular frame consisting of
fine iron wires that keep the warp threads parallel to one another.

FIG.13 PRINCIPLE OF WEAVING

In a conventional loom, the filling threads are inserted by a flying shuttle.

In modern weaving machines, however, they are inserted by rapier
(gripper), air jet, water jet or projectile technology. The type of weaving
machine, the technology used and the filling threads are determined by the
type of textile to be produced. The Picanol group manufacturers air jet and
rapier weaving machines exclusively.

CLASSIFICATION OF LOOM

Looms can be classified as follows.

BASED ON NUMBER OF PHASES:-

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 FIG.14
BASED ON WEFT INSERTION SYSTEM:-

FIG.15

SINGLE PHASE WEAVING LOOM (FIRST GENERATION):-There

is sequence in primary motion of weaving and each of them repeated once
in each weaving cycle. Or one shed is opened during one cycle. The weft
insertion, which is principle weaving

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operation, takes place only at discrete intervals.

SHUTTLE LOOMS:-Weft yarn insert through a instrument called

shuttle. The shuttle loom is oldest type of weaving loom which uses a
shuttle which contains a bobbin of filling yarn or tape that appears
through a hole situated in the side. The shuttle is batted across the loom
and during this process, it leaves a trail of the filling at the rate of about
110 to 225 peaks per minute (ppm). Although very effective and versatile,
shuttle looms are low and noisy. Also the shuttle sometimes
leads to abrasion on the warp tapes and at other times causes warp breaks.
As a result the machine has to be stopped for tying the broken tapes.
Shuttle loom is three types:

(1) HAND LOOM:- Every operation is performed manually.

(2) POWER LOOM:- (non automatic) The shuttle is changed by hand.
(3) AUTOMATIC LOOM:- A power driven loom on which the shuttles
are changed automatically.

SHUTTLE LESS LOOM:-Many kinds of shuttle less looms are used for
weaving such as projectile looms, water jet looms, or air jet looms etc.
(1) PROJECTILE LOOM:- A weaving machine in which the weft thread
is gripped by jaw(s) fitted in a projectile, which is then propelled through
the shed. It has a small hook like device that grips the end of the filling
tape. It is sometimes called missile loom as the picking action is done by
a series of small bullet like projectiles which hold the weft tape and carry
it through the shed and then return empty. All the filling tapes are inserted
from same side of the loom.

(2) RAPIER LOOM:- Rapier looms are machines in which the means os
carrying the weft through the shed is fixed in the end of a rigid rod or in a
flexible ribbon, this being positively driven. A rapier machine may have a
rapier to carry the weft across the full width or a single rapier operating

bilaterally with a centrally located bilateral weft supply or two rapiers

operating opposite sides of the machines.

(3) WATER JET LOOM:- in water jet loom, a water jet is propelled across
the shed with the force that takes the filling tape to the other side. In it a

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pre measured length of weft tape is carried across the loom by a jet of
water. These looms are very fast with speeds up to 600 PPM and very low
noise.

(4) AIR JET LOOMS:-In air jet loom, a jet of air is projected across the
shed with the force, that takes the filling tape to other side i.e., a jet of air

is used to propel the weft tape through the shed at speeds of up to 600
PPM. Uniform weft tapes are needed to make fabrics on this loom.

MULTIPHASE WEAVING LOOM (SECOND GENERATON):-

further increase in production rate of woven fabric requires new
technologies such as multiphase weaving. In the filling direction shade
wave principle, a number of shed in weft direction are open subsequently
for insertion of weft. Shed are arranged in wave like form one side to
another so that weft carrier slides in to each shed.

As the weft carrier enters one portion of the warp, the shed is
formed, as the carrier leave that area the shed changes. As a result, at any
moment, there are several shuttles in the shed, each carrying a different
tape.

FIG.16

WARP WAVE:-In a warp wave there are many warp tapes are consists,
which are locked by many filling tapes at every picking. Warp wave is
formed by the shed process.

FILLING WAVE:- The multiphase loom can form many different

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sheds at different places, thereby enabling insertion of number of filling
tapes, one behind the other.
Weaving is the major method of fabric construction. In weaving
two or more set of tapes at right angle are interlaced to each other. Tape
that is vertical or parallel to fabric edge is warp tape and tape that are
horizontal to fabric edge is weft tape. Weaving process is carried out on a
loom. On the conventional loom, the length wise tape (warp tape) wound
on a warp beam and conveyed to a cloth roll, each of them are placed at
each of the loom.

(a) CIRCULAR LOOMS:- These looms are particularly used for making
tubular fabrics. A shuttle device in it circulates the weft in a shed formed
around the machine. A circular loom is primarily used for bagging
material.
➢ In a circular loom warp is circular, and there are continuously
circulating shuttles running around the periphery in a wave or ripple
shed.
➢ Shuttles can not leave the shade and have a continuous motion.
➢ Shuttles are driven electromagnetically and each shuttle runs in its own
shed.
➢ Warps are divided in to two segments and form the shed with small
heddle frames or wires.
➢ The beat up is performed by needle gears.

(b) FLAT LOOMS:- These looms are particularly used for making flat
looms. There is sheds are in flat manner. Tarpaulin is made by this flat
loom.
Weaving is done by two methods, either on flat looms or by using circular
looms. Circular looms are preferred over flat looms due to the following
advantages.
➢ Higher output of fabric.
➢ Better retention of mechanical properties.

➢ Sack output is higher because of only one side stitching.

➢ Saving up to 20-25% due to superior coverage, as the tape do not get
twisted.

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 FIG.17 CIRCULAR WEAVING PROCESS

5.4 MECHANISM AND FUNCTION OF CIRCULAR

WEAVING MACHINE
CREEL ASSEMBLY:- Creel is a steel pipe construction with creel
stands, cross connections, spindles and bobbin adaptors. Two no’s creel
are used at the either side of the machine to hold warp bobbins. It feeds
individual warp tapes to the inlet mechanism.

FIG.18 CREEL ASSEMBLY

WARP IN FEED SYSTEM:-Consisting of inlet and intermediate roller,

comb assembly insures smooth delivery of individual tape to the
compensator.

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 FIG.19

MAIN DRIVE MECHANISM:-Function of main drive mechanism is to

give rotary motion to the cam with the help of main motor and pulleys at
desired speed. The system consists of main motor, v-belt and step down
pulleys/gear box.

FIG.20 (A) CAM, (B) MOTOR

WARP BREAK DETECTION SYSTEM:-At the time warp tape

breakage, compensators from which warp tapes has runoff/loosen falls
back on earthling ring and stop the machine. It also helps in waste
reduction.

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 FIG.21 COMPENSATORS AND EARTHING RING

SHEDDING MECHANISM:- Shedding mechanism moves the warp tapes

up and down and allows the shuttle to pass in between the warp tapes.
Following are some assemblies of the shedding mechanism.
➢ Jockey lever assembly
➢ Heddle belt assembly
➢ Cam
In the shedding mechanism, cam provides oscillating motion to swinging
lever. Heddle belts are attached with the end of the swinging lever with
the connecting plate and connecting strip. Swinging lever gives
reciprocating motion to the heddle belts.

FIG.22 (A) JOCKEY LEVER, (B) HEDDLE BELT

REED RING ASSEMBLY:-Reed ring having circular tapered tracks and

two radial tracks for movement of the shuttle. The movement of the
shuttles in the reed ring is controlled by pusher and stopper block on cam.

FIG.23

SHUTTLE ASSEMBLY:-Shuttles lay the weft tapes in the fabric.

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 FIG.24
WEFT BREAK SENSOR:-Magnetic sensor is used to stop the machine
at the time of weft tape breakage or runoff and helps in wastage reduction.

FIG.25 MAGNETIC SENSOR

SPREADING MECHANISM:- Spreading mechanism is having round

holder as well as spreader assembly. This mechanism is used to guide the
fabric between take up roller weaving ring. It also prevents crease
formation in the fabric up to its delivery to the take up roller.

CWM CONTROLLER:-The CWM controllers control the speed of the

haul off. It facilitates feeding of desired mesh within the machine
capacity range. It is not possible in case of mechanical gearing. Changing
of mesh is also easy as compare to mechanical system.

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 FIG.26 CWM CONTROLLER

GUSSETING DEVICE:-It is used in the machine to make gusset (inside

fold) on both side of tubular fabric. The gusset helps in providing a box
type construction to the bag.

FIG.27 GUSSETING MECHANISM

TAKE-UP MECHANISM:-Take-up mechanism has one take-up roller,

one pressure roller and a gear box assembly. In case of mechanical
machine, Take up roller driven by take up gear box fitted in the base frame
and device to take-up rollers is given by chain sprocket system. In case of
electronic loom, take-up roller is driven by haul of gear box fitted with
motor which is synchronized and controlled by CWM controller. Big
machine have to emery rollers and one guide roller.

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 FIG.28

SLITTING DEVICES:-Ultrasonic/thermal slitting devices with

adjustable control designed for longitudinal cutting of the tubular fabric
cloth from the centre/side edge.
FABRIC WINDER ASSEMBLY:-Cloth winder is designed for winding
the tubular/flat cloth on cores. There are three types of cloth winders.
➢ Surface winder
➢ Magazine winder
➢ Rocking arm winder
DEVICES FOR SURFACE WINDER:-Following three types of drives
are used for surface winder.
➢ TMG (magnet type)
➢ Torque motor (dimmer controlled)
➢ With load cell system (normal induction motor with gear box)

FIG.29(A) SURFACE WINDER WITH LOAD CELL, (B) MAGAZINE

WINDER, (C) ROCKING ARM WINDER

WEAVING PROCESS

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In general, weaving involves using a loom to interlace two sets of threads
at right angles to each other, the warp which runs longitudinally and the
weft that crosses it. One warp thread is called an end and one weft thread
is called a pick. The warp threads are held tout and in parallel to each
other, typically in a loom. There are many types of looms. Weaving can be
summarized as a repetition of these three actions, also called primary
motion of the loom.
PRIMARY MOTION:-

(A) SHEDING:-Where the ends are separated by raising or lowering held

frames (heddles) to form a clear space where the pick can pass,or
providing the path for weft tape. This is done by raising and lowering of
frame.
Shading mechanism:

CREEL CREEL EYELET

SMALL COMB MAXIDRAG ROLLER STEEL
ROLLER EYELET BOW COMPENSATOR
HEDDLE BELT REED RING WEAVING RING
FIG.30 THREAD METHODOLOGY

Shed geometry and shed characteristics require a great consideration and

precision because it is the zone in which the tapes are converted into
fabric. In circular loom shedding mechanism is a Cam or Tappet type.
Shed angle should not be exceeding 25 degrees with very poor warp. The
heddle shaft motion is operated by cam or eccentrics. The motive cam
converts the rotary motion of the main shaft of the weaving machine into
the reciprocating motion of the heddle frame. In circular loom cam

Shedding mechanism is positive type in which heddle shaft are both

raised and lowered by the cam system of the shedding mechanism.

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 FIG.31

(B) PICKING:-The method of passing the weft threads which traverses

across the fabric through shed is called picking. The inverted weft is
known as pick. It is also called weft insertion motion. This motion
follows the shedding motion. In circular loom filling tape is inserted by
means of a shuttle. As the harnesses raise the heddle or healds, which
raise the warp tape, the shed is created. The filling tape is inserted through
the shed by a small carrier device called a shuttle. the shuttle is normally
pointed at each end to allow passage through the shed. In a traditional
shuttle loom, the filling tape is wound onto a quill, which in turn is
mounted in the shuttle. The filling tape emerges through a hole in the
shuttle as it moves across the loom. A single crossing of the shuttle from
one side of the loom to the other is known as a pick.

FIG.32

(C) BEATING UP:-As the shuttle moves across the loom laying down the

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fill tape, it also passes through openings in another frame called reed
(which resembles a comb). With each picking operation, the reed presses
or battens each filling tape against the portion of the fabric that has
already been formed. The point where the fabric is formed is called the
fell.
The main function of beat up mechanism is the reciprocating
motion of reed. During weaving reed performs the following functions:
(1) It holds the warp end at given distance thus deter mine the warp
density and fabric width.
(2) It guides the weft carrier across the warp.

(3) The most important function of reed is to beat up every inserted weft
thread to the fabric fell.

FIG.33 BEATING UP PROCESS

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SECONDARY MOTION:- Secondary motions of the loom are the
following:
(A) LET OFF MOTION:-Where the warp is let off the warp creel at a
regulated speed to make the filling even and of the required design. The
motion which delivers warp in the weaving area at the required rate and at
a suitable constant tension by winding it from a flanged beam called let
off motion. Means the motion that release the warp is called let off
motion.

FIG.34

(B) TAKE UP MOTION & WIND UP MOTION:-The motion which

withdrawals fabric from the weaving area, at the constant rate that will
give the required spacing and winds the fabric onto a roller is called take
up motion. This motion withdraws fabric from weaving area at constant
rate that will give the required pick spacing and then wind it on to a roller.
The main part of the mechanism is the take up rollers, which draws
the cloth at the regular rate, and the number of picks per inch decides this
rate. The take up roller is covered with emery cloth or harder rubber
depending upon type of cloth woven. The drive to take up roller is by a
train of gear wheels put into motion directly from the main shaft.

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 FIG.35

TERTIARY MOTION:-The tertiary motion of the loom are the stop

motions: to stop the loom in the event of a thread break. The two main
stop motions are following.
(A) WARP STOP MOTION:-A mechanism to stop the loom
automatically if a warp thread breaks. The most common type is
mechanically operated.
The principle of operation of a warp stop-motion is as follows. A
metal vane is fitted on each warp thread. Above the hole for the thread in
the vanes there is a longitudinal slot through which two racks pass. The
outer rack is fixed and inner is moveable. The inner rack performs
reciprocating motion inside the fixed rack. If a thread breaks, the vane
drops and by falling between teeth of the racks, stops the motion of the
moveable rack which causes the loom to shut down. Warp stop motion
also exist that operate electromagnetically, in this case the fall of a vane
when warp thread breaks closes an electrical circuit and stops the loom.
These mechanisms free the weaver from the need to watch for warp
breakages, which is important when operating several automatic machines
simultaneously, and prevent the occurrence of defects in the fabric.

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The warp stop motion stops the loom when warp thread breaks during
weaving. The warp mechanism will stop the loom if the shuttle gets
trapped between the top and bottom layers of the shed. It thus prevents
excessive damage to the warp threads, reed wires and shuttles. This warp
stops motion function through compensator.

(B) WEFT STOPS MOTION:-The object of weft stop motion is to stop

the loom when a weft thread breaks or gets exhausted. This motion helps
to avoid cracks in a fabric. There are two types of sensor which work
during weft stop that are
(1) MAGNETIC SENSOR:- Whenever weft thread or tape break and
magnet which are in boom return to back and sensor sense that and
stopped the machine.
(2) COLOR SENSOR:- Whenever weft packet or bobbin remain to empty
then sensor sense its black colour and stopped the machine immediately.

FIG.36 (A) COLOR SENSOR (B) MAGNETIC SENSOR

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CHAPTER-7

BAG CONVERSION
SYSTEM (BCS)

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BAG CONVERSION SYSTEM/MACHINE (BCS
850/40)

FIG.37 BCS 850/40 (40 BAGS/MINUTE & WIDTH 850 MM)

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Materials such as fabric, plastic film, foil and cloth often are produced in
long, continuous sheets that are rolled up for more-convenient handling
and transportation. These rolls of material vary significantly in size and
weight- ranging from 2 to 200 in. wide and weighing as much as several
tons. The converting machine takes these continuous film of thin, flat
materials- known as fabric- threads them through processing machines
(such as folding and slitting machines) and convert or changes the fabric
of material into an intermediate form or final product. For example,
converters equipment might take a fabric of plastic cut it into lengths and
fuse their edges, thus converting it into plastic bags. This activity is
known as bag converting system.

FIG.38 PARTS OF BCS MACHINE

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 BCS MACHINE SPECIFICATION DETAILS
DISCRIPTION MINIMUM LIMIT MAXIMUM LIMIT
Capacity 12 40 bags/min.
Length (mm) 500 1350
Width (mm) 300 850
Hot cutting speed (bag/min) 12 40
Width* speed (bag/min) - 600*40
Cold cutting speed (bag/min) 12 35
Print bag speed (bag/min) 12 35

MACHINE PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

Bag conversion machine’s layout is as following. In which different parts
of bag conversion machine is indicated.

FIG.39 LINE DIAGRAM OF BCS

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UNWINDING UNIT:-Bag conversion machine consists of an unwinding
unit where roll of circular woven fabric can be easily mounted without
any requirement of external lifting device. Edge position control unit
(EPC) supplied with the machine takes care of minor variations in fabric
rolls and maintains edge of the fabric in line with the transfer unit.
This unit convey the fabric further by rotating in opposite direction
of fabric layer.

FIG.40

ACCUMULATOR UNIT:-The accumulator unit is provided to

accommodate and keep reserve of any extra length of fabric opened during
continuous unwinding and is also helpful in maintaining uniform tension
of fabric. Print mark sensor is supplied as standard with the machine to
cut the fabric as per marking on pre-printed fabric roll.

FIG.41

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CUTTING UNIT:-Machine is equipped with a hot cutting unit suitable
for un-laminated fabric in conjunction with mouth opening device which
helps in easier opening of leading edge of the cut length. Servo motor
used is helpful in cutting the fabric of pre-set length with minimum cut
length variation.
Cutting can be done by two types, one is hot cutting used for un
laminated bags and other is cold cutting used for laminated bags. In hot
cutting for PP bags 250 to 290 degree C temperature is given.

FIG.42

BOTTOM FOLDING AND SEWING UNIT:-These cut lengths are then

transferred to the bottom folding and sewing unit with the help of transfer
conveyor. With the help of sensors provided, the sewing machine can be
automatically stopped for the duration when no cut lengths are received
from cutting unit in case of any problem or exhaustion of fabric roll etc.
Variable frequency drive system is provided to synchronize the cutting
unit, conveyor and sewing unit. The thread cutter unit is operated through
an electronic sensor.

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 FIG.43 (A) SEWING UNIT (B) FOLDING UNIT

BAG STACKING AND CONVEYER UNIT:-The finished bags are

discharged onto a delivery conveyor after counting and stacking the pre-
set number of bags.

FIG.44

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CHAPTER-8

TROUBLESHOOTIN
G GUIDE (TAPE
LINE/LOOM/BCS)
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 TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR TAPE LINE
Problems at the time of manufacturing of tapes and their remedies are
given bellow.

SR. NO. PROBLEM REMEDIES

1 Film puncture ✓ Clean die lip
✓ Optimise temperature profile
2 Tape breakage ✓ See under film puncture
✓ Check hot plate temperature
✓ Reduce stretch ratio
✓ Reduce quench tank
temperature
✓ Set die gap
3 Low tenacity ✓ Increase stretch ratio
(Tensile strength) ✓ Increase oven/hot plate
temperature
4 High elongation ✓ Reduce quench tank
temperature
✓ Increase oven/hot plate
temperature
✓ Increase stretch ratio
✓ Reduce air gap
5 Denier variation ✓ Adjust die gap and clean die if
required to get
uniform film thickness
✓ Check uniformity of
temperature on hot plate
✓ Check spacer thickness with
Vernier
✓ Check pressure roller and its
pressure
6 Fibrillation of tapes ✓ Check sharpness of blades on
spacer
✓ Reduce stretch ratio

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 ✓ Check for wrinkles in the tape
✓ Check winder tension

7 Shrinkage of tapes ✓ Increase annealing temp, check

speed of godet 3
✓ Improve heat conduction during
annealing

TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR LOOM

Common faults in circular loom and their remedies:

SR. NO. PROBLEM CAUSE REMEDIES

1 Under/Over fabric (a) Incorrect ID of ✓ Use ID of
width weaving ring appropriate
(b) Improper gap size
between insertion
✓ Adjust gap to
finger and
clothing ring correct
2 Holes in fabric (a) Mending of ✓ Adopt correct
tape is incorrect procedure
after warp ✓ Adjust tension
breakage by using
(b) Improper
tension rod
tension in warp
tape ✓ Avoid double
(c)Double winding
winding in bobbin
3 Roughness of (a) Due to lesser ✓ Adjust correct
fabric tension of weft tension
tension pad
4 Crushing of weft (a) Over width of ✓ Use correct
tape tape tape width
(b) Higher weft ✓ Adjust correct
tension weft tension

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 5 Folding of warp (a)Irregular ✓ Adjust to
tape spacing between uniform
warp tape, reed spacing
ring and heddle
belts

Some other problem also occur in circular weaving machine, which are
given following.
MISSING WEFT:-

➢ Usually this is due to malfunctioning of magnetic sensor.

➢ Verify the problem by exchanging the sensor with other
machine.
➢ A common cause of this problem is shifting of boom magnet
assembly from the position.
➢ Magnet on reversing should fall under the magnetic sensor.
8.2.2 UNDER WIDTH FABRIC:-

Either wrong weaving size is being used or weft tension is too high. It
could be due to higher winding tension of cheese winders.
OVER WIDTH FABRIC:-

Either wrong weaving ring is being used or weft tension is too low.
Insertion finger setting may be incorrect.
HOLES IN FABRIC:-

Warp tape got fibrillate during running of machine, loosening of warp

tapes due to slippage of bobbin, sharp edges/cut or protruding parts on
shuttles, causing holes in fabric.
OVERTIGHT FABRIC:-

Excess weft tension, bobbin winding is tight, shuttle parts are not moving
freely and interrupted movement of guide rollers are the causes of it.

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 WARP TAPE FOLDING:-

Warp density is higher than required, uneven mending of warp tapes,

excess warp tension, are the causes of warp tape folding.
BAD FABRIC TEXTURE:-

High weft tension and denier variation in warp within the weft bobbins
are the causes of bad fabric texture.
WEFT TAPE LOOSENING:-

Improper weft tape mending i.e. path is not correct, leather pad is
unavailable are causes of weft tape loosening.
WEFT TAPE FOLDING:-

Means weft density is higher than required, excess warp tension, improper
maintenance of shuttle assembly, creel disc is moving tight, and warp
density is more.
WIDTH VARIATION IN LOOM:-

Means uneven gap in between weaving ring and insertion fingers, uneven
weft tension for weft bobbins, higher weft bobbins winding tension at
cheese winder, higher warp tape tension, restricted movement of guide
rollers and inlet rollers and restricted movement of shuttle assembly
parts.
WEFT TAPE SNAPPING:-

It means bobbin holders are not moving freely, weft tension is less,
acceleration time fed in MMI is less (it should be approx. 6-7 sec.),
entanglement of weft tape due to less deceleration time fed in MMI (it
should be approx. 4-5 sec.), leather pad/felt is not present at tension pad,
eye of insertion finger is worn out or damaged, weft bobbin having side
slippage of tape, weft bobbin (cheese tube is loose) in side flange and
rubbing with foam washer.

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TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR BAG CONVERSION
MACHINE (BCS)
When any alarm is occurred, eliminate its causes and wait for about 5
minutes for cooling before resuming operation, ensure safety, then reset
the alarm, and restart operation, otherwise injury may occur.

SR. PROBLEM CAUSE REMEDY

NO.
1 Emergency stop Emergency Close emergency switch
switch opened by after carrying out a specific
operator for any action for which emergency
emergency action switch is opened.
Check wiring emergency
switch in console and
control box.
2 Stacking Machine is stuck Check load current with
conveyor motor somewhere help of multi meter.
overload Set current limit of
respective overload as per
given on name plate of
motor.
Check wiring of overload.
3 Delivery Machine is stuck Check load current with
conveyor motor somewhere help of multi meter.
overload Set current limit of
respective overload as per
given on name plate of
motor.
Check wiring of overload.
4 Thread broken Sewing machine Put thread in sewing
alarm thread broken machine.
5 Bag jammed in Accumulation of Clean bag path.
cutter area bag in cutting
area
6 Setting error Higher values Reduce set values (length,
than its capacity width, speed)

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 7 Low temperature Insufficient Check wiring connections of
temperature to heater and thermocouple
run the machine sensor.
Check that appropriate
temperature is set in main
menu.
8 High High Check whether
temperature temperature of thermocouple sensor is
knife beyond set working properly or not.
value
9 Print mark There is no print Check whether web roll is
missing mark on the web with print mark or not.
Check whether print mark
sensor is configured for
appropriate background and
mark colour.
10 Accumulator Accumulator Check accumulator motor
arm up position arm may reach to running and dancer up and
top position of down factor setting.
arm

Some other problems are also occurred during bag conversion, means at
the time of cutting, folding or sewing, that are as following.
WHEN BAG CUTTING IS NOT PROPER:-In a bag conversion
system cutting can be done by two methods first one is Hot cutting (for un
laminated bags) and second one is cold cutting (for laminated bags).
(A) HOT CUTTING:- If bag is not cutting properly the following may be
some of the reasons.
(1) Heater temperature is too low or high.

(2) There may be gap between hot cutter edge and cutting block.

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✓ To overcome the problem, decrease heater temperature if cut web is
sticking due to overheating and increase temperature in case clear
printing of cut web is not taking place.
✓ To adjust the gaps, adjusting nuts may be tightened/loosened to
exert/relieve pressures through studs to increase/decrease the gap. This
gap can be gauged/assessed through passage of light or by filler gauge.

(B) COLD CUTTING:-Please check the sharpness of the edge of cold

knife and change the knife if required.

WHEN BAG MOUTH OPENING IS NOT SATISFACTORY:- The

problem may be due to following reasons.
(A) Hot cutter temperature may be too high causing fusion of cut web
edges, which may not get separated by action of the mouth-opening
roll.
(B) Worn-out liner of mouth opener roll and corresponding liner stuck
on the base, and abrasive surface of the liner get worn out after long
working of the mouth opener roll. The liner surface may be examined
and changed, if required.

PROBLEMS ON FOLDING AND SEWING:-Non uniform bag fold

and stitch line not parallel to fold. This problem may be due to
mismatch in main conveyor and sewing machine speeds which should
be set by adjusting sewing machine speed.

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CHAPTER-9

TESTING AND
QUALITY CONTROL
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In the field of woven sack raw material for a woven fabric or sack is tape,
which is produced from cast film process and for producing tape from cast
film extrusion raw materials used are virgin plastics and additives which
are the master batches of that additive with base plastic. So, this is
important to test the starting material means raw material, used in cast
film extrusion which is called raw material testing. Then intermediate
product (tape, fabric) testing is also done and at last final product (woven
sack) testing we have to do for quality control.

RAW MATERIAL TESTING

Following tests are performed for the quality control of raw materials
which are used in cast film extrusion for producing intermediate product
(tape).
MELT FLOW INDEX (MFI) TEST:-It is a measure of the ease of flow
of the melt of a thermoplastic polymer. It is defined as the mass of
polymer, in grams, flowing in ten minutes through a capillary of a specific
diameter and length by a pressure applied via prescribed alternative
gravimetric weights for alternative prescribed temperatures.[1] The method
is described in the similar standards ASTMD1238, ISO 1133 and BIS
11360.
Melt flow rate is very commonly used for polyolefins, polyethylene being
measured at 190°C and polypropylene at 230°C. The plastics converter
should choose a material with a melt index so high that he can easily form
the polymer in the molten state into the article intended, but on the other
hand so low that the mechanical strength of the final article will be
sufficient for its use.
MEASUREMENT:-The procedure for determining MFI is as follows.

(1) A small amount of the polymer sample (4 to 5 grams) is taken in the

specially designed MFI apparatus which is nothing but a miniature

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extruder. The apparatus consists of a small die inserted into the extruder,
with the diameter of the die generally being around 2.095 mm.

(2) The material is packed properly inside the barrel to avoid formation
of air pockets.
(3) A piston is introduced which acts as the medium that causes extrusion
of the molten polymer.
(4) The sample is preheated for a specified amount of time: 5 min at
190°C for polyethylene and 6 min at 230°C for polypropylene.
(5) After the preheating a specified weight is introduced onto the piston.
Examples of standard weights are 2.16 kg, 5 kg, etc.
(6) The weight exerts a force on the molten polymer and it immediately
starts flowing through the die.
(7) A sample of the melt is taken after desired period of time and is
weighed accurately.
(8) MFI is expressed as grams of polymer/10 minutes of flow time.
Synonyms of Melt Flow Index are Melt Flow Rate and Melt Index. More
commonly used are their abbreviations: MFI, MFR and MI.Melt flow rate
is an indirect measure of molecular weight, with high melt flow rate
corresponding to low molecular weight. At the same time, melt flow rate
is a measure of the ability of the material's melt to flow under pressure.
Melt flow rate is inversely proportional to viscosity of the melt at the
conditions of the test, though it should be borne in mind that the viscosity
for any such material depends on the applied force. Ratios between two
melt flow rate values for one material at different gravimetric weights are
often used as a measure for the broadness of the molecular weight
distribution.Confusingly, MFR may also indicate "melt flow ratio", the
ratio between two melt flow rates at different gravimetric weights. More
accurately, this should be reported as FRR (flow rate ratio), or simply
flow ratio. FRR is commonly used as an indication of the way in which

Rheological behaviour is influenced by the molecular mass distribution of

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the material. PP material having MFI 3 to 6 gm/10min and HDPE .9 to 2
gm/10min is suitable for woven sack for making tapes.

FIG. 45 MFI TESTING MACHINE

DENSITY MEASUREMENT:-The density of plastic materials is

defined as the weight per unit volume and is expressed in grams per cubic
centimetre. The test method developed to determine the density of plastics
very accurately, is based on observing the level to which a test specimen
sinks in a liquid column exhibiting a density gradient in comparisonwith
standard specimens of known density. A number of calibrated glass floats
of precisely known density are introduced into the density gradient and
allowed to sink in the column to a point where the glass floats density
matches that of the solution. A series of such floats of differing densities
within the range of the column serves as a means of calibrating the
column (2). The float position vs. Float density is plotted. When a
specimen of unknown density is introduced into the column, the
measurement of its position upon reaching equilibrium, when referred to
the calibration line, gives an accurate measurement of its density.
Liquid systems recommended for use in density gradient columns
are Methanol-benzyl alcohol, isopropanol-water etc. Density test is done
as per ISO R 1183 and ASTM D 1505.

INTERMEDIATE PRODUCT TESTING

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UV RETENTION TEST:-To determine the effect of UV radiation and
weathering on the breaking strength, the HDPE/PP woven fabric shall be
exposed as given in BIS 14738.
TEST CONDITION:-The test shall be carried out with fluorescent UV
lamp type B. The duration of the test shall be 144 hrs (for low denier) and
200 hrs (high denier). The test cycle shall be 8 hrs at 60C with UV
radiation alternating with 4 hrs at 50C with condensation.
TEST PROCEDURE:-Cut a 2 metre length tape or fabric, divide it into
two parts. Measure strength and elongation of one part and put the second
part in UV retention testing machine. After completing the test take
second one and again measure the strength and elongation and calculate %
change in strength and elongation.
TENSILE STRENGTH:-Maximum load applied to a specimen before
rupture is called strength of that specimen. Tensile strength measurement
is done on UTM (universal testing machine) machine as per standards
ASTM D 882 and BIS 1969.
In woven sack there are two types of tests are performed, grab test
in which we measure strength of fabric and modified grab or slit test
which is used for tapes. Specimen of length 25 to 50cm. Recommended
and width of fabric should be 10 cm., maximum speed of machine for this
test is 300_+15 mm/min, applied load should be 200N for tapes, 500N for
normal fabrics and 1000N for FIBC type fabrics.

FIG.46 TENSILE TESTING MACHINE

SHRINKAGE:-This test is performed mainly in tapes, for

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measuring shrinkage we take a tape of 1 metre and put it for some times
in 40-45C and after cooling measure again its length. If initial length is A
and final length is B then % shrinkage we can calculate by following
formula.
% Shrinkage= Initial length-Final lengthX 100
Initial length

Only 3-4% shrinkage is acceptable.

ELONGATION:-How long a tape or fabric stretch before rupture is

called elongation. Elongation can also be measured at UTM machine.
Elongation % can be calculated as follows.
%Elongation= Final length-Initial length X100

Initial length
Elongation of 18 to 25% is recommended.
DENIER:-Gram age of 9000 metre long tape is called denier. We can
calculate denier by cutting a tape sample of 9 metre and then multiply by
1000 we can get denier of that tape, for ease of calculation.
Ex- 800 denier tape means 9000 meter long tape have its weight 800 gm.
TENACITY (GPD):- It is also called GPD (gram per denier), GPD can
be calculated by following given formula. GPD value is calculated for
tapes.
Tenacity (GPD)= Strength (kgf)*1000
Denier
GSM (GRAM SQUARE METRE):-GSM is calculated for fabric. It
is the weight of a fabric of 1 metre square. It is calculated by dividing
weight of 1 metre fabric by fabric size (flat size).

TAPE WIDTH:-Width of the tape is depend on the spacer size used and
stretch ratio given. Tape width can be calculated by following formula.
Tape width=Spacer size

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 Stretch ratio

FINAL PRODUCT TESTING

Different types of woven sacks are the final product of woven sack
industries, so tests are performed on the bags as size of the bag (length X
width), strength (lengthwise & width wise), stitching mesh (number of
stitches per 10 cm),folding (single or double), seam (stitch) strength, etc.
All above tests can be performed manually without using any
device. Other tests which are very similar to intermediate product tests are
also performed on the bags as GPM (gram per meter), GSM (gram per
square meter), elongation and UV retention test etc.
Some special tests are also performed on the bags, Peel off is one of
the special type test which is done in case of printing bags to check the
adhesion property of the printing.

APPENDIX-A

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PRACTICAL LOG
SHEETS
LOG SHEET-1 (TAPE PLANT)
Raw material- Polypropylene (PP)

Date – 19/06/2019 Time-3:40PM

Plant no.- 01Lot no.- E-01

Raw material Brand name Grade Batch no. Qnty (kg) Initial width (mm)| 390
1 PP/HDPE Repol H030SG 71950023 25 Final width(mm) 2.1
2 CaCo3 Alok Super 160203 12 Spacer size(mm) 5.1
3 M.B. No. Of tapes 75
4 UV
5 Tio2
6 M.F comp.

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 7 R.P(reprocess)
8 Other
Temperatures-

Parts name Actual Set Parameters Mtr /Min Amp

1 Barrel 245 245 Holding unit 41.6
1
255 255 Stretching unit 1
2
265 265 2 249.9
3
Annealing unit 237.6
4
Nip roller 38.4
5
2 Screen cha. 265 265 Top roller 39.0
3 Adapter 262 265 Screw rpm
A
Melt pump
B
4 Die 265 265 P1 126 bar
1
268 265 P2
2
265 265 P3
3
Stretching ratio 6
4
% Relaxation 5.16%
5
Quality 1050
6
Time 3:30PM
7
5 Melt pump temp. 260 Denier 865
6 Sleeve temp. 22 Strength 3.8 kgf
7 Quenching temp. 35 35 GPD 4.7
8 Hot A.O. temp. 150 155 Elongation 23%
9 Annealing temp. 70 70 Tape width 2.508
BETA GUAGE

Sr. No. Min. Max. Avg.

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LOG SHEET-2 (TAPE PLANT)
Raw material- High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

Date – 21/06/2019Time- 3:00PM

Plant no.- 01Lot no.- E-01

Raw material Brand name Grade Batch no. Qnty (kg) Initial width (mm)
1 PP/HDPE Relene E52009 H1221999 100 Final width(mm) 2.5
2 CaCo3 Alok FMBA plus 30632 20 Spacer size(mm) 5.6
3 M.B. No. Of tapes 68
4 UV
5 Tio2
6 M.F comp.
7 R.P(reprocess)
8 Other
Temperatures-

Parts name Actual Set Parameters Mtr /Min Amp

1 Barrel 220 220 Holding unit 55.8
1
230 230 Stretching unit 1
2
250 250 2 300
3
Annealing unit 280
4
Nip roller 52.4
5
2 Screen cha. 250 250 Top roller 52.9
3 Adapter 250 250 Screw rpm 30.5
A
Melt pump
B
4 Die 250 250 P1 195 bar
1
245 250 P2
2
250 250 P3
3
Stretching ratio 5.5
4
% Relaxation 6.6
5
Quality 800/2.5
6
Time 2:00 PM

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 7
5 Melt pump temp. Denier 800
6 Sleeve temp. 20 20 Strength 3.5 kgf
7 Quenching temp. 21 20 GPD 4.37
8 Hot A.O. temp. 136 135 Elongation 24%
9 Annealing temp. 72 74 Tape width 2.5 mm
BETA GUAGE

Sr. No. Min. Max. Avg.

LOG SHEET-3 (TAPE PLANT)

Raw material- Polypropylene (PP)

Date – 25/06/2019Time- 2:30 PM

Plant no.- 01Lot no.- E-01

Raw material Brand name Grade Batch no. Qnty (kg) Initial width (mm)
1 PP/HDPE Repol H030SG J1210887 100 Final width(mm) 2.34
2 CaCo3 Alok Super 122610 25 Spacer size(mm) 5.6
3 M.B. No. Of tapes 60
4 UV
5 Tio2
6 M.F comp.
7 R.P(reprocess)
8 Other
Temperatures-

Parts name Actual Set Parameters Mtr /Min Amp

1 Barrel 230 230 Holding unit 21
1
249 250 Stretching unit 1 116.6
2
2
3
Annealing unit 111.3

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 4
Nip roller 19.8
5
2 Screen cha. 261 260 Top roller 20
3 Adapter 260 260 Screw rpm 15.3
A
Melt pump
B
4 Die 265 265 P1 55 bar
1
266 265 P2
2
265 265 P3
3
Stretching ratio 5.6
4
% Relaxation 7.0
5
Quality 797/2.34
6
Time 12:00 PM
7
5 Melt pump temp. 237 Denier 797
6 Sleeve temp. 22 Strength 2.8 kgf
7 Quenching temp. 35 35 GPD 3.5
8 Hot A.O. temp. 120 120 Elongation 22%
9 Annealing temp. 75 75 Tape width 2.34
BETA GUAGE

Sr. No. Min. Max. Avg.

LOG SHEET-4 (TAPE PLANT)

Raw material- Polypropylene (PP)

Date – 27/06/2019Time- 2:30 PM

Plant no.- 01Lot no.- E-01

Raw material Brand name Grade Batch no. Qnty (kg) Initial width (mm)
1 PP/HDPE Repol H030SG J1210887 100 Final width(mm) 2.5
2 CaCo3 Alok Super 122610 25 Spacer size(mm) 5.6
3 M.B. No. Of tapes 68

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 4 UV
5 Tio2
6 M.F comp.
7 R.P(reprocess)
8 Other
Temperatures-

Parts name Actual Set Parameters Mtr /Min Amp

1 Barrel 230 230 Holding unit 54.8
1
250 250 Stretching unit 1
2
262 265 2 295
3
Annealing unit 277
4
Nip roller 51.4
5
2 Screen cha. 265 265 Top roller 51.9
3 Adapter 266 265 Screw rpm 29.5
A
Melt pump
B
4 Die 265 265 P1 190 bar
1
264 265 P2
2
265 265 P3
3
Stretching ratio 5.5
4
% Relaxation 6.9
5
Quality 804/2.5
6
Time 2:00 PM
7
5 Melt pump temp. 260 Denier 804
6 Sleeve temp. 22 Strength 3.4 Kgf
7 Quenching temp. 35 35 GPD 4.3
8 Hot A.O. temp. 155 160 Elongation 24%
9 Annealing temp. 75 75 Tape width 2.5
BETA GUAGE

Sr. No. Min. Max. Avg.

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APPENDIX-B

VARIOUS
CALCULATIONS
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A. USEFUL CALCULATIONS FOR TAPE PLANT
1. Spacer Size (mm) = / Stretch Ratio X Width of Tape (mm)
2.Stretch Ratio = Stretching Speed
Holding Speed

3. Production (Kg/hr) = Denier X Final Line Speed X No. Of Tapes

150000

4. Elongation % = Tape final length – Initial length X 100

Initial length

5. Tape Thickness Stretched = Denier

9000 X Tape Width X Density

6. Unstretched Tape Thickness = Stretch Ratio X Stretched Tape

Thickness

7. Denier Setting Formula = Holding Speed X Actual Denier

Required Denier

8. Relaxation % = Stretching Speed – Annealing Speed X 100

Stretching Speed

9. GPD (Gram Per Denier) = Strength (Kgf) X 1000

Denier

10. Gear Ratio Formula = Motor Speed X Motor Pulley Dia.

Screw RPM X Gear Box Pulley Dia.

11. Useful Width (Flat Film) = Film Width – (Edge Trim on Extruder)

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B. USEFUL CALCULATIONS FOR CIRCULAR LOOM
1. Bag Weight (gm) = Cut length x Width X 2 X Mesh X Denier
180000

2. GSM = Weight of One meter Fabric

Width of Fabric X 2

3. Size Of Ring = Size of Fabric (inch) x 16.17

4. Fabric GSM = Warp DenierXWarp Mesh+Weft DenierX Weft Mesh

228.6

5. Loom Production (Mtr/Hr) = 1.524 X PPM

Weft Mesh

6. Loom Production (Mtr/Hr) = Tape Width X PPM X 60

1000

7. PPM (picks Per Minute) = No. Of Shuttle X Cam RPM

8. No. Of Warp Tape = Size of fabric (inch) X Mesh X 2

9. No. Of Grooves = Total no. Of Warp Tape

No. Of Heddle Belt

10. GSM = GPM X 39.37

Size of Fabric X 2

11. Denier = GSM X 228.6

2 X Mesh

12. Weaving Ring Setting = (Reed Ring Dia – Weaving Ring Dia)/2

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APPENDIX-C

GLOSSARY
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TERMINOLOGIES USED IN TAPE LINE AND CIRCULAR
WEAVING LOOM
FABRIC:-Fabric is formed by interlacement of two perpendicular system
of yarns. These two type of yarns are known as warp and weft.
WARP:- The yarns or tapes disposed along the fabric are known as warp.

WEFT:- The yarns or tapes disposed across the fabric are known as weft.
Horizontal tapes are called weft.
MESH:- It indicates the density of warp and weft tapes in a fabric, it
shows number of warp and weft tapes per square inch of fabric. It
expressed as i.e. 10X10 means 10 tapes of warp and 12 tapes of weft are
there in per square inch of fabric.
LINE SPEED:- The speed at which tape is produced by the extruder
expressed in meters per minute.
WINDING SPEED:- The surface speed of the tape at the diameter of
winding on cheese winder is known as winding speed.
TRAVERSE RATIO:- The number of tapes laid per double traverse of the
thread guide is known as traverse ratio.
TRAVERSE LENGTH:- Length of the tape at which tape is wound on
the cheese pipe (bobbin) is known as traverse length. For a cheese pipe
traverse length is 200mm as per standard.
ANGLE OF WIND:- The angle made by the axis of rotation of bobbin
and the direction of the tape laid on the bobbin is known as angle of wind.
GAIN:- The displacement of the tape after a complete pattern repeat is
known as gain.

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TEX:- the weight in gms. Of 1000 meters of yarn, thread or tape is
known as tex.
DENIER:- The weight in gms. Of 9000 meters of yarn or tape is known
as denier.
1 Denier = 9 X Tex

TENACITY:- The mass stress at break is known as tenacity and its unit is
gms./Denier. It is also called GPD (gram per denier).
WEAVING:- The process of interlacement of warp and weft is known as
weaving.
BOBBIN:-A small spool like body on which tape is wound. This is of
two types Iron having internal dia. 35mm and outer 37mm, second one is
Aluminium having internal dia. 35 and outer 40mm.
DOFFING (DOFF):- The removal of the textile product from a textile
machine.
DOBBY:- A device which controls the harnesses in a loom to give small
geometric patterns in the fabric being produced.
FLYWEEL:- A heavy cylindrical body used to conserve angular
momentum.
HARNESS:- A frame containing a number of heddles which is moved up
and down in the loom to help from the warp shed.
HEDDLE:- A wire or thin perforated leather belt through which a warp
end is threaded. It is fixed in harness.
KNOT:- A joint in a yarn/tape made by tying ends together.

LINEAR DENSITY:- Mass per unit length of yarn or tape.

LOOM:- A mechanical machine which interweaves tape into a fabric.

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SHUTTLE:- A quill carrier that is projected through the warp shed to
insert the filling tape during weaving.
SPOOL:- A double flanged bobbin.

WORM AND WHEEL:- A gear with one or more helical teeth (worm)
which engages with a toothed wheel to give a large gear ratio.
YAW:- A thin place in a fabric which is detrimental to the cloth.

SPLITTING:- When tension is applied on the tape it goes to fibrillate

means fibres are coming out of the tape which is called the splitting
tendency of the tape.
SEGMENT:- In heddle belts are divided into many parts each part is
called a segment.
BALE:- A bundle of 500 bags is called one bale.

TAPPET:-A lever or projecting part on a machine that intermittently

makes contact with a cam or other part so as to give or receive motion

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN FIBC

FIBC (FLEXIBLE INTERMEDIATE BULK CONTAINER):-It is
designed for low cost and efficient transportation. It is made from PP or
HDPE finished by suitable processes. The capacity is from 500 kg to
2000 kg and safety factor is 3:1 to 8:1. The FIBC is soft but strong, and
enhanced with acid resistant, moisture proof etc.
BAFFLE:-Pieces of fabric sewn across each corner of a tubular or 4 -
panel bag to improve a bag’s square shape & cubic capacity.
BELT PATCH:-A piece of fabric sewn either between the main fabric of
the bag body and the Lift Belt, or on top of the Lift Belt, within the belt
sewn portion, used to improve sift resistance and/or the safe working load
(SWL).

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BOTTOM SPOUT:-Also called a Discharge or Inlet Spout, used as an
outlet to empty the contents of the FIBC.
CONICAL TOP:-A variation of an inlet, where the top is a pyramid - type
achieved by assembling 4 pieces of trapezoidal shaped fabric. Also called
a Cone Top.
CONNECTING BELT:-May also be called a Stevedore Belt, Rope, or
Strap. It is a belt connecting either two adjacent lift loops, or two adjacent
belt sewn portions, used alternatively for lifting. A belt or strap is usually
flat, while a rope is braided. Many people use this term loosely, so it is
useful to clarify this point - including the required length.
CORD LOCK:-A closure device to hold the rope or cord in place on the
spout - typically used on the discharge of bags. They come in a variety of
sizes.
DOCUMENT POUCH:-Typically made of either polyethylene or
polypropylene, it is where shipping or identifying documents are usually
placed, Also called a Pocket or Envelope.
HEMMING:-A fold and sew operation, which prevents fraying of cut
fabric. This also provides a clean finish to the FIBC. It may be either
towards the inside or outside of the bag.
HOSE:-An accessory often used on a petal closure to facilitate tying it off.
This may be either polypropylene or polyvinyl chloride.
LAY FLAT WIDTH:-The width of tubular fabric if stretched or laid flat.
It is twice the width of one bag side; i.e. a 35 x 35 bag would have a LFW
of 70".
MFY:- Multi-filament yarns, used in the weaving of bias tape / straps and
lift belts. May be constructed of polypropylene or polyester threads.
PETAL CLOSURE:-A 4-petal like spout construction used to hold in the
spout during transport.

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PETAL PATCH:-A 4-piece fabric component, approximately 10cm x
10cm in size, sewn as a reinforcement to the "loop" portion of the petal
closure.
PORT HOLE:-A type of outlet construction without a spout. The hole cut
is reinforced with bias tape / strap.
BIAS STRAP OR TAPE:-Made of multi filament yarns, (MFY),
polyester or polypropylene, and used to tie inlets and outlets. Also called
a web tie.
REINFORCED SECTION:-Section of the FIBC where the lift belt is
sewn onto the fabric. This section of fabric has twice as many Warp yarns,
which contributes to the strength of the bag. It is also called a Tramline.
REMOTE OPENING DISCHARGE:-A type of outlet that has provisions
for discharge of material at a distance from the FIBC.
SAFE WORKING LOAD (SWF):-Maximum load which the FIBC may
carry in service, as certified.
SAFETY FACTOR:-Integer quotient between the final test load in the
cyclic top lift test and the SWL value rounded down.
SANITARY FLAP:-A bag accessory that is usually used to hold in, or
protect the spout during filling and transport.
SPOUT COVER:-Also called a petal cover, it is a piece of fabric material
sewn between the spout and the petal closure used to hold in / protect the
spout.
TUBE LINER:-A polyethylene liner with no spouts or contours, it is a
straight cylinder, which mayor may not have one end heat-sealed. The top
may be tied with the spout top's bias tape closure to hold in place. Also
called a tubular liner.

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STIFF STRAP:-A type of lift belt made of MFY's as weft and PP yarns as
warp, allowing it to stand more upright on the filled bag.
WEB TIE:-Made of multi filament yarns, (MFY), polyester or
polypropylene and used to tie the inlets and outlets. Also called a Bias
Strap or Tape.
TUBE LINER:-A polyethylene liner with no spouts or contours, it is a
straight cylinder, which mayor may not have one end heat-sealed. The top
may be tied with the spout top's bias tape closure to hold in place. Also
called a tubular liner.
STOPPER:-Pieces of fabric material sewn at the tip of an "x - cut". This
is to prevent bag failure at this point.
SOFT STRAP:-A lift belt made with polyester multi filament yarns.

MULTI TRIP FIBC’S:-Bags designed in accordance with British

Standards requiring a 6:1 Safety or Service Factor, (SF). Note: we do not
offer any guarantees or recommendations for multiple uses of our bags.
Since the inspection of the used bags is beyond our control, we have no
way of knowing if a bag is damaged in its initial use.
RAFFIA:-A palm tree (Raphia, ruffia) native to tropical Africa and
Madagascar, with a short trunk and leaves that may be up to 60 feet (18
m) long.The fiber from these leaves, used for making items such as hats,
baskets, and mats.

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REFERENCES
i. Weaving: Conversion of yarn to fabric (second edition)- by
P.R.Lord, M.H.Mohamed, wood head publishing limited,
Cambridge, England.
ii. Barlow; A, The history and principles of weaving by hand and
power- Low, Morston, Searle and Rivingston, London, 1878.
iii. Evolution in weaving machine design- by Green Wood, k, Tex,
Rec, Nov. 1966,88.
iv. Handbook of plastics testing and failure analysis- by Vishu Shah,
Wiley-Interscience, A John Wiley & Sons, INC., Publication.
v. Plastic materials- by John Brydson, Sixth Edition- 1995
vi. Plastic materials- CIPET, Technical manual.
vii. Plastic processing- CIPET, Technical manual.
viii. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia- en.wikipedia.org,
www.wikipedia.org.
ix. Success with Tradition and modern technology- Sulzer,
www.sulzer.com
x. Textile world- recent developments,: Weaving technology,
www.textileworld.com
xi. Raffia and Monofilament- www.ril.com
xii. Cast film processing guide- Chevron, Philips Chemical Company,
www.cpchem.com
xiii. The Cast Film- Dow Chemical Company, www.dow.com
xiv. Lohia-group, www.lohiagroup.com
xv. Plastipedia- The plastics encyclopedia, Raw materials,
www.bpf.co.uk
xvi. Advanced plastic and material testing Inc.- American
International, www.astm.org

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