Mathematics in the Modern World

UST AB | Prelims Reviewer

Fibonacci Sequence Mathematics as a Language

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟓 𝟖 𝟏𝟑 𝟐𝟏 𝟑𝟒 … - Language - a systematic means of
communicating ideas or feelings by the use
- One of nature’s numbering systems
of conventional symbols, sounds, or marks
- How did the Fibonacci sequence come
having understood meaning
about?
- Phrase - a group of words that expresses a
- Leonardo of Pisa aka “Fibonacci”
concept
observed a young and an adult pair of
- Sentence - a group of words that are put
rabbits. His idea: It takes a month for a
together to mean something
young rabbit to become an adult. It takes
- Expression - a group of number or variable
a month before an adult rabbit bears a
with or without mathematical operation
young rabbit.
- Sum of two numbers (x + y)
- How is the Fibonacci sequence derived?
- Equation - a group of number or variable
- First two terms of the sequence is 𝟏 and 𝟏.
with or without mathematical operation
- Add two consecutive terms to get the next
separated by an equal sign
term.
- Sum of two numbers is 8 (x + y = 8)
- Fn-2 + Fn-1 = Fn, (where n ≥ 3) - Inequalities - the use of less than or more
than (< or >)

Golden Ratio

- Approaches to 𝝋 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟖
- Concept: A line is divided into two
sections containing a unique property
such that the ratio between the bigger
segment and the shorter segment should
be equal to the ratio between the line and
its bigger segment

Other symbols:
- ∀ = for every
- Ǝ = there exists
- ∴ = therefore
- Σ x = sum
- ∏ x = product
- ∫ f(x) = integral
Characteristics of Math Language
- Can be seen in the Mona Lisa, the
Parthenon (in Greece), etc. - Precise - able to make very fine distinctions
- Concise - able to say things briefly
Mathematical Reasoning - Powerful - able to express complex
thoughts with relative ease
- It provides the rules and techniques for
determining whether an argument is valid or
Sets
not.
- To be specific in Mathematics, we use Logic
- collection of objects, called as elements
or logical reasoning to prove theorems.
- roster method - a way to show the
elements of a set by listing the elements
inside of brackets
 Real Number System Special Sets in Real Numbers

- R = real numbers - Whole Numbers - when all natural

- Q = rational numbers numbers and zero are combined
- numbers that can be represented as - Directed Numbers - when all the positive
quotient of two integers, such that integers and negative integers are
the divisor is not equal to zero. combined
- has terminating decimals, and - Digits - a proper subset of the whole
non-terminating, but repeating numbers, consisting of exactly 10 elements
decimals
- Z = integers Properties of Real Numbers
- no decimals
- Fractions - Closure Property - any real number, added
- rational numbers which are not or multiplied to another real number, the
integers result is always a real number.
- may be expressed in decimals - Commutative Property - when two real
- W = whole numbers numbers are being added or multiplied, the
- 0 and positive integers order is immaterial
+
- Z or N = positive integers - (a + b = b + a)
- also known as the Natural numbers - Associative Property - groupings are not
N or the counting numbers important as well, for addition and
-
- Z = negative integers multiplication
- Q’ or H = irrational numbers - (a + (b + c) = ((a + b) + c)
- numbers that are not rational can not - (a x (b x c) = ((a x b) x c)
be represented as quotient of two - Identity Property
integers - Additive Identity (0)
- has non-terminating, and - any number added to zero,
non-repeating decimals maintains its value.
- Surds - a+0=a
- roots which can not be exactly - Multiplicative Identity (1)
evaluated - any value multiplied to 1,
- Ex: square root of 2, 3, 5… maintains its value
- Peculiar Numbers - ax1=a
- special numbers which are held - Inverse Property
constant - Additive Inverse (negative)
- Ex: π (pi) and e - any number added to its
- Special Logarithms negative, will result in the
- some values based from the additive identity (0).
logarithmic function - a + (-a) = 0
- Ex: log 5, log 3, In 3… - Multiplicative Inverse (reciprocal)
- any number multiplied to its
reciprocal, will result in the
multiplicative identity (1).
- a x 1/a = 1
- Distributive Property
- a (b + c) = ab + ac

Set Notation

- 𝑺 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓}
- 1 ∈ 𝑆 = means “1 is an element of
set 𝑆”
- 6 ∉ 𝑆 = means “6 is NOT an
element of set 𝑆”
- 𝑺 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, …}
- 𝑆 also contains 6,7,8, and so on – all
positive integers
 - 𝑻 = {..., −𝟑, −𝟐, −𝟏} Proper Subset ⊂
- 𝑇 also contains -4,-5,-6, and so on –
all negative integers - A proper subset of a set S is a subset of S
- 𝒁 = {..., −𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, …} but not equal to set S
- 𝑍 also contains all integers
Ex:
Set-Builder Notation S = {1,2,3,4,5}; A = {1,2,3,4,5}; B = {1,2,3}

- A mathematical notation of describing a set Set A is a subset of set S but not a proper subset of
by listing its elements or demonstrating its set S = A ⊆ S but A ⊄ S
properties that its members must satisfy.
- | = such that Set B is a proper subset of set S = B ⊂ S

Ex:
Complement of Sets
𝑆 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ≥ 0 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑥 ≤ 1}
“𝑆 contains all 𝑥’s such that 𝑥 is greater than or - 𝐴 – any set
equal to 0 AND 𝑥 is less than or equal to 1” - 𝐴′ – the complement of set 𝐴
- The set 𝐴′ contains elements in the
𝑆 = {𝑥 | 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1} universal set which are not
contained in set 𝐴.
“𝑆 contains all 𝑥’s such that 𝑥 is greater than or
- Ex: 𝐴 = {3, 4, 5}; 𝐴′ = {1, 2}
equal to 0 AND 𝑥 is less than or equal to 1”
- Universal Set = 𝐔
- Ex: 𝐔 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0}
Some Known Sets - If 𝐴 = {1, 4, 5, 6}, then 𝐴′ =
{2,3,7,8,9,0}.
- ∅ or {} - empty set - If 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3}, then 𝐵′ = {4, 5,
- N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...} - set of natural 6, 7, 8, 9, 0}.
numbers - If 𝐶 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
- Z = {..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ...} - set of integers 9}, then 𝐶′ = ∅

Subset ⊆ Operation of Sets

- A set A is a subset of another set B if all - Union of sets (∪)

elements of the set A are elements of the - The union of sets A and B, denoted
set B. In other words, the set A is contained by U, is the set that contains all the
inside the set B. elements that belong to A or to B or
to both.
Ex:

{1,2,3} ⊆ {1,2,3,4,5}

{1,2,3} is a subset of {1,2,3,4,5}

- Intersection of sets (∩)

- The intersection of sets A and B,
denoted by ∩, Is the set of elements
common to both A and B.
 Proposition p → q = If I am a Thomasian, then I enjoy flooded
areas
- Statement that may either be true or false, p ↔ q = If and only if I am a Thomasian, do I enjoy
but not both flooded areas
- Negation symbol: ~ or ¬

Ex: Let p be the symbol for proposition.

p∧q

p = I am smart. - p and q
~ p = I am NOT smart. - It is true if and only if both p and q are
true. Otherwise, false.

Truth Table Truth table:

A tabular representation of all the combinations of p q ~p ~q p∧q ~p∧~q

values for inputs and their corresponding outputs.
T T F F T F
p ~p T F F T F F
T F F T T F F F
F T F F T T F T

Compound Proposition p∨q

- A proposition formed by combining two or - p or q
more simple propositions. - It is true when one of the propositions or
- Types: both is true. Otherwise, false.
- Tautology - always true; argument
is VALID if it is a tautology Truth table:
- Contradiction or Absurdity -
always false p q ~p ~q p∨ ~p∨~ p∨~q
- Contingency - not a tautology nor a q q
contradiction
T T F F T F T

Connective Statement Symbols T F F T T T T

F T T F T T F
- ∧ = and
- ∨ = or F F T T F T T
- ⊕ = exactly one
- | = NAND (not and)
- ↓ = NOR (not or) De Morgan’s Law
Ex: p = I am a Thomasian; q = I enjoy flooded - ~(p ∧ q) is exactly the same as ~ p v ~ q
areas - ~p ∧ ~ q is exactly the same as ~ (p v q)

p ∧ q = I am a Thomasian and I enjoy flooded

areas
p ∨ q = I am a Thomasian or I enjoy flooded areas

Conditional Statement Symbols

- → = if, then
- ↔ = if and only if

Ex: p = I am a Thomasian; q = I enjoy flooded p⊕q

areas
- It is true when exactly one of p and q is
true. Otherwise, false.
Truth table: - It is true on the condition that p holds.

Truth table:
p q ~p p⊕q ~p⊕q

T T F F T p q ~p ~q p→q ~p→~q
T F F T F T T F F T T
F T T T F T F F T F T
F F T F T F T T F T F

F F T T T T
p|q
Note that:
- Also known as p nand q
- It is false when both p and q are true. - q → p is the converse of p → q.
Otherwise, true. - ~ p → ~ q is the contrapositive of p → q.
- ~ p → ~ q is the inverse of p → q.
Truth table:
Ex: If I understand the lesson, I can pass the exam.
p q ~q p|q p|~q p = I understand the lesson
q = I can pass the exam
T T F F T
p q p→q
T F T T F
T T T
F T F T T
T F F
F F T T T
F T T

p↓q F F T

- Also known as p nor q TT = If you understand the lesson, it is a guarantee

- It is true when both p and q are false. that you will pass the exam
Otherwise, false. FT = If you don’t understand the lesson, you will fail
the exam.
Truth table:
FF = Even if you don’t understand the lesson, it is
still possible to pass the exam.
p q ~q p↓q p↓~q TF = If you understand the lesson, you will fail the
exam. This statement makes no sense.
T T F F F

T F T F F
p↔q
F T F F T
- If and only if p then q
F F T T F - It is true when both (p and q) statements
are the same.

p→q Truth table:

- p is called the hypothesis, the premise, or

p q ~q p↔q p↔~q
the antecedent.
- q is called the conclusion or consequence. T T F T F
- If p then q
- p is sufficient for q. T F T F T
- q if p. F T F F T
- q is necessary for p.
- p implies q. F F T T F
- q when p.
- q follows from p.
 Validity of Argument F F T T T T

An argument is valid if it is a tautology (always T T F T F F

true).
T F F F T F
Ex 1: F T F T F T
p = You smoke. F F F T T T
q = You have lung cancer.

If you smoke, then you will have lung cancer. (p → q) ∧ (q → r) [(p → q) ∧ (q → r)] → (p → r)
p→q T T
You have lung cancer. F T
q
T T
Therefore, you smoke.
∴p T T

[(p → q) ∧ q] → p F T

Truth table: F T

F T
p q p→q (p → q} ∧ q [(p → q} ∧ q] → p
T T
T T T T T
The argument is a tautology. Therefore, it is VALID.
T F F F T

F T T T F

F F T F T

The argument is a contingency. Therefore, it is

INVALID.

Ex 2:

p = It rains nonstop.
q = UST will be flooded.
r = There are no classes.

If it rains nonstop, then UST will be flooded.

p→q

If UST is flooded, then there will be no classes.

q→r

If it rains nonstop, then there will be no classes.

p→r

[(p → q) ∧ (q → r)] → (p → r)

Truth table:

p q r p→q q→r p→r

T T T T T T

T F T F T T

F T T T T T