Sullivan Dissertation 2016
Sullivan Dissertation 2016
Yulia W. Sullivan
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
August 2016
APPROVED:
The central purpose of this dissertation is to develop and test a theoretical model of
mind wandering in a technological setting by integrating the emerging work and theory on
mind wandering—a shift of attention from the primary task to the processing of internal goals.
This dissertation is intended to advance our understanding on the costs and benefits of mind
wandering in information systems (IS) research and in turn, contribute to the literature of
setting is imperative because mind wandering plays a vital role in influencing various outcomes
associated with technology use and/or technology learning, such as technology anxiety,
software self-efficacy, and task performance. This dissertation is composed of three essays
which examine the determinants and consequences of mind wandering and focus of attention
survey and laboratory experiment) across three essays is used to test the research models.
Copyright 2016
by
Yulia W. Sullivan
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to gracefully acknowledge various people who have been in a journey with
me in recent years as I worked on my doctoral degree. I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to
my family, especially my husband, Barry Sullivan, for his longstanding support for my academic
degree. He has been a constant source of love, concern, and support all these years.
I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Chang Koh for his continued guidance and support
during the pursuit of my degree. I have been amazingly fortunate to have an advisor who gave
me freedom to explore on my own, and at the same time, was willing to walk together with me
through my dissertation journey. I am also thankful to him for always believing in me.
Dr. Fred Davis, one of the best teachers and mentors I have had in my life. I am deeply
grateful to him for always be there for me to listen and give advises. Despite his busy schedule,
he still made time to have long discussions with me that had helped me sort out the theoretical
details of my work. He has taught me how to think outside the box and plan for a long‐term
research pipeline. I am grateful to him for holding me to a high research standard and teaching
me how to do research from his own personal experience.
I’m grateful to Dr. Robert Pavur for his insightful comments on some of the data
analyses I did in my dissertation. I am also thankful to him for always monitoring my academic
status and making sure I was on the right track. I would like to also acknowledge Dr. Daniel Peak
for helping me purchase the software I used in my dissertation.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my friends who have helped me stay sane
through these years. I will forever cherish their friendship and I deeply appreciate their belief in
me.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................................. viii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................... x
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1
1.1 References ......................................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER 2 MIND WANDERING: TECHNOLOGY AND EMOTIONAL OUTCOMES CORRELATES ...... 5
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 The Conceptualization of Mind Wandering ...................................................................... 8
2.3 Content Regulation Hypothesis of Mind Wandering ........................................................ 9
2.3.1 Technology‐related (IT) versus Non‐technology‐related (Non‐IT) Thoughts ......... 12
2.4 Emotional Outcomes ....................................................................................................... 16
2.5 Research Model ............................................................................................................... 18
2.6 Hypotheses Development ............................................................................................... 19
2.6.1 Mind Wandering and Technology Anxiety ............................................................. 19
2.6.2 Focus of Attention and Technology Anxiety ........................................................... 21
2.6.3 Mind Wandering and User Satisfaction .................................................................. 23
2.6.4 Focus of Attention and User Satisfaction ............................................................... 24
2.6.5 Technology Anxiety and User Satisfaction.............................................................. 25
2.6.6. Control Variables ..................................................................................................... 26
2.7 Research Method ............................................................................................................ 27
2.7.1 Instrumental Development ..................................................................................... 28
2.7.2 Data Collection ........................................................................................................ 30
2.8 Data Analysis and Results ................................................................................................ 30
2.8.1 Assessment of Measurement Validation ................................................................ 30
2.8.2 Structural Model ..................................................................................................... 37
2.9 Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 39
2.9.1 Theoretical Contributions ....................................................................................... 40
2.9.2 Practical Contributions ............................................................................................ 42
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2.10 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 44
2.11 References ....................................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER 3 MIND WANDERING AND COGNITIVE IS LEARNING ................................................... 52
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 52
3.2 Executive Functions Theory ............................................................................................. 54
3.2.1 Inhibition ................................................................................................................. 55
3.2.2 Switching ................................................................................................................. 57
3.2.3 Updating or Working Memory Capacity ................................................................. 57
3.3 Mind Wandering .............................................................................................................. 58
3.3.1 Executive‐Control Failure Theory of Mind Wandering ........................................... 59
3.3.2 Consequences of Mind Wandering ......................................................................... 62
3.4 Resource Allocation Theory ............................................................................................ 65
3.5 Research Model ............................................................................................................... 67
3.6 Hypotheses Development ............................................................................................... 69
3.6.1 Executive Functions, Mind Wandering, and Focus of Attention ............................ 69
3.6.2 Perceived Task Complexity, Mind Wandering, and Focus of Attention ................. 71
3.6.3 Focus of Attention, Mind Wandering, and Software Self‐Efficacy ......................... 72
3.6.4 Focus of attention, Mind Wandering, and Learning Performance ......................... 79
3.6.5 Software Self‐efficacy and Learning Performance ................................................. 81
3.6.6 Control Variables ..................................................................................................... 82
3.7 Research Method ............................................................................................................ 83
3.7.1 Research Context and Sample ................................................................................ 83
3.7.2 Operationalization of Research Constructs ............................................................ 85
3.8 Data Analysis and Results ................................................................................................ 87
3.8.1 Measurement Model .............................................................................................. 87
3.8.2 Structural Model ..................................................................................................... 93
3.8.3 Post Hoc Analysis: Moderated Mediation Model ................................................. 102
3.9 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 103
3.9.1 Theoretical Implications........................................................................................ 104
3.9.2 Limitations and Future Work ................................................................................ 107
3.9.3 Practical Contributions .......................................................................................... 108
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3.10 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 110
3.11 References ..................................................................................................................... 110
CHAPTER 4 MIND WANDERING AND IS DECISION MAKING PERFORMANCE ............................. 121
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 121
4.2 Executive Control Theory of Mind Wandering .............................................................. 123
4.3 Unconscious Thought Theory ........................................................................................ 125
4.4 Research Model ............................................................................................................. 126
4.5 Hypotheses Development ............................................................................................. 128
4.5.1 Task Complexity and IS Decision Making Performance ........................................ 128
4.5.2 Focus of Attention and Performance Efficiency ................................................... 128
4.5.3 Mind Wandering and Performance Accuracy ....................................................... 129
4.5.4 The Moderating Effect of IS Task Complexity and Focus of Attention ................. 130
4.5.5 The Moderating Effect of IS Task Complexity and Mind Wandering ................... 131
4.6 Research Method .......................................................................................................... 133
4.6.1 Experimental Design ............................................................................................. 133
4.6.2 Experimental Procedure ....................................................................................... 135
4.6.3 Manipulation Check .............................................................................................. 136
4.6.4 Sample ................................................................................................................... 138
4.7 Data Analysis and Results .............................................................................................. 138
4.7.1 Performance Accuracy .......................................................................................... 139
4.7.2 Performance Efficiency ......................................................................................... 144
4.8 Discussion and Implications .......................................................................................... 146
4.8.1 Theoretical Implications........................................................................................ 147
4.8.2 Practical Implications ............................................................................................ 148
4.8.3 Limitations............................................................................................................. 149
4.9 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 151
4.10 References ..................................................................................................................... 151
APPENDIX A TESTING FOR COMMON METHOD BIAS (WITH A COMMENT LATENT FACTOR) ... 157
APPENDIX B MEASUREMENT ITEMS ........................................................................................... 159
APPENDIX C LEARNING PERFORMANCE MEASURES .................................................................. 163
APPENDIX D EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS TASKS ............................................................................... 166
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APPENDIX E SAMPLE EXPERIMENT MATERIALS ......................................................................... 171
APPENDIX F INFORMED CONSENT NOTICE ................................................................................ 176
REFERENCES FOR APPENDICES ................................................................................................... 181
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2.1 Summary of Mind Wandering Studies in the Context of Emotions……………………….........11
Table 2.1 Construct Definition………………………........………………………........………………………................15
Table 2.3 Sample Characteristics………………………........………………………........………………………............31
Table 2.4 EFA Result………………………........………………………........………………………........……………………..32
Table 2.5 Summary of Model Fit for All CFAs Examined………………………........……………………….........33
Table 2.6 Summary of Confirmatory Factor Analysis (8‐Factor Model) ………………………..................34
Table 2.7 Correlation Matrix and Descriptive Statistics………………………........………………………..........36
Table 2.8 Chi‐Square, Goodness‐of‐Fit Values, and Model Comparison Tests………………………........39
Table 2.9 Hypotheses Results………………………........………………………........………………………........……….39
Table 3.1 Costs and Benefits of Mind Wandering According to the Previous Studies…………………..62
Table 3.2 Construct Definitions………………………........………………………........………………………..............68
Table 3.3 Interactions Between Focus of Attention and Mind Wandering (Dependent Variable:
Software Self‐Efficacy) ………………………........………………………........………………………........…………………79
Table 3.4 Executive Functions Measures………………………........………………………........………………………86
Table 3.5 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (PLS Results) ………………………........……………………….............90
Table 3.6 Correlation Matrix………………………........………………………........………………………...................92
Table 3.7 The Effect of Mind Wandering and Focus of Attention on the Dependent
Variables……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..96
Table 3.8 Hypotheses Summary………………………........………………………........………………………............101
Table 3.9 Direct and Indirect Effect of Focus of Attention (IT) Mediated by SSSE on Learning
Performance………………………........………………………........………………………........……………………….........103
Table 3.10 Direct and Indirect Effect of Focus of Attention (Non‐IT) Mediated by SSSE on Learning
Performance……………………........………………………........………………………........………………………………….103
Table 4.1 Construct Definition………………………........………………………........………………………........…….127
Table 4.2 Website and Product Criteria………………………........………………………........………………………135
Table 4.3 Measurement Items and EFA Results………………………........………………………....................137
Table 4.4 Group Comparison (ANOVA) Results………………………........……………………….....................139
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Table 4.5 GLM Results for Performance Accuracy………………………........………………………................140
Table 4.6 Regression Analysis with Dummy Coding for Task Complexity………………………..............141
Table 4.7 Regression Equation for Each Condition (DV: Performance Accuracy……....………………..142
Table 4.8 Interaction Contrast Analysis Results………………………........………………………....................143
Table 4.9 Regression Analysis with Dummy Coding for Task Complexity (DV: Performance
Efficiency) ………………………........………………………........………………………........………………………............145
Table 4.10 Regression Equation for Each Condition (DV: Performance Efficiency).……………….……145
Table 4.11 Hypotheses Summary………………………........………………………........………………………..........146
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1.1. Dissertation Framework……………………….........................................................................3
Figure 2.1. Research Model………………………........………………………........………………………....................19
Figure 2.2. Structural Model…………………........………………………........………………………........................38
Figure 3.1. Graphic Illustration of Executive‐Control Failure Theory…………………………………………….61
Figure 3.2. Research Model………………………………………………………………………………………………………….68
Figure 3.3. Structural Model………………………………………………………………………………………………………..94
Figure 3.4. The Moderating Effect of Mind Wandering (IT) on the Relationship between Focus of
Attention (IT) and Software Self‐Efficacy……………………………………………………………………………………..97
Figure 3.5. The Moderating Effect of Mind Wandering (Non‐IT) on the Relationship between Focus
of Attention (IT) and Software Self‐Efficacy…………………………………………………………………………………98
Figure 3.6. The Moderating Effect of Mind Wandering (Non‐IT) on the Relationship between Focus
of Attention (Non‐IT) and Software Self‐Efficacy………………………………………………………………………….98
Figure 3.7. The Moderating Effect of Mind Wandering (IT) on the Relationship between Focus of
Attention (Non‐IT) and Software Self‐Efficacy……………………………………………………………………………..99
Figure 3.8. The Moderating Effect of Mind Wandering (IT) and Mind Wandering (Non‐IT) on the
Relationship between Focus of Attention (IT) and Software Self‐Efficacy………………………………….100
Figure 3.9. The Moderating Effect of Mind Wandering (IT) and Mind Wandering (Non‐IT) on the
Relationship between Focus of Attention (Non‐IT) and Software Self‐Efficacy…………………………..100
Figure 4.1. Research Model……………………………………………………………………………………………………….127
Figure 4.2. The Moderating Effect of Task Complexity between Mind Wandering and Performance
Accuracy……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………143
Figure 4.3. The Moderating Effect of Task Complexity between Focused Attention and
Performance Accuracy………………………………………………………………………………………………………………144
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CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The faculty of voluntarily bringing back a wandering attention, over and
over again, is the very root of judgment, character and will…
William James, 1890
The central purposes of this dissertation are to develop and test a theoretical model of
mind wandering in a technological setting by integrating the emerging work and theory on
mind wandering (i.e., “a shift of executive control away from a primary task to the processing of
personal goals” (Smallwood & Schooler, 2006, p. 946)) and information systems (IS). This
dissertation is intended to advance our understanding on the costs and benefits of mind
wandering and in turn, contribute to the literature of cognitive IS research. Research indicates
that people spend up to 50 percent of their day‐to‐day lives engaged in mind wandering and
this experience occurs frequently in all forms of activity (Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010; Randall,
Oswald, & Beier, 2014). Research also shows that mind wandering is associated with significant
costs (e.g., disrupted task performance, poor psychological wellbeing, and unhappiness) (e.g.,
Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010; McVay & Kane, 2010) and benefits (e.g., mental break, problem
solving, and future planning) (e.g., Mooneyham & Schooler, 2013; Smallwood & Schooler,
2015). Given these potential costs and benefits can occur when users interact with technology,
understanding the consequences of mind wandering in a technological setting is imperative
because mind wandering plays a vital role in influencing various outcomes associated with
technology use and/or technology learning, such as technology anxiety, users’ satisfaction, self‐
efficacy, and task performance (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015).
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Although mind wandering has been recently studied in the reference disciplines, such as
cognitive psychology and neuroscience, this topic has been overlooked in IS research—
regardless of the fact that distraction could automatically take place internally in our mind as
we continuously interact with technology. Therefore, the studies reported herein are intended
to shed light on the costs and benefits of mind wandering in a technological setting. To achieve
this goal, the following aims have been identified and will be reported:
Aim #1: To test the influence of previously identified mind wandering and focus of
attention determinants in a technological setting.
Aim #2: To develop and test a research framework that explains the effect of mind
wandering and focus of attention on emotional outcomes and cognitive learning
outcomes.
Aim #3: To examine the effect of mind wandering and focus of attention on IS decision
making performance.
Together, these objectives are selected to understand the potential implications of mind
wandering in the technology domain. In order to achieve these objectives, this dissertation is
composed of three essays which examine the effect of mind wandering on emotional,
cognitive, and performance outcomes. At the beginning of Essay 1, scales to measure mind
wandering are developed and validated. After that, the relationship between mind wandering
and emotional outcomes (i.e., technology anxiety and user satisfaction) is examined. Essay 2
specifically focuses on the effect of mind wandering and focus of attention in the IS learning
context. Essay 2 explores the hypotheses concerning the roles of executive functions (i.e.,
working memory, inhibition, and switching ability) and task complexity in influencing the
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occurrence of mind wandering and focus of attention and, in turn, cognitive outcomes,
including software self‐efficacy and IS learning performance. Essay 3 examines the extent to
which individuals’ focus of attention and mind wandering influence IS decision making
performance at different levels of task complexity. The conceptual model underlying this
dissertation is illustrated in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1. Dissertation Framework
Drawing upon the theory of mind wandering, executive functions theory, cognitive
resource allocation theory, and unconscious thought theory, this dissertation establishes a new
form of mind wandering theory to explain the consequences of mind wandering on a variety of
outcomes, especially when users utilize technology as a part of their task. The results advance
IS theories by revealing the importance of mind wandering in determining the success of IS
users when they perform IS tasks. Further, this dissertation sheds light on the relationship
between executive functions and the content of mind wandering that technology users
generally generate when they interact with technology. The findings also explains cognition in
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the high‐technology environment, revealing possible ways to minimizing the negative effect of
mind wandering.
A multi‐method approach (i.e., online survey and laboratory experiment) across three
essays is used to examine the antecedents and consequences of mind wandering in a
technological environment. Each essay, including the model and constructs’ definitions, is
discussed in more details in the next sections.
1.1 References
Killingsworth, M. A., & Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. Science,
330, 932.
McVay, J. C., & Kane, M. J. (2010). Does mind wandering reflect executive function or executive
failure? Comment on Smallwood and Schooler (2006) and Watkins (2008). Psychological
Bulletin, 136, 188‐197.
Mooneyham, B. W., & Schooler, J. W. (2013). The costs and benefits of mind wandering: A
review. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(1), 11‐18.
Randall, J. G., Oswald, F. L., & Beier, M. E. (2014). Mind wandering, cognition, and performance:
A theory‐driven meta‐analysis of attention regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 140(6), 1411‐
1431.
Smallwood, J. M., & Schooler, J. W. (2006). The restless mind. Psychological Bulletin, 132(6),
946‐958.
Smallwood, J. M., & Schooler, J. W. (2015). The science of mind wandering: Empirically
navigating the stream of consciousness. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 487‐518.
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CHAPTER 2
MIND WANDERING: TECHNOLOGY AND EMOTIONAL OUTCOMES CORRELATES
2.1 Introduction
Much research in information systems (IS) has focused on identifying factors that
influence users’ attitude or behaviors toward technology (e.g., Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw,,
1989; Taylor & Todd 1995; Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, & Davis, 2003). Although this stream of
research has shed light on various cognitive and affective factors affecting users’ decision to use
technology, it pays little attention to the content of users’ mind (i.e., what’s going on inside
their head when they use technology). In our study of IS, we generally assume that users are
capable at times of choosing to act in a rational way, leading to intentional response (Bagozzi,
2007). However, the way users experience technology may be determined by their inner
thought contents and these thought contents may influence the outcomes of technology use. In
a certain sense, you are where your attention takes you.
In an effort to understand users experience of using technology, research on how
attention shifts between external sources (e.g., between one technology to another) has been
conducted by a number of IS scholars (e.g., Addas & Pinsonneault, 2014; Aral, Brynjolfsson, &
Van Alstyne, 2012; Speier, Vassey, & Valacich, 2003). However, in a relatively short history of
information systems (IS), which has inherited much of its models, theories and findings from
other disciplines, such as management, economics, and psychology, a study on how users’
attention shifts between external events and internal thought is virtually absent as a subject of
research (Sullivan, Davis, & Koh, 2015). This attentional shift is called mind wandering, meaning
5
that the mind wanders away from its current train of thought (often an external task) to the
internal processing of personal goals (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015). Given the fact that people
spend around eleven hours or more per day using technology (Petronzio, 2014), it is likely that
mind wandering can occur simultaneously when individuals engage in technology use. Although
previous studies have shown that mind wandering was associated with significant costs,
including disrupted task performance, poor psychological wellbeing, and unhappiness
(Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010; McVay & Kane, 2010; Moberly & Watkins, 2008; Mooneyham &
Schooler, 2013; Smallwood & Schooler, 2006; Watkins, 2008), the effect of this phenomenon in
the technology domain is unknown.
Research in cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience has made a significant
progress in understanding the phenomenon of mind wandering. Current research in this field
has revealed that mind wandering has a strong relationship with emotional outcomes. For
example, Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010) conducted an experience sampling study and found
that participants were least happy when resting, working or using a home computer and
reported that mind wandering was the cause of their unhappiness across these activities.
Another line of research suggests that the content of mind wandering should be taken into
account before any conclusions on the consequences of such experience can be made
(Andrews‐Hanna, Smallwood, & Spreng, 2014). The hypothesis suggesting that content of mind
wandering determines its outcomes is known as the content regulation hypothesis. Specifically,
it is argued that mind wandering serves an adaptive purpose by allowing individuals to prepare
for upcoming events, form a sense of self‐identity, and navigate the social world (Andrews‐
Hanna et al., 2014; Smallwood & Andrews‐Hanna, 2013). However, even the existing studies in
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the reference disciplines have primarily focused on the frequency of occurrence of mind
wandering and neglected the importance of the content of mind wandering itself. In order to
understand the nature, dimensionality, and relative effects of mind wandering on its functional
outcomes, there is a need to understand the different aspects of mind wandering contents that
occupy individuals’ minds.
Studying mind wandering from an IS perspective will advance our understanding on
cognition and emotion from the actual technology use experience (Ortiz de Guinea & Webster,
2013) and help us understand the thought patterns that shape users’ experience (Ortiz de
Guinea & Markus, 2009). Although previous studies have made a significant contribution on the
cognitive and neural bases of mind wandering (Buckner, Andrews‐Hanna, & Schacter, 2008;
Smallwood & Schooler, 2006), little is known about its emotional consequences (Killingsworth &
Gilbert, 2010), especially in an IS setting. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to investigate
the relationship between mind wandering, either when users mind wander about technology or
non‐technology‐related subjects, and emotional outcomes. Specifically, this study addresses
the following research questions: Do the contents of thought during mind wandering episodes
and focus of attention matter? If so, how do different types of thought content influence users’
emotional outcomes (i.e., technology anxiety and users’ satisfaction)?
This work contributes to the literature in several ways. First, it extends the scope of
inquiry of mind wandering into a technological context. Investigating how mind wandering is
related to emotional outcomes would advance our understanding on the consequences of mind
wandering in everyday life. Second, it also extends and tests the content regulation hypothesis
7
by differentiating the content of thought into two dimensions: technology‐related (IT) and non‐
technology‐related (non‐IT).
2.2 The Conceptualization of Mind Wandering1
Mind wandering has been framed in the context of a variety of constructs, including
“task‐unrelated thoughts” (TUT) (Smallwood, Baracaia, Lowe, & Obonsawin, 2003; Smallwood
et al., 2004), “spontaneous thought” (Christoff, Gordon, & Smith, 2011), and “daydreaming”
(Giambra, 1979). Mind wandering is generally distinct from focus of attention (Randall, Oswald,
& Beier, 2014). Whereas focus of attention refers to any thought directed to the primary task,
mind wandering is attention directed toward concerns that are unrelated to the task at hand
(Randall et al., 2014). It occurs when the content of a person’s current thought is not associated
with the primary task (or task‐related thinking) but rather, is filled with other unrelated
thoughts (Smallwood & Schooler, 2006). When individuals mind wander, they become
“perceptually decoupled,” showing attention becomes coupled to an internal process and
decoupled from external stimuli (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015). Because attention is decoupled
from the primary task, representations of the task may be less detailed than during periods of
time when attention is focused on the task (Smallwood, Fishman, & Schooler, 2007).
An established body of research over the last decade has linked a large‐scale brain
system referred to as the default mode network (DMN) to mind wandering (Andrews‐Hanna et
al. 2014; Christoff, Gordon, Smallwood, Smith, & Schooler, 2009). The DMN was initially
1
Parts of Sections 2.2. and 2.3 are reproduced from Sullivan, Y. W., Davis, F. D., & Koh, C. (2015). Exploring mind
wandering in a technological setting. Paper presented at the 36th International Conference on Information Systems
(ICIS), Fort Worth, TX, December 13‐16.
8
characterized as a network that became active during periods of rest and was absent during
externally focused goal‐directed tasks (Raichle et al., 2001). However, recent findings reveal
that the DMN is generally active when individuals are required to engage in relatively complex
cognitive tasks, including tasks that often require individuals to retrieve episodic,
autobiographical or semantic information, think about aspects of their personal goals, imagine
novel ideas, infer the mental states of other people, comprehend narrative, self‐reflect,
reference information to one’s self, etc. (Andrews‐Hanna et al., 2014). The activation of the
DMN during mind wandering episodes suggests that this network is important in unconstrained
internal thought processes (Barron, Riby, Greer, & Smallwood, 2011) and mind wandering
potentially serves important psychological functions (Andrews‐Hanna et al., 2014).
2.3 Content Regulation Hypothesis of Mind Wandering
Evidence suggests that mind wandering is associated with unhappy moods and
emotions (Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010). Research also reveals that this association depends on
the content of mind wandering experience (e.g., Smallwood & O’Connor, 2011). The hypothesis
indicating that the content of mind wandering is crucial in determining its consequences is
known as content regulation hypothesis. According to the content regulation hypothesis, “the
relationship between self‐generated thought and psychological well‐being depends on
assessing how individuals regulate the content of their mental experiences so as to maximize
thoughts with a productive outcome, and minimize those which are detrimental to their
happiness or other life outcomes” (Smallwood & Andrews‐Hanna, 2013, p. 4). Although most
studies have focused on one or two aspects of mind wandering and their interactions, a few
9
have assessed multiple types of thought content across a large group of individuals (Andrews‐
Hanna et al., 2014).
Research exploring the content of mind wandering has demonstrated a number of
general principles that has enhanced our understanding on mind wandering (Smallwood &
Schooler, 2015). The summary of previous studies investigating the relationship between mind
wandering and emotional outcomes is presented in Table 2.1. For example, using a thought
sampling paradigm, Andrews‐Hanna et al. (2013) found that individuals with more negative and
more personally significant thoughts scored higher on constructs associated with depression
and trait negative affect, whereas those who characterized their thoughts as less specific scored
higher on constructs related to rumination. Previous research has also shown that individuals
who mind wandered about positive events, and about concurrent as opposed to past activities,
were attributed to boredom and therefore, led to perceived dissatisfaction with an ongoing
task (Critcher & Gilovich, 2010). Ruby, Smallwood, Engen, and Singer (2013) found that
emotional content of mind wandering determined individuals’ moods. However, this direct
relationship was modulated by the socio‐temporal content of thoughts—thoughts that were
past‐ and other‐related were associated with negative moods, whereas future‐ and self‐related
thoughts preceded improvements of mood, even when current thought content was negative.
In sum, these previous studies suggest that (1) the outcomes of mind wandering depend on the
content of mind wandering (Franklin et al., 2013) and (2) mind wandering can be characterized
according to multiple interacting dimensions, including its personal significance, temporal
orientation, valence, social orientation, and representational format (Andrews‐Hanna et al.
2013).
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Table 2.1
Summary of Mind Wandering Studies in the Emotional Context (In a Chronological Order)
11
2.3.1 Technology‐related (IT) versus Non‐technology‐related (Non‐IT) Thoughts
According to the diversion perspective, people remember things by encoding events in a
specific physical environments, time, and socioemotional context (Delaney, Sahakyan, Kelley, &
Zimmerman, 2010). These contextual features are encoded along with the event that is in the
focus of attention, and they serve as retrieval cues during recall processes (Delaney et al., 2010;
Howard & Kahana, 2002). Context can gradually drift as people mind wander because they
mentally travel to and immerse themselves in the context of the event (Delaney et al., 2010).
Such thought shifting will, in turn, influence individuals’ mental processes of retrieval of
information. However, this effect of mind wandering experiences is influenced by mental
distance between current on‐task thought and mind wandering contents. For example, Delaney
et al. (2010) conducted two experiments to investigate the relationship between mind
wandering and memory. They found that the contents of mind wandering that were more
different from the current moment (e.g., distance, time, or circumstances) led to more
forgetting than mind wandering experiences that were less different from the current moment,
because they required a greater contextual shift (Delaney et al. 2010). Thus, based on the
diversion paradigm, I postulate that when individuals work on a technology task, mind
wandering about technology will lead to a less detrimental effect than mind wandering about
other things.
The content of mind wandering investigated by the previous studies has been primarily
non‐technology‐related (e.g., temporal focus, positive and negative events). A recent study
conducted by Hollis (2013) revealed that mind wandering about technology (i.e., thinking about
or using another technology while engaging in a primary task) represented the highest level of
12
off‐task thinking among individuals and thus, this content of mind wandering should be
included in future mind wandering research. As new technologies emerge and constantly
outdate one another, it is difficult to imagine anyone living in a modern society without thinking
about technologies in his/her everyday life. For example, when one is working on a financial
report using Microsoft Excel, s/he could be thinking about checking his/her email. Thus, it is
important to include technology as a content of thought in mind wandering research.
As an effort to understand the complexity of thought in the context of interaction with
technology, Ortiz de Guinea and Webster (2013) categorized the content of users’ thoughts into
three groups: the computer system (e.g., thinking about how to insert a table), the task for
which s/he is using the technology (e.g., writing a report), and something else (e.g., mind
wandering). In their study, Ortiz de Guinea and Webster (2013) referred to the first category as
computer‐related and the latter two as non‐computer‐related thoughts (see de Ortiz de Guinea
& Webster, 2013 for details). However, they did not differentiate task‐unrelated thought or
mind wandering from on‐task thought or task‐related thought. Task‐related thought or on‐task
thought is theoretically and conceptually similar to cognitive focus or focus of attention (Lee,
Sheldon, & Turban, 2003), which indicates the capacity to stay focused on the activity one is
currently engaged in (Dimitrova, 2015). Because focus of attention reflects conscious effort and
attention directed at task completion, it is generally associated with high task performance and
problem solving (Randall et al., 2014).
From a cognitive perspective, Orlikowski and Gash (1994) argued that understanding
people interpretation of technology is crucial to understand their interaction with it. To interact
with technology, people have to make sense of it. In this making‐sense process, they develop
13
subjective assumptions, expectations and knowledge of the technology, which then lead to
shape subsequent actions toward it. In other words, technology impacts our cognitive thought
processes. For instance, Ortiz de Guinea and Webster (2013) proposed that when using
technology has become automatic, individuals tend to engage in non‐computer‐related
thoughts during regular or expected IT events, whereas computer‐related thoughts will
dominate individuals’ cognition during unexpected IT events. In order to facilitate the
unexpected events, users will redirect their thoughts away from other activities (e.g., task) and
direct their thoughts to the technology and thus, triggering computer‐related thoughts. As time
passes and problems are solved, individuals are likely to resume their original tasks, triggering
non‐computer‐related thoughts. Interestingly, these different contents of thought influence
individuals’ task performance over a period of time. The question arises whether technology‐
related and nontechnology‐related thoughts lead to different cognitive outcomes. If so, we
would speculate that the content of mind may work as a vehicle for performance outcomes.
Therefore, given the content of mind wandering can have a distinct effect on cognitive and
behavioral outcomes (McVay et al., 2009), I extend the content regulation hypothesis by
categorizing mind wandering into two dimensions: technology related (IT)—task‐unrelated
thought which occurs spontaneously and the content is related to the aspects of computer
systems (e.g., email, social media, electronic devices)—and non‐technology related (non‐IT)—
task‐unrelated thought which occurs spontaneously and the content is unrelated to the aspects
of computer systems.
Oettingen and Schwörer (2013) discussed different forms of mind wandering and
suggested that mind wandering in the form of mental contrasting (e.g., mind wandering about
14
future versus past events, personal versus other people concerns, etc.) led to skilled problem
solving and substantial behavioral change. Given the perspective of mental contrasting
potentially allows us to reveal some consequences of mind wandering, I classify the thoughts
about affective content, temporal content, and self‐relevance into one category—mind
wandering (non‐IT) and measure them as one dimension. This categorization is also consistent
with the concept of cognitive interference proposed by Sarason, Pierce, and Sarason (2002). In
the context of technology interaction, focus of attention can also be differentiated into two
categories—IT and non‐IT thoughts (Ortiz de Guinea and Webster 2013). Focus of attention (IT)
occurs when individuals think about the aspects of the computer systems related to the task at
hand, whereas focus of attention (non‐IT) occurs when individuals spend thinking about the
task, but these thoughts are not related to the aspects of computer systems (see Table 2.2).
Table 2.2
Construct Definition
15
2.4 Emotional Outcomes
Emotions are “a mental state of readiness for action that promote behavioral activation
and help prioritize and organize behaviors in a way that optimize individual adjustments to the
demands of the environment” (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2010, p. 689). From the goal‐directed
behavior perspective, the objective of emotions is to assist individuals with limited resources in
the management of multiple goals under an uncertain environment (Bagozzi & Pieters, 1998).
Positive emotions are associated with goal attainment, which usually leads to a decision to
continue with the current plan, whereas negative emotions are the results of problems
associated with ongoing plans and failures to achieve desired goals (Bagozzi & Pieters, 1998). In
the context of technology use, technology artifacts can trigger emotional reactions from users
when they interrupt users’ intended goals (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2010). Emotions are
generally generated based on users’ perceptions of the features of new IT and on the use of
new IT (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2010). Some of the emotions that have been extensively
studied in IS research are computer anxiety (e.g., Compeau & Higgins, 1995; Thatcher &
Perrewe, 2002; Venkatesh, 2000), satisfaction (e.g., Bhattacherjee, 2001; Doll, Xia, &
Torkzadeh, 1994; Wixom & Todd, 2005), and enjoyment (e.g., Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1992;
Koufaris, 2002; Agarwal & Karahanna, 2000).
Emotions can be measured as either the outcomes of users’ perception or the
antecedents of users’ attitudes and or behaviors (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2010). For example,
studies have shown that general emotions, such as computer anxiety and computer
playfulness, influence users’ attitudes and use of a specific technology (e.g., Compeau &
Higgins, 1995; Compeau, Higgins, & Huff, 1999; Venkatesh, 2000). Other emotions, such as
16
satisfaction, have been associated with users’ perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use
(Bhattacherjee, 2001). Emotions have also been associated with users’ response toward
external events. Specifically, emotions are the unique psychological appraisal created by an
individual as an effort to evaluate and interpret the events or circumstances (Bagozzi, Gopinath,
& Nyer, 1999). For instance, emotional reactions are triggered when a new technology
interrupts the sequence of events in one’s routine (Ortiz de Guinea & Webster, 2013).
Although the importance of emotions has been recognized in IS research, they have
been studied under the assumption that emotions are triggered on the basis of external events
or technology. Recently, mind wandering, as a stimulus‐independent thought, has been linked
to various emotions, including satisfaction and happiness (Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010).
However, the association between mind wandering and emotions has not been investigated in
IS research. Given users’ emotional reactions can be triggered by users’ internal thought
processes, which are independent from external events or technology (i.e., generally the
primary tasks), there is a need for research to investigate the occurrence of mind wandering
and explain its consequences on users’ emotional outcomes. Thus, in this study, I sought to
shed light on the impact of mind wandering as well as focus of attention on users’ emotional
outcomes.
Although negative emotions and moods have been shown to be the cause of mind
wandering (Smallwood et al., 2009; Smallwood & O'Connor, 2011), time‐lag analyses conducted
by Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010) strongly suggested that mind wandering was generally the
cause, and not the consequence, of emotional outcomes. Thus, in this current study, mind
wandering is regarded as a predictor of emotional outcomes associated with technology use—
17
technology anxiety and user satisfaction. These two outcomes are chosen for their prevalence
in IS research and because they represent two major categories of emotions (Beaudry &
Pinsenneault, 2010). Technology anxiety refers to “anxiety about the implications of computer
use such as the loss of important data or fear of other possible mistakes” (Thatcher & Perrewe,
2002, p. 383) and user satisfaction is defined as users’ affect with (feelings about) the use of
technology (Bhattacherjee, 2001). In IS research, technology anxiety is an important construct
and negatively associated with IT use (e.g., Compeau & Higgins, 1995; Compeau et al., 1999). If
a new technology is perceived to be a threat and users feel that they have some control over its
consequences, anxiety will be experienced in this situation (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2010). In
contrast, achievement emotions, such as satisfaction are the results of the appraisal of a new
technology that will generate positive outcomes (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2010). Satisfaction is
used as an evaluation of emotions experienced by users after they interacted with technology
(i.e., whether IT use experience was as pleasurable as expected) (Bhattacherjee, 2001).
Whereas technology anxiety is used to capture users’ negative emotions, satisfaction is used to
measure users’ positive emotions. Given the critical role of users in information processing,
understanding how users’ cognitive processes affect both users’ anxiety level and satisfaction
with technology is an important step in appropriating benefits from current technology
environments (Tarafdar, Tu, & Ragu‐Nathan, 2010).
2.5 Research Model
As shown in Figure 2.1, the current model aims to explain the effect of mind wandering
and focus of attention on users’ emotional outcomes. As discussed previously, I classify the
18
content of mind into four categories: (1) mind wandering (IT); (2) mind wandering (non‐IT); (3)
focus of attention (IT); and (4) focus of attention (non‐IT). Consistent with the content‐
regulation hypothesis, I hypothesize that each category of mind will yield a different effect on
users’ emotional outcomes. Consistent with prior cognitive theories (e.g., Kanfer and
Ackerman’s (1989) cognitive resource theory), I conceptualize that mind wandering and focus
of attention are distinct processes and only modestly correlated constructs (Randall et al.,
2014). Hence, they will also yield different results on the associated outcomes.
Figure 2.1. Research Model
2.6 Hypotheses Development
2.6.1 Mind Wandering and Technology Anxiety
The negative implications of mind wandering have been widely reported across
different task contexts (see Table 2.1). A hypothesis that mind wandering is associated with
emotional costs is built upon a longitudinal study conducted by Killingsworth and Gilbert
(2010). Using an experience sampling technique, they contacted participants through their
19
mobile devices at random moments during the day and asked them to report their mind
wandering experiences and their state of emotions. They found that people are less happy
when their minds were wandering, regardless their activities. It is likely that “what people were
thinking” was a better predictor of their emotional outcomes than “what they were doing”
(Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010).
Klinger (1994) investigated the relationships between test anxiety, preparation, thought
content, and academic performance during a college exam. During a course of exam, students
were signaled by auditory probe to stop working and record the content of their thoughts. They
found that mind wandering had no significant negative effect on performance, but had a
significant positive effect on test anxiety (see Klinger, 1994). People who experience mind
wandering often describe themselves as troubled and unhappy about their inability to become
absorbed in significant aspects of their lives (Sarason, Sarason, Keefe, Hayes, & Shearin, 1986).
Building on these previous works, I hypothesize that mind wandering (both IT and non‐IT)
positively influences technology anxiety.
According to the content regulation hypothesis, mind wandering can be associated with
either negative or positive emotions, depending on the content of thought when the mind
wanders (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015). As discussed previously, this hypothesis suggests that
the cost of such mind wandering experiences can only be properly understood by taking into
account the content of the experiences (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015). In line with this
hypothesis, I predict that individuals who are engaged in either technology or non‐technology
thoughts would exhibit different consequences on emotional outcomes of technology use.
Given mind wandering (IT) discussed in this study primarily focuses on the thoughts about
20
technology unrelated to the task at hand, users who wander about these contents tend to have
a positive attitude toward technology. It could be an indication that they use technology in a
regular basis and are less intimidated by a new technology (Tu, Tarafdar, Ragu‐Nathan, & Ragu‐
Nathan, 2007). To a certain degree where users are becoming familiar with the technology, the
thought process can occur unconsciously—it will demand minimum cognitive resources (Ritter
& Dijksterhuis, 2014). However, thinking about other things unrelated to the technology may
require more cognitive resources than thinking about technology. Thus, I hypothesize that
although both mind wandering (IT) and (non‐IT) are positively associated with technology
anxiety, the effect of mind wandering (non‐IT) on technology anxiety is stronger than the effect
of mind wandering (IT) on technology anxiety.
H1a: Mind wandering (IT) is positively associated with technology anxiety.
H1b: Mind wandering (non‐IT) is positively associated with technology anxiety.
H1c: The association between mind wandering (non‐IT) and technology anxiety is
stronger than between mind wandering (IT) and technology anxiety.
2.6.2 Focus of Attention and Technology Anxiety
Brockner (1979) suggested that the manipulations of attentional focus can produce
different levels of anxiety. By directing individuals to pay attention to the relevant task or
technology, technology anxiety can be inhibited as cognitive resources are allocated to the
relevant stimuli. Technology anxiety occurs when users feel apprehensive and anxious about
using a new technology (Chua, Chen, & Wong 1999). When individuals’ focus is narrowed to a
limited stimulus field, irrelevant thoughts and perceptions, including technology anxiety are
filtered out (Trevino & Webster, 1992). When users interact with technology, the elements of
21
technology may serve to help focus the individual’s attention on a limited stimulus field
(Trevino & Webster, 1992). Thus, focus of attention (IT) helps users become more absorbed in
their activity and in turn, reduce their anxiety level.
In addition to focus on technology‐related thoughts, users also engage in non‐
technology‐related thoughts. At the early stage of technology use, users tend to focus on
navigating different features of technology. Thus, their focus of attention is on technology.
Once the skills become automatic, then their focus of attention can be allocated to higher levels
of abstraction, such as problem solving strategies (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989). Such focus of
attention is externally oriented and is concerned with maximizing goal‐directed behavioral
outcomes (Robinson & Tamir, 2011). Because focus of attention is likely to support higher levels
of approach motivation, it is conducive to positive emotions and hinders negative emotions
(Robinson & Tamir, 2011).
Theory and research suggests that anxiety will trigger psychological distancing—
directing one’s attention away from the situation (Beaudry & Pinsonneault 2010). Thus, anxiety
about the prospective negative consequences of a new IT is likely to trigger psychological
distancing (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2010). However, when one’s attention is narrowly directed
to technology‐relevant cues (relative to task‐relevant cues), individuals will have more
confidence in their ability to learn about the technology. Consequently, focusing one’s
attention on technology‐related cues will lead to lower technology anxiety than on non‐
technology‐related cues, at least during the early stage of technology use.
H2a: Focus of attention (IT) is negatively associated with technology anxiety.
H2b: Focus of attention (non‐IT) is negatively associated with technology anxiety.
22
H2c: The negative association between focus of attention (IT) and technology anxiety is
stronger than between focus of attention (non‐IT) and technology anxiety.
2.6.3 Mind Wandering and User Satisfaction
In the context of human‐computer interaction, users’ satisfaction is usually associated
with one’s feelings or attitudes toward a variety of factors affecting that situation (Bailey &
Pearson, 1983). According to the user satisfaction literature, user satisfaction is typically viewed
as ‘an object‐based attitude’ (Wixom & Todd, 2005) and has been measured by various subsets
of beliefs including flexibility, accuracy, timeliness, reliability, and other related factors (DeLone
& McLean, 1992, 2003; Wixom & Todd, 2005). Expectation‐confirmation theory (ECT)—a theory
used to study consumer satisfaction—proposes that users form an initial expectation of a
specific system before they decide to use the system. After they used the system, they form
perceptions about its performance and then assess its perceived performance in comparison to
their original expectation and determine the degree to which their expectation is confirmed.
They form a satisfaction based on their confirmation level and expectation on which that
confirmation is created (Bhattacherjee, 2001). This theory assumes that satisfaction is
determined by users’ deliberate mental processes in comparing their initial perceptions with
their actual experience. In order to successfully perform such mental processes, users’ focus of
attention is expected to be on‐task. Thus, any mental distractions, including mind wandering
activities will interfere with users’ ability to accurately evaluate the system.
Although the effect of mind wandering on user satisfaction has not been empirically
tested, mind wandering has been associated with dissatisfaction with one’s life (Mar et al.,
2012). Mind wandering is also considered a manifestation of frustration and stress (Mar et al.,
23
2012). Given mind wandering occurs when individuals engage in other activities, it might be
used as a cue to understand one’s attitude toward an ongoing activity (Critcher and Gilovich,
2010). The specific content of users’ mind wandering experiences can be informative in
signaling their feelings toward their ongoing activities (Critcher & Gilovich, 2010). Given
satisfaction is the result of the appraisal of the upcoming event and has been associated with
technology use (Bhattacherjee, 2001; Wixom & Todd, 2005), I postulate that when a wandering
mind focuses on irrelevant technology‐related activities, it may be interpreted as a signal of
boredom or dissatisfaction with the current systems because such thoughts represent a coping
mechanism to the problem at hand (Critcher & Gilovich, 2010). In contrast, mind wandering
that focuses on other issues unrelated to technology may be seen as less informative—as idle
thoughts that can have any types of thoughts (Critcher & Gilovich 2010). In that sense, I
hypothesize that mind wandering (IT) has a stronger negative effect on user satisfaction than
mind wandering (non‐IT).
H3a: Mind wandering (IT) is negatively associated with user satisfaction.
H3b: Mind wandering (non‐IT) is negatively associated with user satisfaction.
H3c: The negative association between mind wandering (IT) and user satisfaction is
stronger than between mind wandering (non‐IT) and user satisfaction.
2.6.4 Focus of Attention and User Satisfaction
There is an implicit assumption that users will have a higher level of satisfaction if their
interaction with the system is incorporated with specific organizational and psychological
parameters (e.g., users’ cognitive processes) (Mahmood, Burn, Gemoets, & Jacquez, 2000).
From a disruption literature perspective, interruptions reduce the satisfaction of users with the
24
systems they employ for their tasks and their ability to benefit from them (Tarafdar, Tu, Ragu‐
Nathan, & Ragu‐Nathan, 2011). It is likely because under a high complexity condition, users
perceive focus of attention (i.e., cognitive effort) as a major determinant of both performance
and satisfaction. Thus, users are primarily interested in finding and processing information
relevant to clarifying task demands (Butler, 1993).
According to the cognitive resource literature, when users first encounter a new
technology, the attentional load on users is relatively high (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989). As users
begin to understand the demands of the task, they start learning how to use the systems by
allocating their attention to the detailed procedures associated with systems use. During this
phase, focus of attention (IT) is likely to have higher influence on user satisfaction than focus on
other subjects unrelated to the system (e.g., focus on the strategy of how to solve the task
more effectively). Given the scope of the study is at the initial phase of technology use, I
hypothesize that both focus of attention (IT) and (non‐IT) have positive effects on user
satisfaction. However, the effect of focus of attention (IT) is higher than (non‐IT), at least during
the early stage of technology use.
H4a: Focus of attention (IT) is positively associated with user satisfaction.
H4b: Focus of attention (non‐IT) is positively associated with user satisfaction.
H4c: The positive association between focus of attention (IT) and user satisfaction is
stronger than between focus of attention (non‐IT) and user satisfaction.
2.6.5 Technology Anxiety and User Satisfaction
User satisfaction is a critical variable because it is considered a reflection of the success
of the system (DeLone & McLean, 1992, 2003). Whereas users having positive cognitions about
25
a system leads to greater satisfaction with the system, technology anxiety leads to low user
satisfaction (Igbaria & Nachman, 1990; Tarafdar et al., 2011). Anxiety is a result of mental
pressure and has been associated with lower performance on cognitive‐demanding tasks.
Limited use and dissatisfaction with the system may be associated, in part, with users’ lack of
knowledge on how the system works (Igbaria & Nachman, 1990). When users do not have
sufficient knowledge on the new technology, they tend to exhibit anxieties, leading to lower
performance and less knowledge retention than those with low technology anxiety (Webster,
Heian, & Michelman, 1990). Therefore, it is reasonable to argue that technology anxiety is one
of the major factors influencing user satisfaction. Thus, I hypothesize
H5: Technology anxiety is negatively associated with user satisfaction.
2.6.6. Control Variables
The following variables are controlled for in this study:
Perceived Task Complexity. Technology tasks require necessary computer knowledge,
skills, and extent of time and efforts needed to handle the task successfully (Chang,
2005). Users’ perception of task complexity is described as “relative” because one
may perceive a computer task to be of certain complexity, whereas others may or
may not perceive the same degree of complexity (Chang, 2005). In this study, I
predict that user perception of technology task complexity is positively correlated
with technology anxiety. According to Rogers’ diffusion of innovation’s model (1995),
perceived complexity is defined as the degree to which an innovation is perceived as
26
difficult to understand and use. Thus, the complexity of an innovation is negatively
associated with adoption (Rogers, 1995).
Technology Multitasking. According to the attention control perspective, mind
wandering and external distraction (e.g., technology multitasking) should be
positively correlated such that individuals who experience more mind wandering
should also experience more external distraction in situations where attention
control is needed to maintain task goals (Forster & Lavie, 2014; Ralph, Thompson,
Cheyne, & Smilek, 2014). Given technology multitasking consumes the limited
cognitive resources, it will increase technology anxiety, especially when users are
engaged in mind wandering. I control for the effect of technology multitasking on
technology anxiety.
Demographic Information. Finally, I also control for some demographic variables,
including age and gender.
2.7 Research Method2
Mind wandering may have been overlooked by many researchers out of concern that it
is too difficult to study (Schooler, Reichle, & Halpern, 2004). However, a number of studies have
validated self‐report measures of mind wandering (e.g., Mrazek, Phillips, Franklin, Broadway, &
Schooler, 2013) and demonstrated that they are reliable to predict various outcomes, such as
performance error (e.g., Sarason et al., 2002; Smallwood et al., 2004) and emotional outcomes
2
Parts of Sections 2.71, 2.7.2, and 2.8.1 are reproduced from Sullivan, Y. W., Davis, F. D., & Koh, C. (2015).
Exploring mind wandering in a technological setting. Paper presented at the 36th International Conference on
Information Systems (ICIS), Fort Worth, TX, December 13‐16.
27
(Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010). Thus, in this current study, a self‐report technique is used to
measure the occurrence of mind wandering and focus of attention during an actual IS task—a
task that requires a certain degree of computer skills.
2.7.1 Instrumental Development
After constructing the conceptual framework, I developed and validated the measures
for each thought category described in the model. When possible, the measurement items of
the constructs were developed based on existing scales in extant literature that have been
proven reliable; otherwise, I developed new measures by following the procedures proposed by
MacKenzie et al. (2011). Although there has been a number of studies on mind wandering, this
topic can be considered new in IS research and thus, a standardized metric to measure mind
wandering (IT) and focus of attention (IT) is not available. To address this problem, I developed
mind wandering and focus of attention metrics that can be used to measure causal mechanisms
of attention and their potential outcomes more precisely. After I developed a conceptual
definition of the new constructs (see the previous section), I generated the survey items from
the theoretical definitions and a review of literature. Following this, I assessed the content
validity of the measurement items. After that, I collected data to conduct a small pretest in
order to purify and refine the items. I collected a new data set to test the convergent and
discriminant validity of the scales. The same data set was used to test the structural model.
Based on a review of previous relevant research in the IS discipline (e.g., Ortiz de Guinea
& Webster, 2013), I generated seven items to measure focus of attention (IT) and seven items
to measure mind wandering (IT). Consistent with the previous theories on mind wandering
28
(e.g., Sarason et al., 2002), all constructs were measured reflectively on seven‐point Likert
scales. Items to measure focus of attention (non‐IT) were adapted from Kanfer, Ackerman,
Murtha, Dugdale, and Nelson (1994) and items to measure mind wandering (non‐IT) were
adopted from Sarason et al. (1986)3. Furthermore, items to measure technology anxiety were
adapted from Kanfer et al. (1994) and Thatcher and Perrewe (2002) and satisfaction was
measured using Nadkarni and Gupta’s (2007) satisfaction scale. Items used to measure
perceived task complexity were adapted from Winter and Latham (1996), Seijts, Latham, Tasa,
and Latham (1986), and Jiang and Punj (2010).
Content validity of the items was obtained in two different stages. In the first, after I
generated the items, I subjected these new items, along with the other items in the survey, to a
card sorting exercise (Polites & Karahanna, 2012). Seven graduate students participated in this
exercise. At the end of the exercise, I asked the participants to report any issues pertaining to
the wording of the items. The sorting resulted in a satisfactory classification of items into my
predefined categories. In the second stage, I collected data from a small sample size (n = 32) to
3
Given longer surveys take more time to complete and tend to have more missing data than short surveys, I
decided to shorten the CIQ questionnaire proposed by Sarason et al. (1986). First, items were chosen based on
their factor loading scores reported in their original scales (Stanton, Sinar, Balzer, & Smith 2002). Second, items’
clarity of expression and their relevance to our target population were taken into account in deciding which items
should remain in the survey (Stanton et al. 2002). For example, the first 10 items of the CIQ questionnaire were not
included to measure mind wandering because these items refer to aspects of self‐evaluation (Sarason et al., 1986)
and are more relevant to measure self‐regulatory activities (see Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989). Sarason et al. (1986)
indicated that the remaining items of the CIQ questionnaire are the actual items used to measure a diversity of
thoughts unrelated to the task. Given I specifically focus on the content of mind wandering, item 11 (i.e., I thought
about other activities, such as assignment and work) was also dropped from the survey. Item 16 (i.e., I thought
about something that made me feel tense) was also excluded from the actual survey due to its redundancy with
item 15. Results indicate that the 9‐item version possesses acceptable psychometric properties when used to
measure the state of mind wandering. I, therefore, conclude that the threat to content validity for using a short
version of the CIQ questionnaire is not a significant factor in this current study.
29
test whether my survey items are consistent with the definitions of each thought. Based on the
feedback, the measurement items were modified.
2.7.2 Data Collection
An important part of the research design in the current study is selecting an IS task that
demands cognitive attention. I investigate whether mind wandering occurs when participants
engage in novel tasks. I thus selected two basic IS courses that require students to use
computer software in their projects (i.e., either Microsoft Excel or PowerPoint). An online
questionnaire was administered to a sample of undergraduate students taking an introductory
IS course at a large university in the United States. Participants received extra credit as an
exchange for their participation. An alternative assignment was provided to those not wishing
to participate in the study. I was granted a permission to visit the classes and gave a short
presentation about the study. Participants were instructed to fill out the questionnaire right
after they did their computer assignment for the course. The course instructors were notified to
send out the survey link by the assignment deadline. At the end of the study, a total of 406 valid
responses were collected. Demographic information on the respondents is presented in Table
2.3.
2.8 Data Analysis and Results
2.8.1 Assessment of Measurement Validation
The measurement and structural models were tested using a structural equation
modeling method. In order to establish the convergent and discriminant validity of the scales,
30
two separated steps were conducted. In the first step, I conducted an exploratory factor
analysis (EFA) using a direct oblimin rotation method to identify the underlying relationships
among 4 independent variables. This rotation method was selected because the factors in the
analysis were expected to be correlated (Gorsuch, 1983; Thompson, 2004). Next, I examined
the convergent and discriminant validity of the mind wandering and focus of attention
measures at the item‐ and construct‐level using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) procedures
in Lisrel 8.8.
Table 2.3
Sample Characteristics
The EFA result (the pattern matrix) is presented in Table 2.4. Based on the results of
EFA, two items of mind wandering (IT) were dropped. As predicted, the final items of each
category of thought loaded higher into their theoretical constructs than into other constructs.
Together, four factors extracted accounted for 75.13 percent of the variance (see Table 2.4).
31
Table 2.4
EFA Result
Component
Item Mean SD 1 2 3 4
MW_IT1 3.83 1.79 0.13 0.00 ‐0.71 0.06
MW_IT2 4.19 1.79 ‐0.02 0.02 ‐0.92 ‐0.02
MW_IT3 4.33 1.70 0.03 ‐0.04 ‐0.92 0.02
MW_IT4 4.67 1.63 ‐0.05 0.02 ‐0.90 ‐0.03
MW_IT5 4.07 1.84 0.02 ‐0.06 ‐0.88 0.05
MW_NON_IT1 3.91 1.63 0.82 0.06 ‐0.04 ‐0.05
MW_NON_IT2 3.93 1.63 0.80 0.07 ‐0.15 ‐0.06
MW_NON_IT3 3.30 1.85 0.89 ‐0.08 0.11 0.09
MW_NON_IT4 4.09 1.75 0.82 0.05 ‐0.06 ‐0.12
MW_NON_IT5 3.37 1.83 0.87 ‐0.08 0.04 0.07
MW_NON_IT6 3.95 1.67 0.81 0.06 ‐0.11 ‐0.04
MW_NON_IT7 3.81 1.73 0.90 0.04 ‐0.01 ‐0.02
MW_NON_IT8 3.41 1.84 0.89 ‐0.09 0.07 0.10
MW_NON_IT9 4.03 1.76 0.80 0.03 ‐0.09 ‐0.04
FOA_IT1 4.95 1.47 0.02 0.87 0.02 ‐0.10
FOA_IT2 4.86 1.37 ‐0.01 0.92 ‐0.04 ‐0.03
FOA_IT3 4.78 1.42 0.06 0.82 ‐0.02 0.11
FOA_IT4 4.80 1.41 0.03 0.82 0.02 0.11
FOA_IT5 4.92 1.46 ‐0.03 0.78 ‐0.03 0.11
FOA_IT6 5.00 1.40 ‐0.07 0.79 0.04 0.10
FOA_IT7 5.14 1.39 0.00 0.84 0.06 ‐0.03
FOA_NON_IT1 4.66 1.52 0.06 ‐0.07 0.01 0.84
FOA_NON_IT2 4.74 1.49 0.02 0.12 0.00 0.84
FOA_NON_IT3 4.83 1.46 ‐0.03 0.09 ‐0.03 0.85
FOA_NON_IT4 4.72 1.63 ‐0.06 0.07 ‐0.05 0.78
Notes: MW_IT = Mind Wandering (IT); MW_NON_IT = Mind Wandering (Non‐IT); FOA_IT = Focus of Attention (IT);
FOA_NON_IT = Focus of Attention (Non‐IT).
Further, I conducted a CFA to examine the adequacy of the measurement model. The
first model was a four‐factor model (see Table 2.5). Results indicate high levels of convergent
and discriminant validity. As shown in Table 2.5, the hypothesized four‐factor model fit the data
significantly better than other alternative measurement models. Finally, goodness‐of‐fit indices
for the four‐factor model met the criteria suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999). Based on the
32
results of this validation process, all of the measurement items were considered sufficient,
suggesting that categorizing mind wandering and focus of attention into IT and non‐IT (four‐
factor model) shows better goodness of fit than combining IT and non‐IT thoughts into one
factor (two‐factor model or one‐factor model).
After the validation of mind wandering and focus of attention measures was
established, the CFA was constructed as a six‐factor model wherein the measures of technology
anxiety and user satisfaction constructs were modeled as separate constructs. In the last CFA, I
constructed an eight‐factor model by adding the control variables (i.e., perceived task
complexity and media multitasking) in addition to the dependent variables. As hypothesized,
the measurement model demonstrates a sufficient level of discriminant validity.
Table 2.5
Summary of Model Fit for All CFAs Examined
33
The results of CFA of the eight‐factor model, reported in Table 2.6, indicate high levels
of convergent validity. Each factor loading is strong and significant (all p values < .01), and the
average variance extracted (AVE) value for each dimension of thought is well above Fornell and
Larcker’s (1981) suggested cutoff of .50. Further, the composite reliability (CR) values for all of
the constructs are greater than .70, demonstrating that all constructs have adequate reliability
scores. The means, standard deviations, and correlations are reported in Table 2.7. As shown in
Table 2.7, the square root of the AVE for each construct in the model is larger than the
corresponding off‐diagonal correlations of the constructs to their latent variables. These results
provide substantial evidence for the convergence/discriminant validity of the items and overall
measurement model.
Table 2.6
Summary of Confirmatory Factor Analysis Result (8‐Factor Model)
Factor
Constructs/Items
Loading
Mind wandering (non‐IT) (CR; AVE) (.96; .74)
1. I thought about members of my family. .79
2. I thought about friends. .86
3. I thought about something that made me feel guilty. .75
4. I thought about personal worries. .83
5. I thought about something that made me feel angry. .79
6. I thought about something that happened earlier today. .87
7. I thought about something that happened in the recent past (last few days, but not today). .89
8. I thought about something that happened in the distant past. .81
9. I thought about something that might happen in the future. .85
Mind wandering (IT) (CR; AVE) (.94; .78)
1. I thought about checking my email. .75
2. I thought about checking my social media (e.g., Facebook). .88
3. I thought about browsing other stuff. .94
4. I thought about checking my phone. .82
5. I thought about doing other online activities (e.g., online shopping, online game). .87
(table continues)
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Table 2.6 (continued)
Factor
Constructs/Items
Loading
Focus of Attention (IT) (CR; AVE) (.95; .73)
1. I focused on how to use the software to complete my task. .78
2. I paid attention on different features of the software to complete my task. .91
3. I focused my attention on different options provided by the software to format my task. .89
4. I focused my attention on learning specific the software functions. .87
5. I paid close attention to the kind of errors I was making when I was using the software. .80
6. I focused my total attention on making sure my computer outputs were correct. .77
7. I focused my total attention on following the software’s instructions correctly. .74
Focus of Attention (non‐IT) (CR; AVE) (.92; .74)
1. I focused my total attention on how I could solve the problem. .69
2. I thought about strategies for solving the problem. .91
3. I thought ahead to what I would do next to solve the problem. .91
4. I focused my attention on correctly performing as many steps as I could. .74
Technology Anxiety (CR; AVE) (.95; .77)
When you were doing your assignment, to what extent do you agree with these statements?
1. I became frustrated with my inability to solve the problem using the software. .80
2. I got mad at myself when I used the software. .86
3. I was concerned about how poorly I was doing using this software. .87
4. I felt anxious about using this software to complete my task. .84
5. I was worried about how I was going to make a mistake by choosing the wrong options. .84
6. I was worried about how I was going to make a mistake that I cannot correct when I used the .82
software.
User Satisfaction (CR; AVE) (.95; .86)
After doing your assignment using this software, how do you feel about your overall experience
with the software?
1. …I am very dissatisfied / very satisfied. .95
2. …I am very displeased / very pleased. .95
3. …I feel absolutely terrible / very delighted. .88
4. …I will strongly recommend this software to my friends. .80
Perceived Task Complexity (CR; AVE) (.87; .68)
1. This task required me to coordinate many different things at the same time. .66
2. This task required a lot of my effort. .84
3. On scale 1 (extremely easy) to 7 (extremely difficult), how difficult was this task? .71
Media Multitasking ‐
A single item asking participants whether they used any electronic devices/media/software 1.00
(besides their computer or laptop and the software they used to do their assignment).
1. Survey Instructions: The following statements concern the kinds of thoughts that go through people’s heads at
particular times. For example, while they are working on a task or assignment, they could think about something else,
unrelated to their primary task. The following is a list of thoughts, some of which you might have had while doing
your task. Please indicate approximately how often each thought occurred to you when you did your task.
2. Scale to measure the thought content: 1 (never) – 7 (every Time); other measures: 1 (strongly disagree) – 7
(strongly agree).
3. CR = Composite Reliability; AVE = Average Variance Extracted.
35
Table 2.7
Correlation Matrix and Descriptive Statistics
Further, common method bias can be a potential threat to the study if the independent
and dependent variables are obtained from the same sources (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, &
Podsakoff, 2003). In order to determine whether common method bias was a concern, I used
several different methods. First, I performed the Harman’s single‐factor test suggested by
Podsakoff et al. (2003). The result indicated that one factor only accounted for 28.6 percent of
the variance, suggesting no common method bias. Next, I performed a common method
variance test with a common latent factor (Podsakoff et al., 2003). I ran a CFA in AMOS that
included a method construct. This allowed not only comparison of the loadings of each item on
its own factor and the method factor, but also calculation of the amount of method bias
present in the entire dataset (Polites and Karahanna, 2012). The estimated amount of method
bias was only 2.8 percent. Further, all factor loadings remained significant in the presence of
the method factor (see Appendix A). Lastly, I perform a marker variable technique suggested by
Lindell and Whitney (2001). I examined the matrix of item‐to‐item correlations. The results
showed that the correlation scores between the marker variable and items from construct
36
hypothesized range from ‐.01 to .12 (with only two significant correlations). This indicates the
absence of common method bias.
2.8.2 Structural Model
The measurement of the structural model was estimated using the SEM approach. The
overall fit indices for the structural model were acceptable (X2 = 1561.15, df = 668; X2/df =
2.36; CFI = .98; IFI = .98; SRMR = .05; RMSEA = .057). The results of the model estimates,
including standardized path coefficients and t‐values, are presented in Figure 2.2. Both mind
wandering (IT) and mind wandering (non‐IT) had significant, negative effect on technology
anxiety, supporting H1a and H1b. Contrary to my hypotheses, only focus of attention (IT) had a
negative effect on technology anxiety, whereas the effect of focus of attention (non‐IT) was not
significant. Thus, H2a was supported and H2b was not supported. The effects of mind
wandering (IT) and mind wandering (non‐IT) on user satisfaction were not significant, failing to
support H3a and H3b. The effect of technology anxiety on user satisfaction was also significant,
supporting H5.
In order to test H1c, H2c, H3c, and H4c, I explore the relationships by performing a X2
difference test using Lisrel between the baseline and constrained model. For instance, to test
H1c, the path coefficients from mind wandering (IT) and mind wandering (non‐IT) to technology
anxiety were constrained to .12 (the actual path coefficient of mind wandering (IT) to
technology anxiety in the baseline model). If the X2 difference test is significant, then the
baseline model would have a better fit in reflecting the hypothesized relationship.
37
Figure 2.2. Structural Model (t‐statistic in parentheses)
The results of X2 difference test are presented in Table 2.8. As hypothesized, the positive
association between mind wandering (non‐IT) and technology anxiety was greater than
between mind wandering (IT) and technology anxiety. Thus, H1c was supported. Similarly, the
negative association between focus of attention (IT) and technology anxiety was greater than
between focus of attention (non‐IT) and technology anxiety, supporting H2c. The positive
association between focus of attention (IT) and user satisfaction was also greater than between
focus of attention (non‐IT) and user satisfaction. Thus, H4c was supported. The summary of the
hypothesis results are presented in Table 2.9.
38
Table 2.8
Chi‐Square, Goodness‐of‐Fit Values, and Model Comparison Tests
Table 2.9
Hypotheses Results
Hypothesis Supported?
H1a Mind wandering (IT) is positively associated with technology anxiety. Y
H1b Mind wandering (non‐IT) is positively associated with technology anxiety. Y
H1c The association between mind wandering (non‐IT) and technology anxiety is Y
stronger than between mind wandering (IT) and technology anxiety.
H2a Focus of attention (IT) is negatively associated with technology anxiety. Y
H2b Focus of attention (non‐IT) is negatively associated with technology anxiety. N
H2c The association between focus of attention (IT) and technology anxiety is stronger Y
than between focus of attention (non‐IT) and technology anxiety.
H3a Mind wandering (IT) is negatively associated with user satisfaction. N
H3b Mind wandering (non‐IT) is negatively associated with user satisfaction. N
H3c The negative association between mind wandering (IT) and user satisfaction is N
stronger than between mind wandering (non‐IT) and user satisfaction.
H4a Focus of attention (IT) is positively associated with user satisfaction. Y
H4b Focus of attention (non‐IT) is positively associated with user satisfaction. Y
H4c The positive association between focus of attention (IT) and user satisfaction is Y
stronger than between focus of attention (non‐IT) and user satisfaction.
H5 Technology anxiety is negatively associated with user satisfaction Y
2.9 Discussion
This current study is intended to examine the relationship between mind wandering and
emotional outcomes in a technological setting. Mind wandering scales were first developed and
39
the research model was empirically tested. The study provides an empirical support for the
content regulation hypothesis by showing that (1) mind wandering and focus of attention are
two different constructs that have distinct effects on emotional outcomes—mind wandering is
the main predictor of technology anxiety, whereas focus of attention is the main predictor of
user satisfaction; and (2) mind wandering and focus of attention can be differentiated into two
dimensions: IT‐related and non‐IT related; the effect of mind wandering on emotional
outcomes is dependent on these dimensions. By revealing that human cognition is a crucial
factor in influencing emotional outcomes associated with technology usage, this research
advances our understanding on the consequences of mind wandering in everyday life.
2.9.1 Theoretical Contributions
In this study, a theoretical model based on the concept of mind wandering is formulated
and empirically tested. My research framework provides an in‐depth understanding of the
concept of mind wandering in a technological context. From an extensive literature review of
the cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and IS disciplines, this study suggests that
technology anxiety is primarily influenced by mind wandering, whereas user satisfaction is
highly influenced by focus of attention. Specifically, mind wandering (non‐IT) has a greater
effect on technology anxiety than mind wandering (IT) and focus of attention (IT) has a greater
impact on user satisfaction than focus of attention (non‐IT). By demonstrating that the content
of thought is associated with emotional outcomes, this study provides preliminary evidence
that mind wandering covers a broad set of factors that potentially influence the outcomes of an
interaction between users and technology.
40
This study resulted in a powerful model that explains 49 percent of the variance in
technology anxiety. The small effect of mind wandering (IT) on technology anxiety can be
explained by the notion that mind wandering (IT) reflects users’ positive attitude toward
technology. Thus, its negative effect is not because users are worried about using the system,
but because they shift their attention from the primary system used to complete the task to
other irrelevant technologies (e.g., cellphone, social media, etc.). The insignificant effect of
focus of attention (non‐IT) on technology anxiety could be due to the nature of task used in the
study. The task was a technology task that required users to learn about a new system (e.g.,
MS. Excel, MS. PowerPoint) and apply what they have learned on the assigned task. In this case,
focusing on technology features can be seen as a coping strategy that helps users reduce their
degree of anxiety, whereas focusing on other subjects does not play a significant role in
influencing technology anxiety.
I also found that focus of attention is a major predictor of user satisfaction, whereas
mind wandering did not have a direct effect on user satisfaction. These results suggest that
mind wandering and focus of attention are two different constructs that have distinct effects
on emotional outcomes. As one of the positive emotions, user satisfaction is the results of
individuals’ positive experiences and situations that produce rewards (Bhattacherjee, 2001).
When users focus on their task, their performance expectation increases as they become more
confident in their ability to complete task. Thus, satisfaction can be seen as a reward for
allocating their attention and effort on the task.
Lastly, the results show that although people might argue that modern technology
decreases the amount of time people mind wander because they always have electronic
41
devices in their hands to play with (Picciuto, 2015), the habit of using technologies can direct or
stimulate our mind to wander about them. Given the unconscious mind is the storehouse of all
memories and past experiences (Ritter & Dijksterhuis, 2014), the thought about this technology
experience will remain in our memory and can emerge as our mind wanders. However, given
that this study is a cross‐sectional study, the directional nature of the relationship between
thought content and emotional outcomes cannot be confirmed. A complete understanding of
the nature of this relationship requires overcoming several methodological and conceptual
challenges that should be addressed in future research (Andrews‐Hanna et al., 2013).
2.9.2 Practical Contributions
The results of this study offer practical contributions to technology users, education
providers as well as business managers. First, the results suggest that mind wandering,
especially about non‐technology related subjects, can increase technology anxiety, whereas
focusing on relevant‐technology cues can slightly decrease such anxiety. Technology users are
suggested to be aware of their mind wandering experience, at least during an early stage of
technology usage when they are still in the process of learning a new technology.
This study also suggests that mind wandering can be an important issue for IS education
in a number of ways. First, the occurrence of mind wandering during learning and retention of
IS courses can make students become more anxious. Given that mind wandering involves a
state of decoupled attention (Smallwood & Schooler, 2006), it prevents individuals from
encoding information during the learning process. Interestingly, the thought contents of users
determine the outcomes associated with mind wandering. Teachers and instructors who
42
prevent the use of electronic devices in classroom may be overlooking the fact that individuals
may engage in mind wandering (IT). In fact, efforts to focus on the primary technology or task
and not to let distractions interfere with task performance may ironically increase the amount
of mind wandering (Critcher & Gilovich, 2010). Based on the results of my current study, mind
wandering can have a detrimental effect on technology learning by increasing the level of
technology anxiety. Interestingly, the results suggest that mind wandering (non‐IT) has a
stronger effect on technology anxiety than mind wandering (IT). Some intervention programs,
such as integrating a mindfulness training in the curriculum will potentially help students be
more aware of their own thought process. An alternative strategy is to focus on educating
students about their attentional limitations and help them improve their engagement to the
lecture (Risko, Buchanan, Medimorec, & Kingstone, 2013).
Third, although the data were collected from students, the results can be extended to
understand mind wandering phenomena in work place. Given the results suggest that different
dimensions of thought content are associated with different levels of technology anxiety as well
as user satisfaction, knowledge workers who generally deal with technology tasks in their daily
routine are encouraged to focus their attention on relevant cues while at the same time, be
aware of their tendency to mind wander. By becoming aware of the nature of their internal
thoughts, these knowledge workers may be able to reduce their degree of technology anxiety
and increase their cognitive control ability.
43
2.10 Conclusions
This paper argues that mind wandering and focus of attention can be better understood
by taking into account the content of thought. After developing and validating the scales used
to measure mind wandering and focus of attention, I empirically examine the impact of mind
wandering and focus of attention on emotional outcomes. Drawing upon and extending the
content regulation hypothesis of mind wandering, the results reveal that mind wandering (non‐
IT) is the main source of technology anxiety, whereas focus of attention (IT) is the main
antecedent of user satisfaction. This work sheds light on how mind wandering and focus of
attention can influence emotional outcomes associated with technology use.
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CHAPTER 3
MIND WANDERING AND COGNITIVE IS LEARNING
3.1 Introduction
In the last decade, mind wandering (or self‐generated thoughts or task‐unrelated
thoughts) has become an important topic of research in the psychology and neuroscience
disciplines (Smallwood & Andrews‐Hanna, 2013). Mind wandering represents a shift of
attention away from a primary task to the processing of internal goals (Singer, 1966; Smallwood
& Schooler, 2006). Originally, mind wandering is considered disruptive to accomplishing
primary tasks and related to low task performance (e.g., McVay & Kane, 2009). Mind wandering
is also negatively associated with an individual’s ability to retrieve information (Smallwood,
Beach, Schooler, & Handy, 2008) and its occurrence has been linked to low performance of fluid
intelligence test (Mrazek et al., 2012; Smallwood & Andrews‐Hanna, 2013). For that reason,
mind wandering is considered to have significant implications within the education domain
(Smallwood, Fishman, & Schooler, 2007a).
In this study, I specifically focus on the effect of mind wandering on cognitive outcomes
in the Information Systems (IS) learning context. IS learning involves making connections
between the mechanisms of information and technology and particular applications of such
mechanisms in work practices (Rawlings, White, & Stephens, 2005). Unlike other types of
learning, IS learning requires students to pay attention not only to the task, but also to the
technology associated with the task. Although learning is a critical part of technology adoption,
research on the relationship between mind wandering and technology learning has been
52
overlooked in the IS literature. Thus, it is necessary to examine the impact of mind wandering
on various IS learning outcomes because IS learning success depends, in part, on users’ ability
to regulate their attentional mechanisms involved in the learning process (Smallwood et al.,
2007a).
The interaction between user and technology has been shown to be a major predictor
of task performance (e.g., Burton‐Jones & Straub, 2006; DeLone & McLean, 1992, 2003; Van der
Heijden, 2004) (Sullivan, Davis, & Koh, 2015). Technology also provides a potential set of
features that influence how users choose to perform a task (Fuller & Dennis, 2009). However, it
is unclear how technology users maintain their attentional process mechanisms when they
interact with technology, particularly during the early stage of technology learning (Sullivan,
Davis, & Koh, 2015). At the same time, most research on mind wandering has primarily focused
on many situations in which mind wandering has detrimental consequences on task
performance (e.g., McVay & Kane, 2010; Schooler, Reichle, & Halpern, 2004). Although its
benefits are less extensively studied, mind wandering may have some positive functions
including contributing to future planning and learning (Ruby, Smallwood, Engen, & Singer, 2013;
Smallwood & Schooler, 2015). It is also associated with certain cognitive skills, such as future
planning, knowledge retention (Smallwood & Andrews‐Hanna, 2013), and consolidation of self‐
memory (Smallwood et al., 2011). Given many of the potential benefits of mind wandering is
still unknown, the main objective of this study is to examine the cognitive costs and benefits of
mind wandering on learning outcomes (e.g., software self‐efficacy).
This study addresses three research questions: (1) What are the factors that influence
users’ mind wandering activities and focus of attention (at the early stage of learning phase)?;
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(2) How does the interaction between mind wandering and focus of attention influence
students’ cognitive learning outcome (i.e., software self‐efficacy)?; and (3) Do mind wandering,
focus of attention, and software self‐efficacy influence IS learning performance? Drawing on
executive control failure theory of mind wandering, I postulate that a user’s mind wandering
and focus of attention activities are influenced by executive functions (EFs)—the cognitive
control processes that regulate thoughts and actions (Friedman et al., 2008)—and task
complexity. Building on this theory, I trace the relationship between mind wandering, focus of
attention, self‐efficacy and performance back to its underlying assumptions, which are rooted
in resource allocation theory.
This work makes several contributions. It advances our understanding on the costs and
benefits of mind wandering in the IS learning context. The interaction between the content of
thought when users are engaged in mind wandering and focus on their task is the key indication
to uncover the potential benefits of mind wandering. This work contributes to the literature by
extending and integrating the theory of EFs and mind wandering in a technological setting. It
links the objective measures of EFs to the subjective measures of mind wandering and focus of
attention and empirically tests the influence of EFs, mind wandering, and focus of attention on
cognitive learning outcomes.
3.2 Executive Functions Theory
Executive functions (EFs)—also known as executive control or cognitive control—refer
to “a family of top‐down mental processes needed when you have to concentrate and pay
attention, when going on automatic or relying on instinct or intuition would be ill‐advised,
insufficient, or impossible” (Diamond, 2013, p. 136). EFs are crucial in the cognitive processes of
54
attentional control (i.e., top‐down control) (Diamond, 2013; Miyake et al., 2000). The theory of
EFs is concerned with people’s ability to control their attentional or cognitive resources in the
service of pursuing goals and accomplishing tasks, especially when faced with interference or
distraction (Kane et al., 2007; Randall, Oswald, & Beier, 2014). There are three most frequently
studied EFs: (1) inhibition (i.e., the ability to inhibit dominant or automatic responses), (2)
updating working memory representations (i.e., the ability to monitor incoming information
relevant to the task in hand and then appropriately update the working memory by replacing
old, no longer relevant information with newer, more‐relevant information), and (3) set shifting
(i.e., the ability to flexibly switch back and forth between tasks or mental sets) (Miyake et al.,
2000). According to Miyake and Friedman (2012), these three dimensions of EFs correlate with
one another; thus, they share some common underlying ability, but they also show some
separability.
3.2.1 Inhibition
Cognitive inhibition is defined as “a basic cognitive suppression that contributes to task
performance by keeping task‐irrelevant information from entering and being maintained in
working memory” (Harnishfeger, 1995, p. 178). The concept of inhibition is also used
interchangeably with interference control—“suppressing a stimulus that pulls for a competing
response so as to carry out a primary response, to suppressing distractors that might slow the
primary response, or to suppressing internal stimuli that may interfere with the current
operations of working memory” (Nigg, 2000, p. 222). Theories have proposed several forms of
inhibition (Friedman & Miyake, 2004). Based on the nature of cognitive interference, inhibition
55
can be categorized into three different types—i.e., prepotent response inhibition, resistance to
distractor interference, and resistance to proactive interference. Prepotent response inhibition
is the ability to deliberately suppress dominant or automatic responses. Second, resistance to
distractor interference is the ability to resist or resolve interference from information triggered
by the external environment that is not relevant to the task at hand. It has been associated with
individuals’ ability to ignore interruptions from the environment and focus on the task. Lastly,
resistance to proactive interference is the ability to suppress information from memory that
was previously relevant to the task but has since become irrelevant (Friedman & Miyake, 2004).
Among these different types of inhibition, prepotent response inhibition is commonly
measured in EFs studies because it represents an “internally generated act of control” (Logan,
1994, p. 190) and linked to the frontal lobes—a part of the brain that plays a major role in
regulating cognitive functions (Miyake et al., 2000).
Inhibition mechanisms can also be distinguished based on psychological constructs (e.g.,
behavior, cognition) they act on (Harnishfeger, 1995). Given mind wandering is operationalized
as a cognitive construct, the focus of this study is on cognitive inhibition. Cognitive inhibition
can be defined as the suppression of cognitive interference from working memory (Friedman &
Miyake, 2004). Cognitive inhibition enables individuals to control their thought contents or
processes; it can be intentional and conscious, or unintentional or unconscious (Harnishfeger,
1995). Hence, conceptualizing inhibition as a cognitive construct is relevant to the purpose of
this study.
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3.2.2 Switching
Switching ability refers to “any mechanism that reduces or dampens neuronal, mental,
or behavioral activity” (Clark, 1996, p. 128). Task switching in everyday life is inevitable. The
switching process involves the omission of irrelevant task sets (e.g., to be encountered stimuli,
the required responses, and the cues used to indicate which information is the relevant to the
current task) and the subsequent active engagement of a relevant task set (Eysench,
Derakshan, Santon, & Calvo, 2007; Miyake et al., 2000). It reflects the ability of an individual to
be flexible enough to go back and forth between one task to another (Dijksterhuis & Aarts,
2010; Miyake et al., 2000). Switching involves active and intentional retrieval of task sets or
instantiation of current task goals (Miyake et al., 2000). This retrieval of task sets is crucial for
reducing the effects of interference from the irrelevant information of the task because it
involves the activation of criteria for what information is currently relevant and what is
currently irrelevant and should be ignored (Friedman & Miyake, 2004). Generally, switching
ability is measured using a task‐switching paradigm, where subjects are presented with multiple
stimuli. Subjects are first asked to respond to a set of stimuli and then after a certain amount of
time they were asked to switch to attend another type of stimuli (Monsell, 2003).
3.2.3 Updating or Working Memory Capacity
Updating or monitoring of working memory representations is closely linked to the
notion of working memory capacity (WMC) (Miyake et al., 2000). Although researchers have a
tendency to discuss attention and working memory in isolation of one another, it is suggested
that they are mutually dependent functions because they share many of the same neural
57
substrates (Baddeley, 2000, 2007, 2012). For example, working memory maintains
representations of current task demands that are necessary for the success of selecting task‐
relevant representations and actions (Milham et al., 2002). The function of working memory
requires monitoring and coding incoming information by replacing old information with most
recent and more relevant information (Baddeley, 2012).
According to the EFs perspective, WMC reflects, in part, an ability to control thought
(McVay & Kane, 2010). WMC helps maintain an active goal and avoid distraction (Baddeley,
2003; Kane & McVay, 2012; Unsworth, McMillan, Brewer, & Spillers, 2012). The concept of
working memory suggests that a limited capacity system, which temporarily maintains and
stores information, supports human thought processes by providing an interface between
perception, long‐term memory, and action (Baddeley, 2003). In other words, normal variation
in WMC is influenced by attentional processes that regulate thoughts and actions (Engle &
Kane, 2004).
3.3 Mind Wandering
Mind wandering has been conceptualized as “a shift of attention away from a primary
task toward internal information, such as memories” (Smallwood & Schooler, 2006, p. 946).
Mind wandering is off‐task thoughts that occur during an ongoing task or activity (McVay &
Kane, 2010). Periods of mind wandering are generally associated with less accurate awareness
of relevant information than periods of task focus because mind wandering involves a shift of
attention away from the primary task to individuals’ internal thought processes (Smallwood &
Schooler, 2006). Often the thought that occurs during mind wandering experience is described
58
as task unrelated or stimulus independent—terms that capture the independence of experience
from external stimuli (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015). Research over the past 15 years has
proposed different theories in understanding the occurrence of mind wandering (Smallwood &
Schooler, 2015). For instance, Smallwood and Schooler (2006) proposed that mind wandering is
operated under the same mechanisms of EFs. It occurs when information processing is
decoupled from the primary task. In contrast, McVay and Kane (2009) suggested that mind
wandering does not require resources from EFs. Mind wandering is able to enter consciousness
because EFs fail to inhibit the irrelevant thoughts associated with mind wandering. This latter
theory is known as executive‐control failure theory of mind wandering. Given we conceptualize
EFs as one’s ability to deal with interference, this current study draws upon the executive‐
control failure theory of mind wandering to explain the relationship between EFs and mind
wandering.
3.3.1 Executive‐Control Failure Theory of Mind Wandering
According to the executive‐control failure perspective, mind wandering does not require
executive control resources nor does it relies on the same cognitive mechanisms used for EFs
(McVay & Kane, 2009, 2012a). Rather, mind wandering is “automatically and continually
generated as part of the thought stream in response to internal and external cues, and
executive‐control processes keep these thoughts out of the focus of attention during resource‐
demanding tasks.” (McVay and Kane 2009, p. 203). It is dually determined by the presence of
automatically generated thoughts and the ability of EFs to deal with such automatic thoughts
(McVay and Kane, 2010). Mind wandering is the result of executive‐control failure in that EFs
59
fail to adequately inhibit interfering thoughts that are generated and maintained automatically
(i.e., unintentionally and without consuming executive resources) (McVay & Kane, 2012a).
Two functions of executive control: (1) goal maintenance processes (i.e., processes that
allow for the sustained access to task‐relevant information in the face of distraction from
environmental distractors or irrelevant thought) and (2) competition‐resolution mechanisms
(i.e., functions that deal with in‐the‐moment interference from a stimulus) prevent mind
wandering to enter consciousness (McVay & Kane, 2012a). Whereas the goal maintenance
processes are initiated prior to the expected need for control in order to minimize experiences
of distraction, the competition‐resolution mechanisms are initiated in‐the‐moment, as a
response to any distraction (McVay & Kane, 2012a). These two functions have been shown to
determine successful performance on many attention‐demanding tasks (Kane & Engle, 2003;
McVay & Kane, 2012a). Mind wandering, on the other hand, disrupts goal maintenance
processes, leading to performance errors in attention‐demanding tasks (McVay & Kane, 2009,
2012a).
In a set of experiments, McVay and Kane (2009) found that individuals with lower EFs
mind wandered more during a demanding (primary) task than higher EFs subjects. These results
suggest that individuals with lower EFs show frequent goal neglect because they fail to maintain
the goals across different levels of complexity. Lower EFs subjects also seem less able than
those with higher EFs to sustain focus of attention to the demands of the ongoing task (McVay
& Kane, 2009). When EFs fail to maintain focus of attention, mind wandering will negatively
influence task performance (Kane et al., 2007; McVay & Kane, 2009). In another study, Kane
and McVay (2012a) examined the association between EFs (measured as WMC) and reading‐
60
comprehension task performance, with mind wandering as a partial mediator. The results
confirmed their hypotheses that: (1) EFs were correlated negatively with mind wandering and
positively with task performance; (2) EFs had a significant direct effect on task performance;
and (3) mind wandering mediated the relationship between EFs and reading comprehension.
These findings suggest that the relationship between EFs and task performance arises partly
because EFs reflect individuals’ executive ability to control thoughts (Engle & Kane, 2004; Kane
& McVay, 2012). Hence, mind wandering is prevented when control is proactively initiated to
inhibit mind wandering as they are activated in response to environmental or mental cues
(McVay & Kane, 2010).
In sum, executive‐control failure theory of mind wandering predicts that task demand
(i.e., task complexity) is negatively associated with mind wandering (i.e., for high complexity
tasks, mind wandering is diminished) in that individuals with high EFs will keep the unrelated
thought out of the focus of attention. Consequently, individuals with low EFs, relative to those
with high EFs, will experience more mind wandering, resulting in poor task performance. Given
individuals with high EFs are able to maintain the task‐relevant information, they are likely to
achieve higher task performance than individuals with low EFs.
Figure 3.1. Graphical Illustration of Executive‐Control Failure Theory
61
3.3.2 Consequences of Mind Wandering
More than a decade of research has shown that mind wandering is associated with poor
outcomes in a wide variety of tasks, such as reading (e.g., Franklin, Smallwood, & Schooler,
2011; Schooler et al., 2004) and sustained attention tasks (e.g., Smallwood et al., 2004; McVay
& Kane, 2012b). In addition to exploring the costs of mind wandering, researchers have started
investigating the potential benefits of mind wandering (Mooneyham & Schooler, 2013;
Smallwood & Andrews‐Hanna, 2013). Table 3.1 outlines a comprehensive list of studies that
have demonstrated the consequences of mind wandering on cognitive outcomes in a number
of settings, including reading comprehension, lecture, and sustained attention tasks.
Table 3.1
Literature Review of Costs and Benefits of Mind Wandering (In a Chronological Order)
62
Table 3.1 (continued)
Study Context Cost Benefit
McVay and Kane (2009) Sustained Mind wandering predicted goal‐ ‐
attention neglect errors in the sustained
attention task.
Delaney, Sahakyan, Memory Mind wandering that was more
Kelley, and Zimmerman different from the current
(2010) moment (e.g., in distance, time,
and circumstance) resulted in
more forgetting than mind
wandering that was less
different from the current
moment.
Barron, Riby, Greer, and Visual oddball Mind wandering was associated ‐
Smallwood (2011) task with low task performance.
Franklin et al. (2011) Reading Mind wandering was negatively ‐
comprehension associated with reading
comprehension.
Lindquist and McLean Academic The frequency of mind ‐
(2011) learning wandering was negatively
associated with performance in
course examinations.
Smallwood (2011) Reading Mind wandering was associated
comprehension with low reading
comprehension
Baird et al. (2012) Creativity ‐ Mind wandering was
problems associated with
higher performance
on creative problem
solving tasks.
McVay and Kane (2012a) Reading Mind wandering was negatively ‐
comprehension associated with reading
comprehension.
McVay and Kane (2012b) Sustained Mind wandering had a negative ‐
attention effect on task performance.
Risko et al. (2012) Lecture Mind wandering led to ‐
decreased memory for lecture
materials.
(table continues)
63
Table 3.1 (continued)
64
Table 3.1 (continued)
As shown in Table 3.1, the negative relationship between mind wandering and
performance is typically found in sustained attention tasks (e.g., Smallwood et al., 2004, 2009;
McVay et al., 2013; Mrazek et al., 2012; Stawarczyk et al., 2014), whereas the positive
relationship between mind wandering and performance is typically found in problem solving
tasks (e.g., Baird et al., 2012; Ruby et al., 2013; Oettingen & Schwörer, 2013). This contradictive
relationship between mind wandering and ongoing performance suggests that the costs and/or
benefits of the experience can be better understood by taking into account the context in
which it occurs (Andrews‐Hanna, Smallwood, & Spreng, 2014; Smallwood & Schooler, 2015) as
well as the content of mind wandering experience itself (Andrews‐Hanna et al., 2014).
3.4 Resource Allocation Theory
Resource allocation theory was proposed by Kanfer and Ackerman (1989). According to
this theory, individuals’ attentional resources are generally indexed with measures of cognitive
ability and a task is assumed to be resource‐limited when focus of attention is needed to
65
achieve high task performance (Randall et al., 2014). Resource allocation theory extends the
cognitive resource perspective by explaining how attentional resources are allocated to task
performance in terms of on‐task activities, off‐task activities or mind wandering, and self‐
regulatory activities4 (Randall et al., 2014). Whereas on‐task thought refers to the thought
maintained on the primary task at hand (Randall et al., 2014), off‐task or mind wandering
activities involve allocating attention to task‐unrelated thoughts (Smallwood et al., 2007a). Self‐
regulatory activities are essential mechanisms to maintain the resource allocation policy toward
a task (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989). Resource allocation theory views task performance as the
outcome of person’s ability (i.e., the attentional resources devoted to the task), the person’s
motivation to direct and regulate attention, and task characteristics, such as task complexity
(Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989).
Resource allocation theory has been used to understand the occurrence of mind
wandering during the process of skill acquisition and task execution (Randall et al., 2014).
According to this theory, tasks that are relative novel and complex will require focused
attentional resources at early stages of learning (Ackerman, 1988; Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989).
Once the skills needed to execute the tasks become autonomous or automatic, fewer attention
resources are necessary (Ackerman, 1988). For example, the first time users learn how to use
keyboards, their attention resources are allocated to learn the positions of many of the keys.
Once they master the typing skills, they could accurately locate the key and move their fingers
with minimum effort. For tasks that are relatively complex, however, attention resources will
4
Because the focus of this paper is to investigate the effect of mind wandering and focus of attention, self‐
regulation is entered as a covariate or control variable influencing both mind wandering and focus of attention.
66
remain necessary even at the later stages of performance. At the early stages of skill acquisition
of relatively consistent tasks, self‐regulation is needed to maintain users’ focus of attention.
However, self‐regulation remains important throughout skill acquisition phases for relatively
complex and inconsistent tasks (Randall et al., 2014). When self‐regulation processes are
engaged, mind wandering will be less likely to occur; thus, users are likely to experience mind
wandering in later stages of performance for tasks that can be automated, when tasks are
simple, or when they are very complex that are beyond the reach of a person executing them
(Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989; Randall et al., 2014).
3.5 Research Model
The research model, as illustrated in Figure 3.2, is proposed to understand and prescribe
how EFs, perceived task complexity, mind wandering, focus of attention, and learning outcomes
are related. Two dependent variables—software self‐efficacy and learning performance are
selected. Building upon my previous study (see Chapter 2), I differentiate mind wandering (IT)
from mind wandering (non‐IT), and focus of attention (IT) from focus of attention (non‐IT).
Consistent with McVay and Kane’s executive control‐failure theory of mind wandering, I
hypothesize that both mind wandering and focus of attention are determined by perceived
complexity and EFs. In turn, learning performance is determined by EFs, mind wandering and
focus of attention. Drawing upon the concept of attention, I also hypothesize that software self‐
efficacy is influenced by mind wandering, focus of attention, and the interactions between the
two constructs. In turn, the effect of mind wandering and focus of attention on learning
performance is mediated by software self‐efficacy. The content of mind wandering is
67
considered important when mind wandering is hypothesized as the determinants of both
software self‐efficacy and learning performance. The construct definitions are presented in
Table 3.2.
Figure 3.2. Research Model
Table 3.2
Construct Definitions
Construct Definition
Executive functions Functions required for maintaining and monitoring goals in the
face of distraction and interference and for suppressing distracting
events (Engle & Kane, 2004; Engle, Tuholski, Laughlin, & Conway,
1999; Kane et al., 2007).
Perceived task complexity The degree to which the task is perceived as difficult to
understand and execute (Bala & Venkatesh, 2013).
Mind wandering (IT) Task‐unrelated thought which occurs spontaneously and the
content is related to the aspects of computer systems.
Mind wandering (Non‐IT) Task‐unrelated thought which occurs spontaneously and the
content is unrelated to the aspects of computer systems.
Focus of attention (IT) Task‐related thought which occurs when individuals think about
the aspects of the computer systems used to complete the
primary task at hand.
(table continues)
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Table 3.2 (continued)
Construct Definition
Focus of attention (Non‐IT) Task‐related thought which occurs when individuals think about
the primary task, but this thought is not related the aspects of
computer systems.
Software self‐efficacy “Individual’s feeling of self‐efficacy relative to a specific software
package” (Agarwal, Sambamurthy, & Stair, 2000, p. 422).
IS learning performance The sum of correctly answered questions on a particular subject.
3.6 Hypotheses Development
3.6.1 Executive Functions, Mind Wandering, and Focus of Attention
At its current stage, the mind wandering literature has proposed several hypotheses on
the roles of EFs (Friedman et al., 2008) in influencing mind wandering. Although EFs have long
been considered “a unitary, general‐purpose ability” consisting of at least three major
functions—response inhibition, updating working memory, and shifting (Friedman et al., 2008;
Miyake et al., 2000), previous studies in mind wandering have primarily focused on the
functions of WMC as a predictor of mind wandering (McVay & Kane, 2010; Smallwood &
Schooler, 2006). In this study, I investigate the role of EFs in influencing mind wandering
experience. Ignoring any of these primary dimensions of EFs may prevent researchers to gain a
complete picture of phenomena associated with mind wandering.
EFs are skills essential for success in education and in life (Diamond, 2013). For example,
Borella, Carretti, Riboldi, & De Beni (2010) showed that EFs predict both math and reading
competence in academic learning. Greater EFs reflects greater attentional capacity used to
avoid distraction and maintain a goal (Hollis & Was, 2014; McVay & Kane, 2010). Incorporating
mind wandering into executive control model can be accomplished by recognizing that goal
69
maintenance and focus of attention may be disrupted by mind wandering. Prior literature has
suggested that EFs may play an important role in mind wandering (e.g., Axelrod et al., 2015;
McVay & Kane, 2009; Smallwood & Schooler, 2006). During mind wandering, individuals
consciously attend to their thoughts and feelings rather than to information related to the task
or to the external environment (Smallwood & Schooler, 2009). According to executive‐control
failure theory of mind wandering, individuals with lower EFs, relative to those with higher EFs,
show frequent goal neglect because goal maintenance depends, in part, on the ability to resist
interference from mind wandering (McVay & Kane, 2009; Mrazek et al., 2012). Simply put,
individuals with higher EFs will have a better ability to sustain attention to the ongoing task
demands, relative to individuals with lower EFs (McVay & Kane, 2009). Consistent with this
theory, I hypothesize that
H1a: EFs are negatively associated with mind wandering (IT).
H1b: EFs are negatively associated with mind wandering (Non‐IT).
There is substantial evidence that EFs play an important role in learning (e.g., Duncan et
al., 2007; Gathercole, Pickering, Knight, & Stegmann, 2004; St Clair‐Thompson and Gathercole,
2006). People with high EFs generally earn better school grades, attain more education, and
less likely to be involved in automobile accidents (Kane et al., 2007). EFs determine individuals’
ability to monitor and encode incoming information (i.e., working memory function),
deliberately inhibit dominant or automatic responses (i.e., inhibition), and move backwards and
forwards between multiple cues or tasks (i.e., shifting) (Miyake et al., 2000). Individuals with
high EFs are able to control their attention, behavior, and thoughts to override a strong internal
interruption; EFs also enables individuals to selectively attend, focusing on what is important
70
and suppressing attention to other stimuli (Diamond, 2013). Individuals with high EFs are able
to maintain their focus of attention and process relevant details to build a mental model of the
learning materials for comprehension (McVay & Kane, 2012b). Thus, I hypothesize that EFs have
a positive effect on both focus of attention (IT) and focus of attention (non‐IT).
H2a: EFs are positively associated with focus of attention (IT).
H2b: EFs are positively associated with focus of attention (non‐IT).
3.6.2 Perceived Task Complexity, Mind Wandering, and Focus of Attention
Task complexity is considered one of the key factors of cognitive load (Xu, Benbasat, &
Cenfetelli, 2014). Task complexity can increase demand for conceptual processing by increasing
the number of information cues that must be processed (Wood, 1986; Zhu & Watts, 2010).
Despite some evidence indicates that mind wandering varies with the task demands
(Smallwood & Schooler, 2006), task demands have been shown to negatively associated with
mind wandering. According to McVay and Kane’s executive‐control failure theory (2010), “the
decrease in mind wandering that accompanies increases in task demands…reflects the initiation
of controlled processing to block interfering, off‐task thoughts…” (p. 191). Thus, the negative
relationship between task complexity and mind wandering is the result of a proactive initiation
of EFs in response to task demands. A high complexity task initiates a greater degree of
controlled processing than does a simple task. Executive control processes, then, are triggered
to block irrelevant cues and shield the relevant information (McVay & Kane, 2010). Consistent
with McVay and Kane (2010), I hypothesize that
H3a: Perceived task complexity is negatively associated with mind wandering (IT).
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H3b: Perceived task complexity is negatively associated with mind wandering (non‐IT).
Research suggests that increasing subject difficulties can increase learning effectiveness
(Hughes et al., 2013; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). Individuals who perceive the task to be
complex are more likely to focus their attention on relevant cues and exclude some information
cues that are perceived to be less relevant (Gupta, Li, & Sharda, 2013). Conversely, the
perception of a task being simple may encourage users to process more available information
cues, including the less relevant ones because a simple task is less demanding and therefore, is
likely to lead to less overall mental workload. Thus, I hypothesize that
H4a: Perceived task complexity is positively associated with focus of attention (IT).
H4b: Perceived task complexity is positively associated with focus of attention (non‐IT).
3.6.3 Focus of Attention, Mind Wandering, and Software Self‐Efficacy
In this study, I specifically focus on software‐specific self‐efficacy as a cognitive learning
outcome. Software specific self‐efficacy has been primarily measured as the outcome of
computer or software training, education, and technology acceptance (Marakas, Yi, & Johnson,
1998). Software self‐efficacy is distinct from general computer self‐efficacy (Marakas et al.
1998). Whereas computer self‐efficacy is a generalized individual trait, software self‐efficacy
refers to “individual’s feeling of self‐efficacy relative to a specific software package” (Agarwal et
al., 2000, p. 422). Thus, software self‐efficacy is a “particularized judgment” of efficacy related
to a specific type of application or system (Agarwal et al., 2000).
Software self‐efficacy is associated with a specific task performance and thus, is “a
cognition about that specific performance” (Marakas et al., 1998, p. 129). Software self‐efficacy
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is derived from the combined determinants associated with the formation of a task‐specific
self‐efficacy perception (Marakas et al., 1998). The underlying rationale for understanding
software self‐efficacy comes from social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986). According to this
theory, individuals generally assess the availability of specific resources and constraints for
performing the task (Gist & Mitchell, 1992). The formation of self‐efficacy can involve extensive
cognitive activities or very limited cognitive activities (often called automatic processing) (Gist &
Mitchell, 1992). It is suggested that judgements about efficacy become more automatic as
experience with tasks increase. When tasks are novel (e.g., learning on how to use a new
system), individuals tend to assess the task demands and environmental constraints to perform
self‐efficacy (Gist & Mitchell, 1992). Individuals can only learn about a specific subject (in this
case, the subject is technology or application) if they allocate their attention to relevant
information (Yi & Davis, 2003). In the context of technology learning, especially at the early
stage of learning, relevant information is generally associated with technical cues. Given
software self‐efficacy reflects individuals’ perception of efficacy in performing particular
computer‐related tasks, I hypothesize that focus of attention (IT) is positively associated with
software self‐efficacy, whereas focus of attention (non‐IT) is negatively associated with
software self‐efficacy. Attention directed towards task strategies and task completion (e.g.,
thinking about the rules of the task) is less needed when software self‐efficacy is set as the end
goal because it interferes with users’ focus of attention toward technology‐related cues.
H5a: Focus of attention (IT) is positively associated with software self‐efficacy.
H5b: Focus of attention (non‐IT) is negatively associated with software self‐
efficacy.
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Whereas focus of attention is hypothesized as a positive antecedent of software self‐
efficacy, mind wandering is predicted to be a negative determinant of software self‐efficacy. In
learning, people must rely on their knowledge to construct opinions and to weight and
integrate predictive factors (Bandura, 1993). In order to construct an appropriate mental
model, individuals need to allocate their attentional resources to on‐task activities associated
with learning a new system. Engaging in mind wandering during learning distracts users and
reduces the time available to practice new skills (Gravill & Compeau, 2008). Mind wandering
suppresses the brain’s response to external stimuli that are either relevant or irrelevant to the
primary task (Schooler et al., 2014; Smallwood et al., 2008). Thus, I expect that individuals who
direct their effort toward task‐irrelevant stimuli and distracting activities would demonstrate
lower levels of software self‐efficacy. In addition, although mind wandering about technology‐
related issues may be disruptive, it could be an indication that users have high levels of general
computer self‐efficacy. In that sense, users use mind wandering as a ‘mental escape’ from the
current task by thinking about unrelated technology. Thus, I hypothesize that
H6: The negative association between mind wandering (non‐IT) and software self‐
efficacy is stronger than between mind wandering (IT) and software self‐efficacy.
Although the interaction between focus of attention and mind wandering has not been
tested in the previous studies, research has shown that achieving a balance between focus of
attention and mind wandering may aid individuals in optimizing their performance outcomes
(Allen et al., 2013). In the learning context, successful learning requires individuals to integrate
information from environment with their own internal representation (Smallwood et al.,
2007a). There is an indication that individuals’ ability to flexibly switch between and integrate
74
across different information sources contributes to this successful learning (Allen et al., 2013),
which can be measured by estimating the relationship between self‐efficacy and performance
(Marakas et al., 1998).
As described previously, by focusing attention on the application independent of the
task being performed with it, we can assess an individual’s perception of ability to use the
system (Marakas et al., 1998). Although empirical evidence concludes that mind wandering is
negatively associated with self‐efficacy, mind wandering is an essential element of a healthy,
satisfying mental life (McMillan, Kaufman, & Singer, 2013). Hence, mind wandering can
potentially be beneficial for our cognitive learning process.
The interaction between mind wandering and focus of attention can be explained by the
implicit learning perspective (Kaufman, 2013). According to this perspective, people are able to
learn complex rules and relations between events that they encounter in the external
environment without being consciously aware of them (Dijksterhuis & Aarts, 2010). This implicit
learning process is goal dependent and requires at least some attentional resource (Dijksterhuis
& Aarts, 2010). For example, Jimenez and Mendez (1999), as cited by Dijksterhuis and Aart
(2010), conducted a number of experiments in which participants engaged in sequential
learning under either a single‐ or dual‐task condition. Although they found that general
attentional load hardly influenced learning, it was obvious that participants needed selective
attention to the crucial information. Implicit learning theory speculates that intelligence is an
adaptation process to task demands that are relevant to attaining personal goals (e.g., mind
wandering), not just adaptation to the external goals (e.g., primary task) (Kaufman, 2013).
Individuals’ controlled forms of cognition (e.g., attentional focus) and spontaneous forms of
75
cognition (e.g., intuition, affect, insights, and spontaneous triggering of episodic memories) are
important potential contributors to the personal learning process (McMillan et al., 2013). Thus,
the interaction effect between focus of attention and mind wandering relationship is worth
investigating.
The interaction between mind wandering and focus of attention will be beneficial if the
contents of both thought processes are closely related. According to the diversion thought
paradigm, when individuals are engaged in diversionary thought (or mind wandering), their
attention is shifted from current tasks to a different mental context induced by a mental
diversion (Alves, Resende, & Pinho, 2015; Sahakyan & Kelley, 2002). This diversionary thought
experience is associated with the difficulty of recalling information presented prior to the mind
wandering episodes (Alves et al., 2015). However, Delaney et al. (2010) indicated that the
magnitude of the mind wandering effect on forgetting information or memory lost depends on
the mental distance (e.g., temporal, circumstantial, etc.) from the current moment. For
instance, mind wandering about irrelevant technology while working on a technology task is
likely to be less harmful to learning outcomes than mind wandering about something else.
This argument is in line with the implicit learning perspective discussed previously. As a
human being, we have this ability to automatically learn, with or without our conscious
awareness (Kaufman et al., 2010). This implicit learning is typically characterized by a set of
automatic, associative, nonconscious, and unintentional thought processes (Kaufman et al.,
2010). In this context, learning is often termed as associative, when learning proceeds
incidentally, because it describes the incidental formation of associations (Kaufman et al.,
2010). Given the fact that implicit learning requires the formation of associations, it is
76
reasonable to argue that the interaction between focus of attention (IT) and mind wandering
(IT) will trigger learning cues that can potentially increase users’ software‐specific self‐efficacy,
whereas the interaction between focus of attention (IT) and mind wandering (non‐IT) will slow
down the learning process.
Further, prior studies on distraction have found that distracting features perceived to
contain information related to the primary task elicit less irritation and avoidance (Gluck, bunt,
& McGrenere, 2007; Tan, Yi, & Chan, 2015). For example, when faced with distracting website
features, users will assess and be influenced by the congruence between the distracting
content and the primary task (Tan et al., 2015). This argument can also be extended to
understand the effect of mind wandering on learning outcomes. For example, for a student
learning how to use Excel, mind wandering about other technologies, such as social media
would probably be perceived as more task congruent and less disruptive than mind wandering
about a family member. In contrast, letting our mind wander about other issues unrelated to
technology (e.g., temporal content, personal worry, and self‐relevance) (i.e., mind wandering
(non‐IT)) can be viewed as random thought and may be related to personal problem solving. In
its relationship with the primary task, it can serve as a preparation function, motivating
individuals to engage in problem solving behaviors and adopt adaptive behaviors that reduce
potential threats (Watkins, 2008). In that sense, the outcomes of the interaction between focus
of attention and mind wandering are determined by the thought content. In particular, the
negative effect of focus of attention (non‐IT) on software self‐efficacy can be diminished if users
experience high levels of mind wandering (non‐IT). To the same extent, the positive effect of
focus of attention (IT) on software self‐efficacy is stronger for users who mind wander about
77
technology than for those who mind wander about non‐technology‐related content. Hence, I
postulate that the content of mind wandering that is congruent with the context of the primary
task to be beneficial, whereas mind wandering that is incongruent with the primary task to be
destructive (see Table 3.3). I hypothesize the following:
H7: Mind wandering moderates the relationship between focus of attention and software
specific self‐efficacy, in which
H7a: The positive effect of focus of attention (IT) on software self‐efficacy is higher
when users experience high mind wandering (IT) than when they experience low mind
wandering (IT).
H7b: The positive effect of focus of attention (IT) on software self‐efficacy is higher
when users experience low mind wandering (non‐IT) than when they experience high
mind wandering (non‐IT).
H7c: The negative effect of focus of attention (non‐IT) on software self‐efficacy is higher
when users experience low mind wandering (non‐IT) than when they experience high
mind wandering (non‐IT).
H7d: The negative effect of focus of attention (non‐IT) on software self‐efficacy is higher
when user experience high mind wandering (IT) than when they experience low mind
wandering (IT).
From an evolutionary perspective, the temporal dynamics of mind wandering allows us
to simulate plausible outcomes of alternative plans, including the emotional states of ourselves
and other people in response to such plans (Gilbert & Wilson, 2007; Oettingen & Schwörer,
2013). When mind wandering triggered by contextual factors, such as affective and temporal
content, mind wandering can work as a vehicle for learning and problem solving. It is likely
because when one focuses on his or her attention on the relevant cues, mental contrasting
strengthens the associations between the problem and instrumental means to overcome the
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problem (Oettingen & Schwörer 2013). Hence, I state a three‐way relationship between focus
of attention, mind wandering, and software self‐efficacy.
H7e: The positive effect of focus of attention (IT) on software self‐efficacy is higher
when users experience high mind wandering (IT) and low mind wandering (non‐IT).
H7f: The negative effect of focus of attention (non‐IT) on software self‐efficacy is higher
when users experience high mind wandering (IT) and low mind wandering (non‐IT).
Table 3.3
Interactions Between Focus of Attention and Mind Wandering (Dependent Variable: Software
Self‐Efficacy)
Mind Wandering (MW)
IT Non‐IT
IT
Congruent Incongruent
Focus of Attention
Non‐IT
Incongruent Congruent
3.6.4 Focus of attention, Mind Wandering, and Learning Performance
The effect of focus of attention on learning has been discussed in the education
literature (e.g., Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004; Risko, Buchanan, Medimorec, & Kingstone,
2013; Skinner, Furrer, Marchand, & Kindermann, 2008; Skinner, Kindermann, & Furrer, 2009).
According to this literature, focus of attention is a strong predictor of school success (Risko et
al., 2013). Focus of attention represents an important part of effective learning (e.g., Risko et
al., 2013; Yi & Davis, 2003). Without focus of attention, information quickly fades and can
hardly be remembered after time passes. Whereas focus of attention is positively associated
with learning performance, mind wandering is negatively associated with learning performance
(Smallwood et al., 2007a). For example, Lindquist and McLean (2011) conducted a correlation
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study to investigate the relationship between mind wandering and course performance. They
found that as mind wandering increased, the course performance decreased. In this study, I
measure learning performance by summing of correctly answered questions on a particular
subject (i.e., declarative knowledge or immediate performance). I postulate that the interaction
effects between mind wandering and focus of attention are not substantial because the
primary antecedent resources for immediate performance will be from users’ working memory
consolidation.
Unlike learning in general, IS learning requires students to pay attention to not only the
context of the task, but also to the technical aspects of the system being learned. One of the
primary outcomes of technology learning is knowing how computer programs or other
applications work and operate (Palvia and Palvia, 2007). In this case, focusing their attention on
important features of software is critical in determining their learning performance. In contrast,
although focus of attention (non‐IT) has been considered an important element of task
performance, I argue that it is less salient at the early stage of technology learning. It may
potentially impair task performance because it demands the limited resources that can be
allocated to focus of attention (IT). Thus, I hypothesize that
H8: The positive effect of focus of attention (IT) on learning performance is higher than
the positive effect of focus of attention (non‐IT) on learning performance.
Mind wandering represents “the withdrawal of executive resources from one’s
ostensible primary task toward mental pursuit of other personal goals, thus leaving fewer
resources for the primary task” (Kane et al., 2007, p. 620). In other words, mind wandering
competes with task performance on a limited capacity of attentional resources (Smallwood &
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Schooler, 2006). Thus, whereas allocation of attentional resources to the (primary) task has a
positive influence on performance, resources allocated to mind wandering exert a direct,
negative influence on task performance (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989). Mind wandering has been
linked to poor outcomes in a wide range of tasks, such as those common in education (e.g.,
McVay & Kane, 2011; Schooler et al., 2004). When mind wandering intrudes during task
completion, task performance impairs, especially if the task is complex and requires focused
attention (Gruberger, Simon, Levkovitz, Zangen, & Hendler, 2011; McVay & Kane, 2009; McVay
& Kane, 2012a; Mrazek et al., 2012; Unsworth et al., 2012). However, mind wandering can
produce positive or negative outcomes, depending on the behavioral context (Allen et al.,
2013). Mind wandering can be used to infer one’s attitude toward technology (Critcher &
Gilovich, 2010). To the extent that one needs to focus on tasks, yet his or her mind wander
about other irrelevant technology, it could be a signal that the primary task is less enjoyable or
he or she has a relatively high level of general computer self‐efficacy. Thus, although mind
wandering itself has a negative effect on performance, mind wandering (IT) has less negative
effect on performance than mind wandering (non‐IT).
H9: The negative effect of mind wandering (non‐IT) on IS learning performance is higher
than the negative effect of mind wandering (IT) on IS learning performance.
3.6.5 Software Self‐efficacy and Learning Performance
The effect of self‐efficacy on task performance has been well established in the
literature (e.g., Locke, Frederick, Lee, & Bobko, 1984; Marakas et al., 1998; Yee, Hsieh‐Yee,
Pierce, Grome, & Schantz, 2004). Individuals who have a high sense of efficacy are likely to
develop strategies to maximize their performance (Bandura, 1993). In particular, at the early
81
stage of technology learning, it is hypothesized that as software self‐efficacy is increased,
performance at the specific task level is improved (Marakas et al., 1998). Thus, I hypothesize
that
H10: Software self‐efficacy is positively associated with IS learning performance.
3.6.6 EFs and Learning Performance
Kane and McVay (2012) argued that vulnerability to mind wandering may contribute to
the role of EFs in predicting cognitive performance and abilities. Given the purpose of learning
is to increase one’s particular knowledge, skill or behavior, immediate learning performance
can be viewed as a cognitive outcome—“the knowledge users have about what a technology is
and how to use it” (Marcolin, Compeau, Munro, & Huff, 2000, p. 39). When learning something
new, those who are able to utilize their EFs most often perform best (Diamond, 2013). It is
because individuals with high EFs have more cognitive resources to maintain task relevant
information, thereby facilitating performance (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989). Thus, I hypothesize
H11: EFs are positively associated with IS learning performance.
3.6.6 Control Variables
Self‐regulation. Self‐regulation provides the very basic for purposeful action
(Bandura, 1991). Self‐regulation enables individuals to set goals for themselves and
then plan courses of action that are likely to produce desired outcomes (Bandura,
1991). Given self‐regulation is an important mechanism for the allocation policy to
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ensure limited resources are properly directed to a task, self‐regulation is included
as a control variable on focus of attention and mind wandering.
User Demographics. Prior studies have shown that gender and age play a significant
role on mind wandering. It is plausible that mind wandering decreases with age
(Giambra, 1993; Smallwood et al., 2007b). Research also shows that computer self‐
efficacy varies across gender (Busch, 1995). Thus, gender and age are added as
control variables on focus of attention, mind wandering, and learning outcomes.
General Computer Self‐efficacy. General computer self‐efficacy potentially
influences software self‐efficacy (Agarwal et al., 2000; Yi & Davis, 2003). Thus,
general self‐efficacy is added as a control variable on software self‐efficacy.
3.7 Research Method
3.7.1 Research Context and Sample
I selected Microsoft Access learning as the context in which the research model is
empirically tested. The study consisted of two different stages administered in two sessions
(i.e., online survey and online cognitive experiment) that lasted approximately 40 minutes in
total. The study subjects – students enrolled in an introductory IS course – were required to
learn Microsoft Access. Given students taking the course had very limited knowledge of
Microsoft Access, it was considered an appropriate context for the study that measures
learning outcomes.
Data were collected by administering a web‐based survey, which was considered
appropriate since the target respondents were individuals who used IS as a part of their
83
profession. Undergraduate students majoring in business at a large university in the United
States were recruited to participate in the study as an exchange for course credit. Despite
concerns regarding students subjects (Compeau, Marcolin, Kelley, & Higgins, 2012), the
selected sample did not introduce undue bias because research has shown that students used a
number of technologies for both learning and socialization (e.g., Margaryan, Littlejohn, & Vojt,
2011). Thus, using a student sample is relevant in the context of this study because students
interact with technology when they learn about the computer concepts in their core IS courses
(e.g., database management, systems analysis and design, etc.).
In the first stage of the study, participants were instructed to complete a specific
chapter of Microsoft Access as a part of their class assignment. They were instructed to fill out
the questionnaire immediately after they completed their assignment. I worked with the course
instructors to determine the deadline for both the assignment and survey. Participants were
asked to report their thought experiences during their interaction with Microsoft Access. In the
second stage, participants performed three EFs tasks—Stroop task, Color Shape, and N‐Back
task. All three tasks were computerized using Inquisit Web Millisecond Version 4 software
package (see www.millisecond.com for details).
In total, a sample of 326 valid responses was included in the data analysis. Of the 326
respondents, 53 percent were males and over 65 percent were in the 21 to 25 age range. Over
85 percent of the respondents were English native speakers.
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3.7.2 Operationalization of Research Constructs
The measurement items for focus of attention and mind wandering developed in
Chapter 2 were used. Items to measure other principal constructs were adapted from existing
measures (see Appendix B). In particular, items to measure task complexity were adapted from
Seijts, Latham, Tasa, and Latham (2004), Winter and Latham (1996), and Jiang and Punj (2010);
items to measure computer self‐efficacy were adapted from Kanfer, Ackerman, Murtha,
Dugdale, and Nelson (1994) and Thatcher and Perrewe (2002). To develop the items for
software self‐efficacy, the procedures used by Agarwal et al. (2000) were followed. First, a task
associated with Ms. Access was selected on the basis of the key features and functionality of
the software. Finally, students were asked to complete an assignment that required them to
use specific features of the software. These features were included as items for measuring
software self‐efficacy. Learning performance was measured using 10 multiple‐choice questions
designed to assess participants’ understanding of the concepts and features needed to use the
software appropriately (see Appendix C). Self‐regulatory activities measures were adapted from
Kanfer and Ackerman (1989) and Grafill and Compeau (2008). All constructs were measured
reflectively on seven‐point Likert scales.
To measure EFs, the recommendations made by Miyake et al. (2000) were closely
followed. First, I selected three cognitive tasks—N‐Back, Color Shape, and Stroop Task. Stroop
task was used to measure inhibition; color‐shape task was intended to measure shifting
attention or flexibility; and N‐back was used to measure WMC. The order or stimuli within each
task was the same for all participants. All tasks included additional practice trials to ensure that
the participants understood the instructions and that they had mastered the rules for each task
85
(Friedman et al., 2008). The summary of the executive function tasks, including their
references, is presented in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4
Executive Functions Measures
Type of executive Example
Behavior Key Dependent
Description functions often References of
Paradigm Measure5
invoked Review
Stroop task On control trials, rectangle The proportion Inhibition Friedman et al.
shapes are printed in one of four of correct (2008); MacLeod
colors (red, green, blue, or black). responses on (1991); Miyake et
On incongruent trials, the name incongruent al. (2000)
of a word (such as green) is trials.
written in a different color.
On congruent trials, word and ink
color are the same.
Color‐ On pure task trials, only one task The proportion Shifting attention Friedman et al.
shape task (either color or shape judgment) is of correct (2008); Miyake,
performed in a given block of responses on Emerson, Padilla,
trials. mixed trials. and Ahn (2004)
On mixed trials, participants
performed several blocks of
mixed‐task trials (i.e., repeat and
switch trials) in which each trial is
preceded by a cue indicating
which task to perform.
N‐Back Participants are shown a sequence The proportion Updating/working Jaeggi et al.
of visual stimuli and they have to of hits minus memory capacity (2010); Ophir,
respond each time the current false alarms. Nass, and
stimuli is identical to the one Wagner (2009)
presented ‘n’ positions back in the
sequence.
5
Reaction time (RT) differences were also collected in Stroop and color‐shape tasks. Although prior studies have
primarily relied on RT, recent research has emphasized the importance of accuracy measures (Unsworth & Engle,
2008). McElree (2001) suggested that whereas RT provides an index of the accessibility of an item, accuracy
reflects the availability of the item. A further analysis also revealed that the score of N‐Back is highly correlated
with the levels of accuracy of Stroop and color‐shape task (r = .43, p<.001 and r = .31, p<.001, respectively),
whereas it does not correlate with the RT measures. These results suggest that are the unity and diversity of EFs
are better represented using the accuracy measures. Thus, only the proportions of correct trials (after controlling
for RT) were used as the dependent measures of Stroop and color‐shape task.
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Stroop task was adopted from MacLeod (1991) and Miyake et al. (2000). It is intended
to measure inhibition. Three trials were used in this study—control, congruent, and
incongruent trials. On the incongruent trials, a color word was printed in a different color; on
the congruent trials, a color word was printed in the same color; and on the control trials,
rectangle shapes were printed in one of four colors (red, green, blue, or black). Color‐shape task
was adopted from Miyake et al. (2004) and Miyake and Friedman (2012). It is used to measure
users’ switching ability. In the first part, participants performed several blocks of pure‐task trials
in which only one task (either a color or shape task) was performed in a given block of trials. In
the second part, participants performed several blocks of mixed‐task trials in which each trial
was preceded by a cue indicating which task to perform (Miyake et al., 2004). N‐Back task was
adopted from Jaeggie et al. (2010) and used to measure working memory capacity. In this task,
participants were shown a sequence of visual stimuli and they were instructed to respond each
time the current stimulus was identical to the one presented n positions back in the sequence.
The detailed procedures of these tasks are presented in Appendix D.
3.8 Data Analysis and Results
3.8.1 Measurement Model
Before testing the hypothesized structural model, psychometric properties of the items
for all the constructs measured by self‐report questionnaires as well as EFs measures were
evaluated through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). For the EFs measures, the trimming
procedure was first conducted. This procedure helps us control for the RT measures. The upper
and lower criteria were determined on the basis of overall, between‐subjects RT distributions.
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Overall, only 2.2 percent of total observed values were affected by this trimming procedure. For
the Stroop task, only correct trials longer than 200 ms were analyzed. Any extreme values (i.e.,
> 5000 ms) were removed. For the color‐shape task, any extreme RTs (i.e., < 100 ms or > 5000
ms) were excluded from the computation of correct responses (Miyake et al. 2004). The
proportion correct measures of color‐shape and Stroop task were computed and arcsine
transformed to improve normality. This transformation is useful for creating more dispersion in
ceiling and floor effects, while having little influence for accuracy scores in the range .20‐.80
(Miyake et al., 2004). The key dependent measures of Stroop and color‐shape frequency
achieved a satisfactory level of normality after the transformation process.
Overall accuracy levels of Stroop task were high (M = .89, SE = 00), but the count for
control trials (M = .95; SE = .00) was higher than the count for incongruent trials (M = .84, SE =
.01; t322 = 11.63, p<.001). These results suggest that the incongruent trials required suppressing
dominant or automatic responses, leading to higher levels of error, relative to the control trials.
Further, the results suggest that overall accuracy of color‐shape task was high (M = .74, SE =
.01), but the count for repeat trials was slightly more accurate (M = .76, SE = .01) than the count
for switch trials (M = .71, SE = .01; t322 = 3.09, p<.05), suggesting that participants made more
errors on the switch trials.
For N‐Back task, the proportion of hits minus false alarm (i.e., the number of times a
participant identifies a non‐target as a target) averaged over all n‐back levels was computed as
the dependent measure (Jaeggie et al., 2010). The hit‐rates (the number of targets correctly
identified) in the two‐back task (M = .60, SE= .01) was higher than in the three‐back task (M =
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.46; SE= .01) and the four‐back task (M = .41; SE = .01). These results suggest that filtering
irrelevant representations in memory becomes harder as the n‐back level increases.
The measurement model was assessed using the partial least squares (PLS) method to
examine internal consistency, reliability, convergent, and discriminant validity. Internal
consistencies (CR) of .70 or higher are considered adequate (Compeau, Higgins, & Huff, 1999; Yi
& Davis, 2003). The composite reliability (CR) values for all of the constructs are greater than
.70, demonstrating that all constructs have adequate reliability scores. Convergent and
discriminant validity was assessed using two criteria: (1) the standardized item loadings should
be at least .70, and items should load more highly on their intended constructs than on other
constructs (Compeau et al., 1999) and (2) the square root of the average variance extracted
(AVE) should be greater than .50 and should exceed the correlation scores with other
constructs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). The results of CFA, reported in Table 3.5, indicate high
levels of convergent validity. Each factor loading is strong and significant (all p values < .01). The
only exception is Stroop task, with the factor loading score of .58. I decided to retain this
dimension for two reasons. First, it is a crucial part of EFs. Removing this dimension could lead
to an erroneous conclusion about the findings. Second, the standardized factor loading of
Stroop task reported in the previous studies (e.g., Miyake & Friedman, 2012; Miyake et al.,
2000) was relatively low (ranging from .46‐.50) and this low score can be explained by the
unity/diversity framework of EFs—each EFs dimension shares a common variance while at the
same time, has a unique variance by itself (Miyake & Friedman, 2012).
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Table 3.5
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (PLS Results)
Factor
Constructs/Items Mean SD
Loading
Mind Wandering (non‐IT) (CR; AVE) (.95; .68)
1. I thought about members of my family. 3.66 1.63 .81
2. I thought about friends. 3.72 1.65 .84
3. I thought about something that made me feel guilty. 2.91 1.75 .77
4. I thought about personal worries. 3.72 1.72 .82
5. I thought about something that made me feel angry. 2.98 1.74 .86
6. I thought about something that happened earlier today. 3.73 1.71 .84
7. I thought about something that happened in the recent past (last few days, 3.67 1.71 .86
but not today).
8. I thought about something that happened in the distant past. 3.15 1.74 .86
9. I thought about something that might happen in the future. 3.85 1.76 .78
Mind Wandering (IT) (CR; AVE) (.94; .77)
1. I thought about checking my email. 3.70 1.78 .83
2. I thought about checking my social media (e.g., Facebook). 3.87 1.87 .91
3. I thought about browsing other stuff. 4.02 1.77 .93
4. I thought about checking my phone. 4.46 1.73 .82
5. I thought about doing other online activities (e.g., online shopping, online 3.80 1.95 .89
game).
Focus of Attention (IT) (CR; AVE) (.95; .72)
1. I focused on how to use MS. Access to complete my task. 4.88 1.49 .87
2. I paid attention on different features of MS. Access to complete my task. 4.88 1.42 .89
3. I focused my attention on different options provided by MS. Access to 4.74 1.45 .88
format my task.
4. I focused my attention on learning specific MS. Access functions. 4.82 1.45 .89
5. I paid close attention to the kind of errors I was making when I was using 4.92 1.41 .84
MS. Access.
6. I focused my total attention on making sure my computer outputs were 5.14 1.40 .81
correct.
7. I focused my total attention on following the MS Access’s instructions 5.40 1.42 .71
correctly.
Focus of Attention (non‐IT) (CR; AVE) (.90; .70)
1. I focused my total attention on how I could solve the problem. 4.48 1.63 .74
2. I thought about strategies for solving the problem. 4.60 1.52 .89
3. I thought ahead to what I would do next to solve the problem. 4.66 1.50 .91
4. I focused my attention on correctly performing as many steps as I could. 4.58 1.67 .79
(table continues)
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Table 3.5 (continued)
Factor
Constructs/Items Mean SD
Loading
Perceived Task Complexity (CR; AVE) (.89; .72)
1. This task required me to coordinate many different things at the same 4.37 1.45 .82
time.
2. This task required a lot of my effort. 4.54 1.49 .89
3. On scale 1 (extremely easy) to 7 (extremely difficult), how difficult was this 4.07 1.46 .84
task?
Executive Functions (EFs) (.79; .55)
1. N‐Back task ‐0.93 2.08 .83
2. Color‐shape task 0.87 0.15 .79
3. Stroop task 0.83 0.19 .58
Software Self‐Efficacy (.97; .92)
1. After I did my assignment, I believe I have the ability to export data from 5.40 1.24 .96
MS. Access to Ms. Word format.
2. …I believe I have the ability to export data from MS. Access to MS. Excel 5.43 1.19 .96
format
3. …I believe I have the ability to export data from MS. Access to PDF format. 5.38 1.25 .95
4. …I believe I have the ability to export data from MS. Access to another 5.41 1.19 .94
database.
Self‐regulation (the composite score of each dimension was reported) (.84; .64)
1. Self‐monitoring 3.97 1.36 .88
2. Performance evaluation 3.41 1.65 .73
3. Self‐reaction 3.89 1.35 .78
General Computer Self‐Efficacy (.90; .76)
1. I was able to use MS. Access if there was no one around me to tell me what 4.70 1.34 .89
to do.
2. I was able to use MS. Access if I had never used a package like it before. 4.07 1.55 .78
3. I was able to use MS. Access if I had only the software manuals for 4.68 1.36 .93
references.
1. Survey Instructions: The following statements concern the kinds of thoughts that go through people’s heads at
particular times. For example, while they are working on a task or assignment, they could think about something else,
unrelated to their primary task. The following is a list of thoughts, some of which you might have had while doing your
MS. Access assignment (CHAPTER 8). Please indicate approximately how often each thought occurred to you when you
did your assignment.
2. Scale to measure the thought content: 1 (never) – 7 (every Time); other measures: 1 (strongly disagree) – 7 (strongly
agree)
3. CR = Composite Reliability; AVE = Average Variance Extracted
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Table 3.6
Correlation Matrix
Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. General CSE 4.48 1.25 .87
2. Self‐Regulation 3.75 1.16 .33** .80
3. P. Complexity 4.51 1.12 .13* .31** .85
4. EFsƗ 0.00 0.75 ‐.12* ‐.24** ‐.07 .75
5. Mind Wandering (Non‐IT) 3.49 1.42 .03 .29** .25** ‐.22** .82
6. Mind Wandering (IT) 3.97 1.60 .07 .17** .17** ‐.20** .64** .88
7. Focus (IT) 4.97 1.21 .28** .42** .20** .15** ‐.20** ‐.16** .85
8. Focus (Non‐IT) 4.58 1.32 .29** .60** .19** ‐.19** .07 .08 .46** .84
9. Software‐Specific SE 5.41 1.22 .23** .02 .06 .23** ‐.24** ‐.16** .43** .01 .96
10. Task Performance 0.70 0.17 .03 ‐.18** .01 .28** ‐.19** ‐.09 .12* ‐.10 .24** 1.00
Notes: ** denotes significant correlations at the p < .01 level and * at p < .05 level.
The diagonal elements (in bold) represent the square root of AVE.
Ɨ
z‐score composite was used.
The average variance extracted (AVE) value for all constructs is well above Fornell and
Larcker’s (1981) suggested cutoff of .50. The means, standard deviations, reliabilities, AVE
values, and factor loadings are reported in Table 3.5. The square root of the AVE for each
construct in the model is larger than the corresponding off‐diagonal correlations of the
constructs to their latent variables (Table 3.6). The correlations among all constructs are all well
below the .90 threshold, suggesting that all constructs are distinct from each other. These
results provide substantial evidence for the convergence/discriminant validity of the items and
overall measurement model.
Common method bias can be a potential threat to the study if the independent and
dependent variables are obtained from the same sources (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, &
Podsakoff, 2003). In order to determine whether common method bias was a concern, I
performed several different tests. First, Harman’s single‐factor test was performed by including
all items in a principal components factor analysis (Podsakoff et al., 2003). A single factor only
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explained 28 percent of the variance, indicating no evidence of common method bias. Second,
a partial correlation method was used (Podsakoff et al., 2003; Pavlou, Liang, & Xue, 2007). The
highest factor from a principal component analysis was added into the PLS model as a control
factor on all dependent factors. This factor did not significantly increase the variance explained
in any of the dependent variables, suggesting common method bias is not a major issue. Next, I
performed a marker variable technique suggested by Lindell and Whitney (2001). An unrelated
construct (i.e., response bias) was measured in the survey. High correlations among any of the
items used in the study and response bias will indicate common method bias. The average
correlations between response bias and principal constructs was .07, suggesting lack of
evidence of common method bias. Finally, EFs and the study’s dependent variables (i.e.,
software self‐efficacy and learning performance) were measured independently. All of these
tests confirm that common method bias is not a major concern in this study.
3.8.2 Structural Model
Both regression analysis using SPSS and structural equation modeling using the PLS
method were utilized to test the hypothesized paths in the model (Figure 3.2). PLS uses a
component‐based approach to estimation (Chin, 1998) and thus, it places minimal demands on
sample size and residual distributions (Chin, 1998; Fornell & Bookstein, 1982; Hair, Ringle, &
Sarstedt, 2011). Paths are interpreted as standardized beta weights in a regression analysis.
Although the results are not identical, both statistical packages (i.e., PLS and SPSS) yield very
similar results. It is the author’s preference to report the standardized regression coefficients
from SPSS. Given the dependent measures of EFs vary depending on the task paradigms, z‐
93
score composite of the three EFs tasks after the arcsine transformation was used in the
regression analysis (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2013). Although some scholars estimated the
effect of each dimension of EFs on the outcome variables, it is also suggested that each EFs
dimension can be decomposed into one multidimensional construct consisting of three
dimensions (i.e., common EFs). The path coefficients and explained variances for the model are
shown in Figure 3.3. For clarity of presentation, only significant relationships are shown in
Figure 3.3.
Variables involved in interactions were mean‐centered for an easy interpretation and
reducing multicollinearity issues. In order to formally test for collinearity’s presence, I
calculated the variable inflation factor (VIF) for focal constructs in the model. According to
Tabachnik and Fidell (1996), the VIF greater than 10 indicates the existence of multicollinearity.
Because the VIF’s did not exceed 3.00, the analysis indicates that collinearity did not bias the
results.
Figure 3.3. Structural Model
94
As hypothesized, EFs had a negative effect on both mind wandering (IT) and mind
wandering (non‐IT), validating H1a and H1b. EFs had a significant effect on focus of attention
(IT), but did not have a significant effect on focus of attention (non‐IT). Thus, H2a was
supported, whereas H2b was not supported. Contrary to my hypothesis, perceived task
complexity had a positive effect on mind wandering, failing to support H3. In addition,
perceived task complexity had no significant effect on focus of attention. Thus, H4a and H4b
were not supported. Next, whereas focus of attention (IT) had a positive effect on software self‐
efficacy, focus of attention (non‐IT) had a negative effect on software self‐efficacy, supporting
H5a and H5b. The results also reveal that mind wandering (non‐IT) had a negative effect on
software self‐efficacy, whereas the effect of mind wandering (IT) was not significant, validating
H6. Three of four two‐way interaction effects between mind wandering and focus of attention
were also significant, validating the moderating role of mind wandering on the relationship
between focus of attention and software self‐efficacy.
To test for the moderating effect, Cohen’s f2, which compares the R2 value of the
interaction effect with the main effect, was performed using the following equation (Chin,
Marcolin, & Newsted, 2003).
Cohen’s f2 = R2 (interaction mode) – R2 (main effects model) / [1 ‐ R2 (main effects
model)]
Controlling for the covariates, the variance explained on software self‐efficacy was 30
percent with two‐way interaction, 32 percent with three‐way interaction, whereas only 27
percent with only the main effects (see Table 3.7). Cohen’s f2 for the two‐way interaction model
was .04 and .07 for the three‐way interaction model, suggesting the three‐way interaction
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model is a better model representation than the two‐way interaction model. Although Cohen
(1988) suggested that f2 effect size of .03 to .10 is termed small, Kenny (2015) proposed that a
more realistic standard for effect sizes should be .005, .01, and .025 for small, medium, and
large respectively. Using Kenny’s standard for effect size, the effect size of .07 in this study is
considered large.
Table 3.7
The Effect of Mind Wandering and Focus of Attention on the Dependent Variables
DV = Software‐Specific Self‐Efficacy DV = Task Performance
IVs M1 M2 M3 M4 M1 M2
R2 .07 .27 .30 .32 .02 .16
2
(ΔR ) ‐ (.20***) (.03*) (.02*) ‐ (.14***)
Control Variables
Gender Ns Ns Ns Ns .14** .14**
Age .12* Ns Ns Ns Ns Ns
General Self‐Efficacy .23*** .17*** .17*** .18*** Ns
Independent Variables
Executive Functions .19***
Software Self‐Efficacy .15**
Mind Wandering (MW)
Technology‐related (IT) Ns Ns Ns Ns
Nontechnology‐related (Non‐IT) ‐.15** ‐.16* ‐.18** ‐.16*
Focus of Attention (FA)
Technology‐related (IT) .46*** .44*** .51*** Ns
Nontechnology‐related (Non‐IT) ‐.23*** ‐.21** ‐.27** Ns
Two‐way Interaction
FA (IT) x MW (IT) .20** .16*
FA (NonIT) x MW (IT) Ns Ns
FA (IT) x MW (NonIT) ‐.22** ‐.23**
FA (NonIT) x MW (NonIT) .19** .22**
Three‐way Interaction
FA (IT) x MW (IT) x MW (Non‐IT) ‐.18*
FA (Non‐IT) x MW (IT) x MW .18*
(Non‐IT)
Notes: ***p<.001; **p<.01; *p<.05; Ns = Not Significant.
I plot the moderating effects in Figure 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7. As shown in Figure 3.4, the
slopes for low mind wandering (IT) and high mind wandering (IT) were positive and significant
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(b = 0.28, p<.001; b = 0.63, p<.001 respectively). However, as expected, at high levels of mind
wandering (IT), software self‐efficacy increased rapidly as focus of attention (IT) increased.
Thus, H7a was supported. As shown in Figure 3.5, at low levels of mind wandering (non‐IT),
software self‐efficacy increased significantly as focus of attention (IT) increased (b = 0.66,
p<.001). However, at high levels of mind wandering (non‐IT), software self‐efficacy increased
marginally as focus of attention (IT) increased (b = 0.24, p<.001), validating H7b. Further, as
shown in Figure 3.6, the negative effect of focus of attention (non‐IT) on software self‐efficacy
was stronger at low levels of mind wandering (non‐IT) (b = ‐0.35, p<.001) than at high levels of
mind wandering (non‐IT) (b = ‐0.05, p = .43), supporting H7c. As shown in Figure 3.7, the
moderating effect of mind wandering (IT) on the relationship between focus of attention (non‐
IT) and software self‐efficacy was not significant (the slope difference between high and low
mind wandering was not statistically significant). Thus, H7d was not supported.
Figure 3.4. The Moderating Effect of Mind Wandering (IT) on the Relationship between Focus of
Attention (IT) and Software Self‐Efficacy
97
Figure 3.5. The Moderating Effect of Mind Wandering (Non‐IT) on the Relationship between
Focus of Attention (IT) and Software Self‐Efficacy
Figure 3.6. The Moderating Effect of Mind Wandering (Non‐IT) on the Relationship between
Focus of Attention (Non‐IT) and Software Self‐Efficacy
98
Figure 3.7. The Moderating Effect of Mind Wandering (IT) on the Relationship between Focus of
Attention (Non‐IT) and Software Self‐Efficacy
Hypothesis 7e suggested that the positive effect of focus of attention (IT) on software
self‐efficacy was higher when users experienced high mind wandering (IT) and low mind
wandering (non‐IT). In regression, the three‐way interaction term of mind wandering (IT), mind
wandering (non‐IT), and focus of attention (IT) was negative and significant (b = ‐0.18, p<.05).
The interaction effect was plotted in Figure 3.8; the results confirmed my hypothesis. When
mind wandering (IT) was high and mind wandering (non‐IT) was low, the effect of focus of
attention (IT) on software self‐efficacy was higher than when mind wandering (IT) and mind
wandering (non‐IT) were low. Thus, H7e was supported. Next, I plot the interaction effect of
mind wandering (IT), mind wandering (non‐IT), and focus of attention (non‐IT) on software self‐
efficacy. Hypothesis 7f proposes that the negative effect of focus of attention (non‐IT) on
software self‐efficacy is stronger when users experience high mind wandering (non‐IT) and low
mind wandering (IT). As shown in Figure 3.9, the slope for high mind wandering (IT) and low
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mind wandering (non‐IT) was negative and significant (b = ‐0.67; p<.001). The coefficient for low
mind wandering (IT)‐low mind wandering (non‐IT) was also significant (b = ‐0.17, p<.05).
However the interaction effect was not significant for low mind wandering (IT)‐high mind
wandering (non‐IT) and for high mind wandering (IT)‐high mind wandering (non‐IT) conditions.
Figure 3.8. The Moderating Effect of Mind Wandering (IT) and Mind Wandering (Non‐IT) on the
Relationship between Focus of Attention (IT) and Software Self‐Efficacy
Figure 3.9. The Moderating Effect of Mind Wandering (IT) and Mind Wandering (Non‐IT) on the
Relationship between Focus of Attention (Non‐IT) and Software Self‐Efficacy
100
In terms of the determinants of learning performance, both focus of attention (IT) and
focus of attention (non‐IT) had not significant effect on learning performance. Thus, H8 was not
supported. Mind wandering (non‐IT) had a negative and significant effect on learning
performance, whereas the effect of mind wandering (IT) was not significant, validating H9. As
expected, both software self‐efficacy and EFs had positive and significant effects on learning
performance. Thus, H10 and H11 were supported. The summary of all hypotheses tested in this
study is presented in Table 3.8.
Table 3.8
Hypotheses Summary
Hypothesis Supported?
H1a EFs are negatively associated with mind wandering (IT). Yes
H1b EFs are negatively associated with mind wandering (Non‐IT). Yes
H2a EFs are positively associated with focus of attention (IT). Yes
H2b EFs are positively associated with focus of attention (Non‐IT). No
H3a Perceived task complexity is negatively associated with mind wandering (IT). No (opposite
direction)
H3b Perceived task complexity is negatively associated with mind wandering (Non‐ No (opposite
IT). direction)
H4a Perceived task complexity is positively associated with focus of attention (IT). No
H4b Perceived task complexity is positively associated with focus of attention (Non‐ No
IT).
H5a Focus of attention (IT) is positively associated with software self‐efficacy. Yes
H5b Focus of attention (non‐IT) is negatively associated with software self‐efficacy. Yes
H6 The negative association between mind wandering (non‐IT) and software self‐ Yes
efficacy is stronger than between mind wandering (IT) and software self‐
efficacy.
H7a The positive effect of focus of attention (IT) on software‐specific self‐efficacy is Yes
higher when users experience high mind wandering (IT) than when they
experience low mind wandering (IT).
H7b The positive effect of focus of attention (IT) on software self‐efficacy is higher Yes
when users experience low mind wandering (non‐IT) than when they
experience high mind wandering (non‐IT).
(table continues)
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Table 3.8 (continued)
Hypothesis Supported?
H7c The negative effect of focus of attention (non‐IT) on software self‐efficacy is Yes
stronger when users experience low mind wandering (non‐IT) than when they
experience high mind wandering (non‐IT).
H7d The negative effect of focus of attention (non‐IT) on software self‐efficacy is No
stronger when user experience high mind wandering (IT) than when they
experience low mind wandering (IT).
H7e The positive effect of focus of attention (IT) on software self‐efficacy is higher when Yes
users experience high mind wandering (IT) and low mind wandering (non‐IT).
H7f The negative effect of focus of attention (non‐IT) on software self‐efficacy is higher Yes
when users experience high mind wandering (IT) and low mind wandering (non‐IT).
H8 The positive effect of focus of attention (IT) on learning performance is higher than No
focus of attention (non‐IT).
H9 The negative effect of mind wandering (non‐IT) on IS learning performance is higher Yes
than the negative effect of mind wandering (IT) on IS learning performance.
H10 Software self‐efficacy is positively associated with task performance. Yes
H11 EFs are positively associated with learning performance. Yes
3.8.3 Post Hoc Analysis: Moderated Mediation Model
Edward and Lambert (2007) recommend against a simple mediation or moderation
approach when both effects are considered in the same research model. Since software self‐
efficacy is influenced by focus of attention, mind wandering, and their interactions, software
self‐efficacy potentially mediates the relationship between focus of attention, mind wandering,
and learning performance. Thus, although the direct effect of focus of attention (IT) and focus
of attention (non‐IT) were not significant, a formal test of moderated mediation based on the
quantification of the relationship between the proposed moderators and the size of the indirect
effect is required to determine whether the indirect effect depends on the moderators (Hayes,
2013).
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In order to test the indirect effect of focus of attention mediated by software self‐
efficacy on learning performance, I ran a conditional process model using PROCESS (Hayes,
2013). The indirect effects of focus of attention at different levels of mind wandering are
presented in Table 3.9 and 3.10. As shown in Table 3.9, the indirect effect of focus of attention
(IT) on learning performance was significant at almost all levels of mind wandering. When mind
wandering (non‐IT) was high and mind wandering (IT) was low, however, the indirect effect was
not significant. As shown in Table 3.10, the indirect effect of focus of attention (non‐IT) on
learning performance was only significant when mind wandering (non‐IT) was low.
Table 3.9
Direct and Indirect Effect of Focus of Attention (IT) Mediated by SSE on Learning Performance
Table 3.10
Direct and Indirect Effect of Focus of Attention (Non‐IT) Mediated by SSE on Learning
Performance
MW (Non‐IT) MW (IT) Direct Effect 95% CI Indirect Effect 95% CI Sig?
High High ‐.08 ‐.20,.04 ‐.02 ‐.07, .02 N
High Low ‐.08 ‐.20,.04 .02 ‐.03, .08 N
Low High ‐.08 ‐.20,.04 ‐.08 ‐.15, ‐.03 Y
Low Low ‐.08 ‐.20,.04 ‐.04 ‐.09, ‐.01 Y
Note: Number of bootstrap samples for bias corrected confidence intervals is 5000.
3.9 Discussion
This study sought to address three research questions: (1) What are the factors that
influence users’ mind wandering activities and focus of attention (at the early stage of IS
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learning phase)?; (2) How do mind wandering and focus of attention interact with each other to
influence technology learners’ cognitive learning outcomes?; and (3) Do mind wandering, focus
of attention, and software self‐efficacy influence IS learning performance? To address these
research questions, I draw upon executive‐control failure theory of mind wandering to develop
a research framework that explains the relationship between the antecedents of mind
wandering and focus of attention and their cognitive outcomes in the IS learning context.
Results show that EFs are the main determinant of both focus of attention and mind
wandering. The interaction effects between mind wandering and focus of attention are
dependent on the content of users’ thought. Specifically, the findings indicate that (1) the
positive effect of focus of attention (IT) on software self‐efficacy is higher at high levels of mind
wandering (IT); (2) the positive effect of focus of attention (IT) on software self‐efficacy is
higher at low levels of mind wandering (non‐IT); and (3) the negative effect of focus of attention
(non‐IT) on software self‐efficacy is stronger at low levels of mind wandering (non‐IT). I found
that mind wandering (non‐IT) had a negative and significant effect on learning performance,
whereas EFs and software self‐efficacy had a positive and significant effect on IS learning
performance.
3.9.1 Theoretical Implications
This work offers several theoretical contributions. First, I present a research framework
that integrates mind wandering theory with IS learning outcomes. The scope of this study is the
early phase of learning that has been suggested to be the most critical phase of technology
adoption (Yi & Davis, 2003; Yi & Hwang, 2003). Although prior research has investigated the
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negative effect of distraction on task performance, there has been limited understanding of the
influence of internal distraction (i.e., mind wandering) on learning outcomes. The findings
reveal that mind wandering and focus of attention are the main predictors of software self‐
efficacy. These findings not only offer insights on the difference between mind wandering and
focus of attention, but also shed light on the determinants and outcomes of both attentional
states. Thus, by identifying and conceptualizing the relationships between EFs, mind wandering,
focus of attention, and IS learning outcomes, this work complements the previous studies (e.g.,
Nelson & Cheney, 1987; Sun, 2012; Piccoli, Ahmad, & Ives, 2001; Yi & Davis, 2003; Yi & Huang,
2003) that had studied the processes and outcomes of IS learning and/or training. Further, this
work is a response to Smallwood et al.’s (2007) and Smallwood and Schooler’s (2015) call for a
study on the functional benefits of mind wandering, especially in a learning context. Although
previous studies (e.g., Allen et al., 2013; Hollis & Was, 2014; Oettingen & Schworer, 2013),
including my study, had revealed some potential costs and benefits of mind wandering, there is
still a need for extensively investigating the impacts of different contents of mind wandering on
technology use outcomes. Such a study will be important in increasing our understanding on
the role and functions of mind wandering in a technological environment.
Second, by testing and validating the influence of EFs on mind wandering and focus of
attention, this study aims to bring the importance of attentional process mechanisms to the
forefront of cognitive‐IS research. By identifying the key antecedent sources of mind wandering
and focus of attention, it aims to not only test the theory of mind wandering (i.e., executive
control failure theory), but also to guide future research on how to approach and apply a novel
issue to IS research. One surprising finding I found in this current study is that the results show
105
perceived task complexity is positively associated with mind wandering. Although previous
studies (e.g., McVay & Kane, 2009; 2010; Smallwood & Schooler, 2006) argued that task
complexity is negatively associated with mind wandering, it is possible that in an actual learning
environment, learners look for heuristics to reduce task demands (Payne, Bettman, & Johnson,
1993). Thus, when the complexity is high, learners tend to minimize their cognitive effort by
letting their mind to wander. Mind wandering has been shown to be useful in dealing with
complex tasks by providing mental breaks (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015). Thus, it is likely that
perceived task complexity increases the episodes of mind wandering by providing a break time
to relieve the tension of cognitive demands.
Third, this work extends research in mind wandering by offering determinants of
software self‐efficacy and learning performance. This work is the first study revealing the
interaction effects of different contents of thought. Although previous studies have emphasized
the importance of maintaining balance between focus of attention and mind wandering (e.g.,
Allen et al., 2013; Dijksterhuis & Aarts, 2010), there has been limited research, if any, that
identified the interaction effects of the relationship between focus of attention and mind
wandering. The current findings suggest that the costs and benefits of mind wandering depend,
in part, upon its content. These findings also confirm the content regulation hypothesis of mind
wandering (Andrews‐Hanna et al., 2013) and diversion thought paradigm (Delaney et al., 2010).
Specifically, the results reveal that the congruence between the content of mind wandering and
focus of attention determines the outcomes of the interaction between these two constructs.
These findings offer important insights on how technology learners and/or users regulate their
106
content of thoughts. These findings also contribute to the technology design literature by
highlighting the important aspects of mind wandering processes.
Fourth, I found that whereas mind wandering (non‐IT) has a negative and significant
effect on learning performance, mind wandering (non‐IT), focus of attention (IT), and focus of
attention (non‐IT) do not have significant effects on learning performance. The absence of
significant effects of focus of attention on learning performance was surprising in light of the
importance of this variable in learning (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989). It is possible that its effect is
attenuated by EFs and software self‐efficacy. This argument is also supported by the significant
indirect effect of focus of attention on learning performance, mediated by software self‐
efficacy. The significant effect of EFs on learning performance suggests that at the early stage of
technology learning, users who have higher EFs most often perform better than users with
lower EFs (Diamond, 2013). Learning at this stage is a conscious experience (i.e., top‐down
control) and consumes executive resources. If users fail to regulate their thought, then their
learning performance will decrease (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989; Smallwood et al., 2007a). Thus,
early in learning, mind wandering can disrupt EFs functions, leading to performance impairment
(Smallwood et al., 2007a).
3.9.2 Limitations and Future Work
The findings of this current study should be interpreted in light of the limitations of this
work. First, data were drawn from undergraduate students. Although this sample is relevant to
the context of my study, future research can take this investigation further by drawing research
subjects from a more diverse population, such as IT practitioners and knowledge workers.
107
Second, this study exclusively focuses on two dimensions of mind wandering—technology‐
related (i.e., IT) and nontechnology‐related (i.e., non‐IT). Future research should empirically
measure different contents of thought in more details. Further, I only tested the moderating
effect of mind wandering. Future research can investigate the effect of other potential
moderators, such as self‐regulatory activities (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989), working memory
capacity (Kane et al., 2007), and task complexity (Randall et al., 2014). Fourth, although the
validity of subjective self‐reports of mind wandering has been demonstrated in both
experimental studies and everyday life experiences (e.g., McVay et al., 2009; Smallwood et al.,
2004), our understanding about mind wandering during users’ interaction with technology can
be enhanced by utilizing more advanced neuropsychological tools (e.g., fMRI, eye‐tracking
devices). Further, the context of this study is limited to a novel task among students (i.e., MS.
Access learning). Future research should investigate the phenomenon of mind wandering under
different types of tasks (e.g., simple tasks, problem tasks, decision tasks, and judgment tasks).
3.9.3 Practical Contributions
The results of this study offer important practical implications for technology users and
IS practitioners. My findings provide evidence of the significant moderating effect of mind
wandering on software self‐efficacy. However, these interaction effects are depending on the
thought content of mind wandering, whether it’s technology‐related or nontechnology‐related.
Software self‐efficacy has been considered one of the most important factors in the technology
learning and adoption literature (e.g., Agarwal et al., 2000; Compeau & Higgins, 1995; Marakas
et al., 1998). The application of mind wandering, however, has not been introduced in the IS
108
field. The results of this study demonstrate that the costs and benefits of mind wandering
depend, in part, on the content of such experience. Maintaining the congruency between the
content of mind wandering and focus of attention contributes to the learning outcomes. In
addition, mind wandering will only contribute to software self‐efficacy under the condition that
the task‐relevant cues have been primarily activated. Applying these findings could, for
example, motivate people to be aware of their mind wandering when they learn a new
technology or application.
Further, given that we spend a lot of time engaging in mind wandering, I suggest
business and IT managers to explore the beneficial aspects of this experience. When users learn
how to use a system, mind wandering can be a major detriment to cognitive performance.
However, mind wandering can also enhance software self‐efficacy with the presence of focus of
attention. Drawing upon these results, I propose two practical challenges for technology users:
how to optimally balancing mind wandering and focus of attention and how to noticing and
correcting mind wandering when it occurs. These can be done by recognizing the content of our
attention and determining whether a particular content is inconsistent with the intention of
completing the task (Smallwood et al., 2008). These results can also be applied in the health,
education, sport, and other domains, across all ages and cultures. Further, I also encourage
technology users to engage in mind wandering activities when they work on relatively complex
tasks. It can be achieved by simplifying or automatizing the tasks, while simultaneously
providing time for breaks (Randall et al., 2014).
Given mind wandering can also be disruptive in nature, it is necessary to identify
strategies that can be used to minimize its negative consequences. For example, business and
109
technology managers can encourage individuals to be mindful of their thought contents
(Smallwood & Schooler, 2015). Meta‐awareness trainings may help individuals to curtail
episodes of mind wandering. Offering mindfulness programs to IT or knowledge workers may
encourage them to routinely take notice of the content of their thoughts and only focus on
subject matters relevant to their current task context. Although more research is needed in this
area, encouraging people to be aware of their own mind wandering experience may help to
minimize its disruptive effects (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015).
3.10 Conclusions
This current study extends our understanding on the role of mind wandering in a
technological setting. To the best of my knowledge, this study is the first to demonstrate the
interaction effects between mind wandering and focus of attention on software self‐efficacy. I
specifically focus on the content of thought during mind wandering by differentiating the
thought into two categories: IT and non‐IT. My findings suggest that the congruence between
the content of mind wandering and focus of attention determines the costs and benefits of
such experiences. The findings also demonstrate that EFs, mind wandering (IT), and software
self‐efficacy are the main predictors of IS learning performance. In sum, this study advances our
understanding on the mind wandering, particularly in the context of our interaction with IS.
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CHAPTER 4
MIND WANDERING AND IS DECISION MAKING PERFORMANCE6
4.1 Introduction
Studies have suggested that the excessive volume of information and frequent
interruptions of work can significantly degrade not only personal well‐being but also decision
making, innovation, and productivity (Hemp, 2009). Given that distractions caused by
technologies are inevitable, information systems (IS) researchers have investigated how
distractions may decrease users’ task performance (Dabbish & Kraut, 2008). However, until
recently, studies on technology related distractions were restricted to those caused by external
stimuli. In daily life, our task attention may be distracted not only by external stimuli, but also
by internally generated stimuli, known as mind wandering (Forster, 2013). Yet, our
understanding on how mind wandering may influence our performance when we use
technology is limited.
Further, while researchers in the areas of IS and human‐computer interaction (HCI) have
highlighted the negative effect of interruptions (e.g., Speier, Vessey, & Valacich, 2003), none of
the existing studies investigated individual variability in mind wandering and focus of attention.
In fact, the reference discipline has acknowledged that a core aspect of human cognition
involves “overcoming the constraints of the present environment by mentally simulating
another time, place, and perspective” (Andrews‐Hanna et al., 2013, p. 1). Although the early
6
Parts of this chapter are reproduced from Wati [Sullivan], Y., Koh, C., & Davis, F. D. (2014). Can you increase your
performance in a technology‐driven society full of distraction?. Poster presented at the 35th International
Conference on Information Systems, Auckland, NZ, December 14‐17.
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mind wandering literature generally suggests that mind wandering is negatively associated with
task performance (e.g., Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010; McVay & Kane, 2010; Moberly & Watkins,
2008; Smallwood & Schooler, 2006), recent research from the unconscious thought theory
(UTT) perspective has shown that mind wandering facilitates future planning and productivity—
two important components for working effectively (Davis, 2015; Ruby, Smallwood, Engen, &
Singer, 2013; Smallwood & Schooler, 2015). As digital technology has become more ubiquitous
in many people’s daily routines (Ophir, Nass, & Wagner, 2009), an effort to understand the role
of individuals’ focus of attention and mind wandering in this highly connected environment is
important. This current study recognizes the importance of individual cognitive differences in
influencing behavioral performances in users. Therefore, drawing on UTT, this research seeks to
understand the effect of individuals’ focus of attention and mind wandering on task
performance within the context of IS decision making (i.e., B2C e‐commerce). Two research
questions are addressed: (1) How do the different levels of IS task complexity influence the
relationships between focus of attention and IS decision making performance? and (2) How do
the different levels of IS task complexity influence the relationships between mind wandering
and IS decision making performance?
The main goal of the current study is to contribute to the cognitive IS literature by
examining the effect of individuals’ focus of attention and mind wandering in influencing IS
decision making performance at different levels of task complexity. To achieve the objective of
this research, a laboratory experiment was conducted. During the experiment, subjects were
instructed to do an online shopping task and at the end of the experiment, they were asked to
complete self‐report measures of focus of attention and mind wandering. This work makes
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several contributions. First, through studying mind wandering and its consequences in IS
research, this work sheds light on the important function of internal distraction for technology
users by explicitly acknowledging the role of mind wandering in complex decision making
environments. Second, this study enhances the findings of study 1 and study 2 discussed in
Chapter 2 and 3, respectively, by showing that distraction can come not only from external
environments (voluntary attraction), but also from users’ own thoughts (involuntary attraction).
Third, this study applies UTT principles and their association with mind wandering to study
performance variability among technology users. This study also contributes to the literature by
empirically testing the role of task complexity in influencing the effect of focus of attention and
mind wandering on both performance efficiency and effectiveness in a technological context.
4.2 Executive Control Theory of Mind Wandering
Drawing on executive functions (EFs) theory, Smallwood and Schooler (2006) proposed
that mind wandering is a mental activity that requires the (limited) resources typically used for
cognitive control—functions required for maintaining and monitoring goals in the face of
distraction and interference and for suppressing distracting events (Engle & Kane, 2004; Engle,
Tuholski, Laughlin, & Conway, 1999; Kane et al., 2007). Despite the spontaneous and lack of
deliberate intent characteristics of mind wandering, the executive control perspective indicates
that mind wandering shares certain similarities with the mechanisms of executive control
(Smallwood & Schooler, 2006). Specifically, Smallwood and Schooler (2006) argued that
“…it is likely that executive control is not involved in the initiation of mind wandering
episodes. Rather, the activation of goal‐relevant information may occur automatically through a
process that does not require conscious intention. The absence of explicit and deliberate intent
associated with mind wandering may be enabled by the simple fact that we often lack explicit
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awareness of the current contents of our own experience…Thus, mind wandering may entail
situations in which individuals temporarily fail to notice that their immediate goal of task
completion has been temporarily displaced by another concern.” (p. 946).
If mind wandering is associated with controlled processing, then tasks that rely on the same
resources should suppress mind wandering. In other words, if the primary task requires
individuals to maintain task‐relevant information, then few resources will be available to
coordinate mind wandering.
Because both the primary task and mind wandering require cognitive resources, this
theory predicts that mind wandering varies as a function of task complexity—it should be less
likely to occur when the primary task is complex and more likely to occur when the task is
simple (Smallwood & Schooler, 2006). When the processing demands are high, mind wandering
should be associated with low performance because it involves a shift of attention away from
the outside world. This shift of attention from the primary task to one’s personal goals suggests
that “mind wandering is a state when information processing is decoupled from the primary
task” (Smallwood & Schooler, 2006, p. 947). There are two possible consequences of this
perceptual decoupling. First, it is associated with a reorganization of cognition to focus on
internal goals rather than external environments. Second, it is associated with reduced
attention to the external environments. Consequently, under high levels of task complexity,
mind wandering should be associated with poor performance because fewer resources are
available to complete the primary task. However, when the task is simple, the effect of mind
wandering on task performance is not harmful. It is because resources are simultaneously
available for mind wandering and monitoring of the primary task (Smallwood & Schooler,
2006).
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4.3 Unconscious Thought Theory
Decision making research has long been studied in the IS field to explain how technology
users make decisions in a digital environment (e.g., Agarwal & Singh, 2013; Armbruster &
Delage, 2015; Barkhi, 2001; Biros, George, & Zmud, 2002; Dennis, 1996; Dennis & Carte, 1998).
Despite the fact that IS research in decision making has progressed, it has been argued that
most of the existing research is conducted under the assumption of a rational choice
perspective (Frisk, Lindgren, & Mathiassen, 2014; Ortiz de Guinea & Markus, 2009). According
to this perspective, “conscious, deliberate, goal‐directed thought processes” is the best way to
make a decision (Christoff, Gordon, & Smith,2011; Tan, Yi, & Chan 2015). However, with the
excessive amount of information generated by technology, it is impossible for users to take into
account all alternatives needed to make an optimal decision (Hong, Thong, & Tam, 2004). It is
possible that users can engage in unconscious thought (i.e., cognitive or affective task‐relevant
processes that take place outside individuals’ conscious awareness) and that conscious
deliberation is not necessary to arrive at the ideal decision (Dijksterhuis & Aarts, 2010; Ortiz de
Guinea & Markus, 2009).
According to UTT, a simple task can be better solved using conscious thought, whereas a
complex task can be better approached using unconscious thought (Dijksterhuis & Nordgren,
2006). In a series of experiments, Dijksterhuis and his colleagues highlighted the importance of
spontaneous, unconscious thought in a decision making process, especially in a complex
decision making environment. In these experiments, participants were presented with a
number of alternatives (e.g., apartments, roommates) with the goal to decide what alternative
is the most attractive. Participants in the conscious thought condition were given a few minutes
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to think about the information before they made a decision. Participants in the unconscious
thought condition were asked to perform a distracting task for a few minutes before they were
asked to make a decision. During the distraction period, participants were assumed to engage
in unconscious, spontaneous thought (Christoff et al., 2011). The results showed that when
making complex decisions, a brief period of unconscious thought leads to a better decision
relative to conditions under which unconscious thought is prevented.
One major principle of UTT is the capacity principle (Dijksterhuis & Nordgren, 2006).
According to this principle, conscious thought is constrained by the low capacity of cognitive
resources. Unconscious thought, however, does not have this limitation. During unconscious
thought, a large amounts of information can be processed (Dijksterhuis & Aarts, 2010;
Dijksterhuis, Bos, Nordgren, & Van Baaren, 2006; Dijksterhuis & Nordgren, 2006). Using
unconscious thought, users are able to integrate huge amounts of information and consistently
give the pieces of information appropriate weights depending on their relative importance.
Thus, unconscious thought may lead to better choices than conscious thought when the
amount of information to be processed is large (Dijksterhuis & Nordgren, 2006).
4.4 Research Model
The research model is illustrated in Figure 4.1. In this model, I test the interaction
effects of task complexity in influencing the relationships between mind wandering, focus of
attention, and decision making performance. The ultimate goal of testing these interaction
effects is to improve our understanding on how mind wandering and focus of attention
influence IS decision making performance, depending on levels of task complexity. The study
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focuses on contexts where IS are used to perform specific tasks. For example, workers use a
web browser to help them search for information that is relevant to their task at hand. The
definitions of focal constructs are presented in Table 4.1.
Figure 4.1. Research Model
Table 4.1
Construct Definition
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4.5 Hypotheses Development
4.5.1 Task Complexity and IS Decision Making Performance
Performance refers to “the degree to which the results of the task meet task goals”
(Ortiz de Guinea & Webster, 2013, p. 1168). In the IS domain, IS task complexity has been
shown to affect individuals’ performance (e.g., Jiang & Benbasat, 2007; Mennecke et al., 2000;
Xiao & Benbasat, 2007). As task complexity increases, task difficulty increases and at the same
time, decision makers take more time to complete the task and produce more faulty results
(Campbell, 1988; Mennecke et al., 2000; Xu, Benbasat, & Cenfetelli, 2014). High task complexity
is also associated with high cognitive demands on individuals (Campbell & Gingrich, 1986).
Simple tasks generally require processing fewer cues (pieces of information) than complex tasks
(Payne, 1982; Speier et al., 2003). Thus, decision makers need less cognitive resources to
process simple tasks than when they process complex tasks. One of the research implications
by these previous studies is the greater the number of information cues to be processed, the
more difficult it will be for the decision makers to reach the best decision. I apply this
perspective to study the complexity of IS task and hypothesize that:
H1: The degree of IS task complexity will have a negative effect on performance
accuracy.
H2: The degree of IS task complexity will have a negative effect on performance
efficiency.
4.5.2 Focus of Attention and Performance Efficiency
According to cognitive resource theory, individuals’ cognitive processes and task
demands significantly predict variance in task performance (Randall et al., 2014). A number of
studies have investigated the role of focus of attention in predicting individual differences in job
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performance (e.g., Delaney‐Klinger, & Hemingway, 2005; Hunter, 1986; Morgeson, Schmidt,
2002). Focus of attention can be considered a specific cognitive skill that controls the
mechanism of distinguishing relevant from irrelevant stimuli and to filter out information that is
irrelevant to the task at hand (Kaufman, 2011). In particular, when people interact with IT, they
are easily distracted because multiple applications or features are available in one device to
simultaneously grab users’ attention. Distractions are not just frustrating; they can be
exhausting. Staying focused on a task, even when the task is simple, will increase performance
efficiency because when the primary task is disrupted, users will spend an extra time to switch
back to the primary task (i.e., higher switching cost is negatively associated with performance
efficiency). By the time workers get back to where they were, their ability to stay focused goes
down even further (Rock, 2009). Therefore, individuals’ ability to concentrate or focus on key
performance related factors while effectively blocking out distractions will influence their
performance efficiency.
H3: Under all levels of task complexity, users’ focus of attention has a positive effect on
performance efficiency.
4.5.3 Mind Wandering and Performance Accuracy
Mind wandering is referred to as task‐unrelated thought, occurred when individuals are
not engaged in the task (Smallwood & Schooler 2015). According to Smallwood and Schooler
(2006), mind wandering recruits executive resources and potentially affects task performance.
Others believe that mind wandering is the result of executive‐control failure and does not
require cognitive resources (McVay & Kane, 2010). However, both perspectives agree that mind
wandering could lead to performance errors (i.e., low performance efficiency) when task
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demand for monitoring is high. When our interaction with technology becomes automatic, our
behaviors and thoughts are often focused on the task (or something else, such as mind
wandering) rather than on the computer itself (Ortiz de Guinea & Webster, 2013; Louis &
Sutton, 1991). Because individuals are often unaware of this mind wandering process, it often
occurs unintentionally and interferes with performance (Forster & Lavie, 2009). Although
research measuring the impact of mind wandering on performance efficiency in a real life
setting is limited, recent findings on the association between longer reaction times in a go/no
go task (a task commonly used to measure EFs) and a higher rate of mind wandering (e.g.,
Smallwood et al., 2004; Forster and Lavie, 2009) may suggest that mind wandering is negatively
associated with performance efficiency. It is likely because the process of shifting from the main
task at hand to the state of mind wandering, then bringing back attention to the main task is a
time consuming process. Therefore, no matter how complex the task is, the completion time
will actually get longer with the presence of mind wandering.
H4: Under all levels of task complexity, mind wandering has a negative effect on
performance efficiency.
4.5.4 The Moderating Effect of IS Task Complexity and Focus of Attention
The notion of focus, complexity, and performance relationship is supported by
distraction conflict theory (DCT). According to this theory, simple tasks require processing fewer
cues than complex tasks (Payne, 1982). On the other hand, when processing complex tasks,
decision makers minimize their expenditure of scarce cognitive resources, uncritically
examining both relevant and irrelevant cues (Baron, 1986). Under a simple task environment,
individuals may have plenty of processing capacity to perform the task. Under this situation,
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any distractions may not lower performance because decision makers have sufficient cognitive
resources to process simple tasks when interruptions occur and do not need to change the way
in which they process information. However, good performance of complex tasks require more
of the person’s cognitive resources (Mayer & Gavin, 2005). Under this condition, individuals’
effort to focus is more likely to ensure what action is required to keep the goal active and to
shield it from distraction (Dijksterhuis & Aarts, 2010). Thus, I hypothesize
H5: The effect of focus of attention on performance accuracy is positively moderated by
IS task complexity, in which focus of attention will have a minimal effect under low task
complexity, but will have an increasing effect under medium to high complexity.
4.5.5 The Moderating Effect of IS Task Complexity and Mind Wandering
Many researchers have found mixed results in studying the relationship between mind
wandering and task performance accuracy. Some researchers believe that there is a negative
relationship between mind wandering and performance accuracy. For example, according to
the cognitive failure hypothesis, a significant proportion of mind wandering episodes in highly
demanding tasks is caused by a failure of cognitive control to inhibit the irrelevant thought
(McVay & Kane, 2010). This failure can lead to performance deficiency (McVay & Kane, 2010).
However, some recent studies in this area offer a contrasting explanation. They suggest that
mind wandering is actually beneficial. According to this new finding, for individuals who are
engaged in a highly complex task, mind wandering offers the possibility of very real, personal
rewards. These rewards include self‐awareness, creative incubation, memory consolidation,
goal driven thought, future planning, etc. (Kaufman, 2013).
In order to reconcile these contradictory findings, the characteristics of the task itself
need to be taken into consideration before we debate which paradigm is more accurate.
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According to the deliberation‐without‐attention hypothesis of UTT (Dijksterhuis & Nordgren
2006), conscious thought does not lead to good decisions in very complex situations. The
quality of decisions made using conscious thoughts is negatively associated with the complexity
of the tasks, suggesting that conscious thought may lead to better choices than unconscious
thought only when the amount of information to be processed is limited (Dijksterhuis and
Nordgren, 2006).
Moreover, research has shown that more mind wandering is associated with a greater
use of unconscious resources to make a decision, leading to more accurate decision making
under complex situations (albeit with low performance efficiency due to mind wandering)
(Zhong, Dijksterhuis, & Galinsky, 2008). Therefore, it is reasonable to argue that individuals who
experience more mind wandering during a complex task tend to use their unconscious
resources. This argument is also supported by a new theory of personal intelligence by Kaufman
(2011). According to Kaufman, decreased inhibition, especially under a highly cognitive
demanding task can have its advantages. This decreased inhibition can make an individual more
likely to mind wander and be creative in solving the problems.
However, mind wandering could actually be harmful to performance accuracy when
individuals use their conscious thought. Conscious thought is more suitable under low to
medium level task complexity because the standard is easy to determine and amount of
information is limited. When the task is simple, users are free to direct their thoughts to other
things (Ortiz de Guinea & Webster, 2013), and thus, mind wandering is less likely to impair task
performance. Under a moderate complexity condition, however, mind wandering could
compete with task demands for conscious thought. Consequently, irrelevant items that are not
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directed to the intended target of concentration should become more accessible to
consciousness as the result of mental load (Wegner, 1997). Based on this literature review, I
hypothesized that mind wandering will have no effect under low task complexity; a negative
effect under the medium complexity task condition; and it will have a positive effect under high
complexity task condition.
H6: The effect of users’ experience of mind wandering on performance accuracy is
moderated by IS task complexity, in which mind wandering will have no effect under low
task complexity, negative effect under medium task complexity, but it will have a
positive effect under high task complexity.
4.6 Research Method
4.6.1 Experimental Design
The experiment utilized a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with three treatment
groups. The variable manipulated in the experiment is task complexity (high, medium, and low).
The other two independent variables (i.e., focus of attention and mind wandering) are
measured as continuous variables. Although mind wandering cannot be directly induced by
altering the complexity of an ongoing task, it is possible to gain some degree of control over the
experiment (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015). This manipulation is critical to understand the
nature of wandering mind because it provides boundary conditions that inform our
understanding on the functions of mind wandering.
To operationalize the manipulation of task complexity, the number of features and
criteria were systematically varied (Wood, 1986). Following Wood’s (1986) concept of task
complexity, I investigated the choice strategies used by individuals as a function of the three
task determinants: number of information resources, number of alternatives available, and
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number of dimensions of information available per alternative (Mennecke et al., 2000; Payne,
1976; Speier et al., 2003; Wood, 1986). The task is an online shopping task in the B2C e‐
commerce setting that requires the subjects to evaluate products based on the criteria
provided by the researchers. This task was designed to represent a familiar IS task that many IS
users as well as most knowledge workers would do in their job.
For the purpose of this experiment, the subject was presented with a scenario of
purchasing a product—a computer and/or laptop. Each product contains a number of features
that must be considered in the process of decision making. Each subject solved a multi‐criteria
online decision making task that asked subjects to assume that they had to buy a laptop. Before
they decided which laptop they were going to buy, they were advised to search for information
about the products. To help them make the best decision, subjects prioritized potential
products against the criteria that defined the features of the products. In the low complexity
condition, subjects were asked to go to an online shopping website and evaluate five product
alternatives (e.g., MacBook Pro, Asus, etc.) based on three criteria (i.e., operating systems,
memory and battery life, and price). In the medium task complexity, there were 10 alternatives
with 7 criteria. Subjects were asked to go to two different websites—5 alternatives for each
website. In the high task complexity condition, there were 15 alternatives, with 10 criteria for
each alternative. Subjects were informed to go to three different websites. The decision criteria
associated with each level of complexity are presented in Table 4.2. The sample experiment
materials are presented in Appendix E.
A scoring sheet was provided so that the subjects were able to assign points for each
criterion described in the tasks (see Appendix E). Participants then were asked to make a
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decision based on those criteria. Accuracy was measured by comparing the answers on the
scoring sheet with the optimal solution prepared by the researcher prior to the experiment. To
measure the completion time, subjects were asked to record the time when they began and
finished completing the task. Students received extra credit points from their instructors for
participation in the study. Gift card prizes were also offered as an incentive for participants who
scored top performance.
Table 4.2
Website and Product Criteria
4.6.2 Experimental Procedure
Those subjects assigned in both low and medium conditions were required to complete
filler tasks so that all subjects completed relatively the same amount of task time. After
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completing the main task, participants completed a paper‐based questionnaire to measure the
degree of their focus on the task as well as the tendency to engage in mind wandering during
the task.
The measurement items for both variables were adapted from the measures established
and fully validated by previous studies. Items for focus of attention were adapted from
Nadkarni and Gupta (2007). Study subjects showed a high degree of familiarity with the task
online shopping, and their interaction with the technology (i.e., shopping websites) is almost
automatic (Ortiz de Guinea & Markus, 2009; Ortiz de Guinea & Webster, 2013). Thus, their
focus of attention was measured based on how well they concentrate on solving the problem
(e.g., strategies to find correct information) rather than on the technical aspect of the computer
itself (Ortiz de Guinea & Webster, 2013). Items for mind wandering were adapted from the
measurement developed by Mrazek et al. (2013) and McVay and Kane (2009). Each item was
worded in accordance with mind wandering in a technological environment. The final items
were presented in Table 4.3. As expected, a correlation analysis shows that focus is negatively
correlated with mind wandering (r = ‐0.281; p = 0.013). The exploratory factor analysis (EFA)
results showed that all of the items loaded on their intended factors (see Table 4.3).
4.6.3 Manipulation Check
As a manipulation check, I examined subjects’ perceptions of task complexity using a
single measure (on a 7‐point Likert scale) “working on the task did not require a lot of effort.”
The results show a significant difference (F = 16.27, p<.001) of perceived task complexity among
low (M = 5.69; SD = 1.44; n = 26), medium (M = 4.68; SD = 1.52; n = 25) and high (M = 3.48; SD =
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1.28; n = 27), confirming a successful manipulation of task complexity. Furthermore, according
to Miller’s (1956) information processing theory, people can hold 7 + 2 chunks of information in
their working memory concurrently. Therefore, the first treatment, with the 5 product
alternatives and 3 criteria (within the lower limit of Miller’s prediction) represents a low level of
complexity; the second treatment, with the 10 alternatives and 7 criteria (within the higher
limit of Miller’s prediction) represents a medium level of complexity; and the third treatment,
with the 15 alternatives and 10 criteria represents a high level of complexity. Jiang and
Benbasat (2007) suggested that based on the findings reported in the cognitive psychology
literature, this manipulation of task complexity can be considered objective. Therefore, it can
be generalized into other situations as this measure is not necessarily influenced by specific
experimental conditions.
Table 4.3
Measurement Items and EFA Results
Component Cronbach’s
Construct Items
1 2 Alpha
Focus of (When I was using the website to complete the task), I
‐0.20 0.74
attention had a distinct identifiable purpose.
…, I was able to look up specific information. ‐0.20 0.81 0.81
…, I was able to focus on finding specific information. ‐0.16 0.77
…, I was absorbed in finding specific information. 0.09 0.87
Mind (When I was using the website to complete the task),
0.72 ‐0.35
Wandering sometimes I cannot easily pay attention when I should.
…, I found myself always distracted by other things in
0.85 ‐0.03
mind.
…, I had so many things in mind. 0.80 ‐0.12 0.93
…, my mind wandered. 0.90 ‐0.16
…, I was easily distracted by unnecessary information in
0.93 ‐0.23
mind.
…, sometimes I had trouble concentrating on the tasks. 0.85 0.01
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4.6.4 Sample
Student subjects were recruited from a college of business at a large public university in
the U.S. A total of 84 subjects participated in the experiment. Among them, 6 responses were
regarded invalid, resulting in 78 valid responses (26, 25, and 27 responses in treatment 1, 2, and
3, respectively). According to Hair, Black, Babin, and Anderson (2010), the number of subjects in
each treatment group should be at least 20. Although the sample size is relatively small, it
satisfies the requirement of conducting an experiment. Furthermore, a power analysis showed
that the sample is large enough to test the main effect and major interaction effects (d = .82)
(Cohen, 1988).
Among the participants, 40 (51%) were female. 21 (27%) of the participants were
between 17‐20 years old; 43 (55%) were from 21‐25 years old; and the rest of the participants
were above 25 years old, but no more than 35 years old. In general, the participants were
familiar with the internet shopping (M = 5.96/7) and computer (M = 5.95/7) and had a high
degree of computer self‐efficacy (M = 5.59/7). There were no significant differences across
three complexity conditions with respect to gender, age, prior internet and computer
experience, and computer self‐efficacy.
4.7 Data Analysis and Results
The results of ANOVA test on task performance are reported in Table 4.4. Levine test for
inequality of variance was statistically significant for both decision accuracy and decision time.
For that reason, a square root transformation was performed on decision time, and a log
transformation was performed on decision accuracy (Dennis & Carte, 1998). The inequality of
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variance test on the transformed data found no significant differences, indicating that both
transformations were successful in addressing the issue of inequality of variance. The results
showed that there were significant differences among the three complexity levels on both
performance accuracy and performance efficiency.
Table 4.4
Group Comparison (ANOVA) Results
4.7.1 Performance Accuracy
The Generalized Linear Model (GLM) procedure in SAS was used to analyze the data
using task complexity as a categorical variable and both focus and mind wandering as
continuous variables. To test the main effect hypotheses, the additive model was observed
(Table 4.5, Model 1). As predicted, the effect of task complexity on performance accuracy was
significant. Therefore, H1 was supported. The results also show that the main effect of focus of
attention on decision accuracy was significant. Model 2 (Table 4.5) shows that the interaction
term between task complexity and focus of attention was significant (F‐stat = 4.30; p = 0.02).
Similarly, the interaction between task complexity and mind wandering was also significant (F‐
stat = 3.30; p = 0.048). Thus, H5 and H6 were supported. Together, all of these factors
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accounted for 73% of the variance in performance accuracy. To examine the predictive power
of the proposed model, I compare the R2 of Model 1 with Model 2 using Cohen’s f2 formula. The
result shows that the effect size is high (f2 = .19).
Table 4.5
GLM Results for Performance Accuracy
Model 1 Model 2
IVs F‐stat p‐value F‐stat p‐value
Task complexity 61.91 <.0001 10.21 0.0001
Focus of attention 18.00 <0.001 22.34 <.0001
Mind wandering 2.44 0.123 3.80 0.0553
Task complexity x Focus of attention 4.30 0.0174
Task complexity x Mind wandering 3.30 0.0427
R2 0.675 0.728
Δ R2 0.053*** (f2 = 0.19)
Note: Test statistics reported for performance accuracy are based on a log transformation.
In order to better understand the direction of the effects of independent variables at
each level of task complexity (when the interaction terms are significant), I ran a regression
analysis with dummy coding (high complexity group was used as a reference group). The results
are presented in Table 4.6. Because the interaction terms were significant, the model needs to
be interpreted in the presence of other variables in the interaction model. In the non‐additive
model (Model 2), low complexity estimate (β = 2.41; t = 4.15; p<.0001) was the estimated
difference in the mean of performance accuracy between low and high complexity conditions.
The positive sign indicated that performance accuracy of low complexity was higher than high
complexity.
Similarly, medium complexity estimate was 1.195 (t = 2.12; p<.05), indicating that
performance accuracy of a medium complexity condition was higher than a high complexity
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condition. These results provide additional support for H1. For a high complexity condition, the
influence of focus of attention on performance was significant (β = 0.256; t = 4.18; p<.001).
However, there was no difference in slopes for medium and high complexity conditions.
Furthermore, the interaction between high complexity and mind wandering was significant (β =
0.115; t = 3.15; p<.01).
Table 4.6
Regression Analysis with Dummy Coding for Task Complexity
Model 1 Model 2
Parameter Estimate t‐value Estimate t‐value VIF
Intercept (b0) ‐1.908 ‐8.27*** ‐2.750 ‐6.86*** ‐
Low (b1) 0.775 11.05*** 2.415 4.51*** 1.353
Medium (b2) 0.464 6.42*** 1.195 2.12* 1.436
Focus of attention (b3) 0.148 4.24*** 0.256 4.18*** 3.924
Mind wandering (b4) 0.034 1.79+ 0.115 3.15** 3.464
Low x Focus of attention (b5) ‐0.230 ‐2.80** 2.353
Medium x Focus of attention (b6) ‐0.07 ‐0.83 (Ns) 2.24
Low x Mind wandering (b7) ‐0.108 ‐2.19* 2.250
Medium x Mind wandering (b8) ‐0.116 ‐2.29* 2.318
***p<.001; **p<0.01; *p<.05; Ns= Not significant.
Next, based on Table 4.6, I computed the regression equations and tested the
significance of slope coefficients for each group (see Table 4.7). To test whether the slopes are
significant in each group, I re‐ran multiple regression analysis with different reference groups.
As shown in Table 4.7, focus of attention had no significant effect under low task complexity.
However, its effect was significant under both low and high task complexity. Thus, H5 was
partially supported. As I hypothesized, mind wandering had a positive effect under high task
complexity. However, mind wandering did not have any significant effect under both low and
medium complexity. Thus, H6 was supported.
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Table 4.7.
Regression Equation for Each Condition (DV: Performance Accuracy)
t‐value
Task Regression Equation
FA MW
Low Y = (b0+b1) + (b3+b5)*FA + (b4+b7)*MW Y = ‐.335 + .026*FA + .007*MW Ns Ns
Med Y = (b0+b2) + (b3+b6)*FA + (b4+b8)*MW Y = ‐1.555 + .256*FA ‐ .001*MW 3.33*** Ns
High Y = b0 + b3*FA + b4*MW Y = ‐2.750 + .256*FA + .115*MW 4.18*** 3.15**
Notes: Y= Decision Accuracy; FA= Focus of attention; MW= Mind Wandering; ***p<.001; **p<0.01; Ns= Not significant.
Furthermore, I conducted a follow‐up contrast on the two‐way interactions to test
significant differences between two treatment groups. I found that four of six contrasts were
significant, confirming the significance of interaction effects (see Table 4.8). The first contrast
analysis indicated that under high task complexity, the effect of focus of attention was higher
than when task complexity is low (the negative parameter estimate indicates that the
interaction term of high complexity is higher than low complexity). However, the effect of focus
of attention on performance accuracy did not differ under medium and high complexity,
suggesting a monotonic increase in the effect of focus of attention and task complexity on
performance accuracy (low < medium/high). Furthermore, the second contrast indicated that
the strength of the interaction between mind wandering and task complexity under the low
and medium conditions was not significantly different. However, mind wandering had a
stronger effect on performance accuracy when task complexity was high than when it was
either low or medium.
The interaction effects can be explained by inspecting Figure 4.2 and 4.3. As shown in
Figure 4.2, the effect of mind wandering on performance accuracy was not significant under the
low and medium condition, whereas its effect was positive and significant under the high
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condition. As presented in Figure 4.3, the effect of focus of attention on performance accuracy
was positive and significant under the medium and high condition, but not under the low
condition.
Table 4.8
Interaction Contrast Analysis Results
Figure 4.2. The Moderating Effect of Task Complexity between Mind Wandering and
Performance Accuracy
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Figure 4.3. The Moderating Effect of Task Complexity between Focus of Attention and
Performance Accuracy
4.7.2 Performance Efficiency
Next, I tested the effects of task complexity, mind wandering, and focus of attention on
performance efficiency. For an easy interpretation, the scale of decision time was reverse‐
coded; thus, high scores represent high performance efficiency. The results of regression with
dummy coding analysis are presented in Table 4.9.
As hypothesized, task complexity had a negative effect on performance efficiency (β =
2.49, p<.001 indicated that low complexity had a higher efficiency than high complexity and β =
1.43, p<.001 indicated that medium complexity had a higher efficiency than high complexity).
Thus, H2 was supported. The effect of focus of attention on performance efficiency was not
significant, failing to support H3. As hypothesized, the main effect of mind wandering on
performance efficiency was significant, supporting H4. Because I only hypothesized the main
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effect of both mind wandering and focused attention, I expected the three complexity
conditions would have identical slopes, b3 and b4. This means the three regression lines will be
parallel to one another (see Table 4.10). I calculated the effect size of the proposed model by
comparing Model 1 (dummy variables only) and Model 2 (dummy variables and continuous
variables) (Aiken & West, 1991). The Cohen’s f2 effect size is .14, indicating the effect size of
mind wandering is relatively high. I summarize the hypotheses results in Table 4.11.
Table 4.9
Regression Analysis with Dummy Coding for Task Complexity (DV: Performance Efficiency)
Model 1 Model 2
IVs Estimate t‐value Estimate t‐value
Intercept (b0) 4.21 30.94*** 4.63 7.47***
Low (b1) 2.51 12.89*** 2.49 13.19***
Medium (b2) 1.37 6.99*** 1.43 7.36***
Focus of attention (b3) .00 .01 (ns)
Mind wandering (b4) ‐0.14 ‐2.58**
R2 .68 .72
ΔR2 0.04*** (f2 = 0.14)
Notes: Test statistics reported for performance efficiency are based on a square root transformation of the
raw data; ***p<.001; **p<0.01; *p<.05; High Complexity was used as a reference group; ns= not significant.
Table 4.10
Regression Equation for Each Condition (DV: Performance Efficiency)
t‐value
Condition Regression Equation
FA MW
Low Y = b1 + b0 + b3*FA + b4*MW Y = 7.12 + .00*FA ‐ .14*MW Ns ‐2.58**
Medium Y = b2 + b0 + b3*FA + b4*MW Y = 6.06 + .00*FA ‐ .14*MW Ns ‐2.58**
High Y = b0 + b3*FA + b4*MW Y = 4.63 + .00*FA ‐ .14*MW Ns ‐2.58**
Notes: Y= Decision Efficiency; FA= Focus of Attention; MW= Mind Wandering; Ns= Not Significant; **p<0.01.
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Table 4.11
Hypotheses Summary
Hypothesis Supported?
H1 The degree of IS task complexity will have a negative effect on performance Yes
accuracy.
H2 The degree of IS task complexity will have a negative effect on performance Yes
efficiency.
H3 Under all levels of task complexity, users’ focus of attention has a positive effect No
on performance efficiency.
H4 Under all levels of task complexity, mind wandering has a negative effect on Yes
performance efficiency.
H5 The effect of focus of attention on performance accuracy is positively moderated Yes
by IS task complexity, in which focus of attention will have a minimal effect
under low task complexity, but will have an increasing effect under medium to
high complexity.
H6 The effect of users’ experience of mind wandering on performance accuracy is Partially
moderated by IS task complexity, in which mind wandering will have no effect supported
under low task complexity, negative effect under medium task complexity, but it
will have a positive effect under high task complexity.
4.8 Discussion and Implications
Drawing on the mind wandering and IS literature, this work empirically demonstrates
the importance of focus of attention and mind wandering in influencing users’ performance at
different levels of task complexity. Specifically, the results demonstrate that users’ performance
is influenced by individuals’ focus of attention and mind wandering. In relatively difficult tasks,
focus of attention represents a potent predictor of performance accuracy. In a medium and low
task environment, mind wandering does not have a significant effect on performance accuracy.
However, in a high complexity task environment, mind wandering can bring a positive effect on
users’ performance.
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4.8.1 Theoretical Implications
This research makes several contributions. Responding to the calls for richer
understanding of unconscious processes to study phenomena in the IS discipline (e.g., Ortiz de
Guinea & Markus, 2009), I integrated a cognition‐oriented construct (i.e., focus of attention)
and a more spontaneous cognition construct (i.e., mind wandering) and test their influence on
IS task performance. The mind wandering construct enhances our understanding on the effect
of internal distraction on performance. It shows that distraction can come not only from an
external environment, but also from users’ own thoughts. I introduce the role of focus of
attention as an individual cognitive factor that should be considered an important factor in IS
environments.
Furthermore, this current study integrates UTT and mind wandering theory to study
performance variability among technology users. There is an ongoing debate on whether mind
wandering requires cognitive resources (Smallwood & Schooler, 2006) or it is a spontaneous
cognition that can be beneficial for individuals’ performance (Baird et al., 2012). My study
found that under low task complexity, mind wandering is not a main determinant of
performance. It is probably because task automaticity is likely to take place and users’ minds
are free to wander without hurting their performance. Contrary to my hypotheses, mind
wandering does not have a significant effect on performance accuracy under medium task
complexity. Under this condition, focus of attention is the main predictor of performance
accuracy. However, under high complexity condition, mind wandering has a positive effect on
performance accuracy. It is likely because individuals who experience more mind wandering
during the complex task tend to use their unconscious resources; thus, are more creative in
147
solving the problems. Future research is needed to explore the relationship between
performance and mind wandering under various settings. Furthermore, more advanced
techniques, such as eye tracking or brain imaging could be used to enhance the theoretical
implications of mind wandering in IS research.
This study also contributes to the literature by empirically testing the role of task
complexity in influencing the effect of focus of attention and mind wandering on IS decision
making performance. Task and individual characteristics have been found to affect users’
performance (Campbell, 1988). This study analyzed task characteristics by manipulating the
complexity of decision making under a B2C e‐commerce environment. The results show how
different levels of task complexity can moderate the impact of cognitive constructs on
performance. However, I did not find that focus of attention significantly influences
performance efficiency. This is probably because subjects’ primary goal was to achieve high
accuracy; thus, they were likely to optimize their time resource to increase their output
accuracy. Another possibility is that its effect was attenuated by mind wandering regardless the
complexity level of the task. Further research is needed to investigate how individuals deal with
both internal and external distractions and how focus of attention influences their
performance.
4.8.2 Practical Implications
This research has several practical implications, such as training programs to improve
focus of attention of technology users and knowledge workers. Because the results show that
focus of attention will significantly impact the quality of the work of IS users, training should be
148
designed such that individuals can learn how to pay attention to their tasks. Research has
shown that focus of attention can become stronger with practice and it demonstrates
significant improvements over a relatively brief period of time (Baime, 2011). The results show
that mind wandering can be beneficial for technology users. With IS that are fundamentally
complex, organizations can incorporate mindfulness program in their work environment.
Mindfulness program will help IS users to transform their mind wandering experience into an
innovative thought process.
This research also has implications for IS and HCI designs. As the results indicate that
task complexity will influence the effect of focus of attention and mind wandering on
performance, I suggest that systems be designed in such way to maintain the balance between
individuals’ focus attention and mind wandering, particularly if the task is relatively complex.
One possible design alternative is by creating a system that can estimate the complexity of the
decision making task. The system should be designed to facilitate mind wandering by
deliberately distracting individuals’ decision making process before a final decision is made. For
example, users can be instructed to take a break and engage in an undemanding task or
technology, and then, they can be directed back to the primary task.
4.8.3 Limitations
This study presents some limitations due to the use of a self‐report method to measure
mind wandering. Although the validity of this technique to measure mind wandering has been
well established (e.g., McVay & Kane, 2009; Mrazek et al., 2013; Smallwood & Schooler, 2015),
it is still difficult to verify the results objectively. Future research is needed to explore the
149
possibility of using different techniques (e.g., eye‐tracking technique, direct observation of
brain activity, etc.) to objectively measure mind wandering. Further, to overcome the
disadvantages of every single method used and enhance the findings, a triangulation between
different methods can be used (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015).
In this study, three actual shopping websites were used to represent a real shopping
experience. It should be noted that these three websites are different in their specific contents
and complexity. Thus, strictly speaking, user performance differences may not be exclusively
attributed to the complexity manipulation. However, website complexity is generally used as a
proxy of task complexity (Nadkarni & Gupta, 2007), and it can be viewed as an important
element of task complexity. Furthermore, given that the tasks performed using all three
websites are similar in nature—despite it is practically impossible to identify and select three
websites that contain the same amount of information and have the same level of complexity—
I believe my task complexity manipulation is acceptable.
The experiment task (i.e., e‐commerce decision making) was designed to represent the
most familiar IS task. The complexity was manipulated by varying the number of sources,
number of products, and number of attributes to be processed by the participants. It is possible
that other tasks, such as managerial decision making, may contain different complexity
attributes (e.g., uncertainty and decision immediacy). Thus, it may be necessary to test the
theoretical framework in different contexts.
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4.9 Conclusions
The main goal of this study is to contribute to the cognitive Information Systems (IS)
literature by examining the effect of individuals’ focus of attention and mind wandering in
influencing IS decision making performance at different levels of task complexity. Drawing upon
UTT and executive control theory of mind wandering, the results show that (1) higher task
complexity leads to lower IS task performance; (2) under low task complexity, focus of attention
and mind wandering do not have any significant effects on task performance; (3) under
medium task complexity, focus of attention leads to higher performance accuracy, whereas
mind wandering does not have a significant effect on performance accuracy; (4) under high task
complexity, both focus of attention and mind wandering lead to higher performance accuracy.
Furthermore, mind wandering negatively influences performance efficiency under all levels of
IS task complexity.
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APPENDIX A
TESTING FOR COMMON METHOD BIAS (WITH A COMMON LATENT FACTOR)
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Relationship Without CLF* With CLF* Delta
Anx1 <‐‐‐ comp_anxiety 0.72 0.62 0.10
Anx2 <‐‐‐ comp_anxiety 0.77 0.68 0.09
Anx3 <‐‐‐ comp_anxiety 0.80 0.72 0.08
Anx4 <‐‐‐ comp_anxiety 0.89 0.83 0.06
Anx5 <‐‐‐ comp_anxiety 0.93 0.88 0.05
Anx6 <‐‐‐ comp_anxiety 0.93 0.88 0.05
Comp1 <‐‐‐ Task_Complex 0.66 0.55 0.11
Comp3 <‐‐‐ Task_Complex 0.85 0.80 0.05
Comp4 <‐‐‐ Task_Complex 0.70 0.58 0.12
MW_IT1 <‐‐‐ MW_IT 0.75 0.66 0.09
MW_IT2 <‐‐‐ MW_IT 0.88 0.82 0.06
MW_IT3 <‐‐‐ MW_IT 0.94 0.88 0.06
MW_IT4 <‐‐‐ MW_IT 0.82 0.74 0.08
MW_IT5 <‐‐‐ MW_IT 0.87 0.80 0.06
FA_IT1 <‐‐‐ FA_IT 0.77 0.68 0.09
FA_IT2 <‐‐‐ FA_IT 0.90 0.80 0.10
FA_IT3 <‐‐‐ FA_IT 0.87 0.77 0.10
FA_IT4 <‐‐‐ FA_IT 0.87 0.77 0.10
FA_IT5 <‐‐‐ FA_IT 0.82 0.73 0.09
FA_IT6 <‐‐‐ FA_IT 0.80 0.72 0.09
FA_IT7 <‐‐‐ FA_IT 0.77 0.68 0.09
MW_NonIT1 <‐‐‐ MW_NonIT 0.82 0.73 0.09
MW_NonIT2 <‐‐‐ MW_NonIT 0.88 0.79 0.09
MW_NonIT3 <‐‐‐ MW_NonIT 0.79 0.71 0.08
MW_NonIT4 <‐‐‐ MW_NonIT 0.83 0.75 0.08
MW_NonIT5 <‐‐‐ MW_NonIT 0.82 0.74 0.07
MW_NonIT6 <‐‐‐ MW_NonIT 0.87 0.79 0.08
MW_NonIT7 <‐‐‐ MW_NonIT 0.90 0.82 0.08
MW_NonIT8 <‐‐‐ MW_NonIT 0.83 0.76 0.07
MW_NonIT9 <‐‐‐ MW_NonIT 0.83 0.76 0.08
FA_NonIT1 <‐‐‐ FA_NonIT 0.70 0.60 0.10
FA_NonIT2 <‐‐‐ FA_NonIT 0.91 0.82 0.09
FA_NonIT3 <‐‐‐ FA_NonIT 0.90 0.82 0.09
FA_NonIT4 <‐‐‐ FA_NonIT 0.74 0.65 0.10
Sat1 <‐‐‐ Satisfaction 0.95 0.86 0.10
Sat2 <‐‐‐ Satisfaction 0.95 0.87 0.09
Sat3 <‐‐‐ Satisfaction 0.88 0.78 0.10
Sat5 <‐‐‐ Satisfaction 0.80 0.70 0.10
* Standardized Regression Weights
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APPENDIX B
MEASUREMENT ITEMS
159
Constructs/Items Source
Mind wandering (non‐IT)
1. I thought about members of my family. Sarason et al. (1986)
2. I thought about friends. Sarason et al. (1986)
3. I thought about something that made me feel guilty. Sarason et al. (1986)
4. I thought about personal worries. Sarason et al. (1986)
5. I thought about something that made me feel angry. Sarason et al. (1986)
6. I thought about something that happened earlier today. Sarason et al. (1986)
7. I thought about something that happened in the recent past (last few Sarason et al. (1986)
days, but not today).
8. I thought about something that happened in the distant past. Sarason et al. (1986)
9. I thought about something that might happen in the future. Sarason et al. (1986)
Mind wandering (IT)
1. I thought about checking my email. Self‐developed
2. I thought about using different software. (dropped) Self‐developed
3. I thought about checking my social media (e.g., Facebook). Self‐developed
4. I thought about browsing other stuff. Self‐developed
5. I thought about checking my phone. Self‐developed
6. I thought about doing other online activities (e.g., online shopping, Self‐developed
online game).
7. I thought about how complicated the software was. (dropped) Self‐developed
Focus of attention (IT)
1. I focused on how to use the software to complete my task. Self‐developed
2. I paid attention on different features of the software to complete my Self‐developed
task.
3. I focused my attention on different options provided by the software to Self‐developed
format my task.
4. I focused my attention on learning specific the software functions. Self‐developed
5. I paid close attention to the kind of errors I was making when I was using Self‐developed
the software.
6. I focused my total attention on making sure my computer outputs were Self‐developed
correct.
7. I focused my total attention on following the software’s instructions Self‐developed
correctly.
Focus of attention (non‐IT)
1. I focused my total attention on how I could solve the problem. Kanfer et al. (1994)
2. I thought about strategies for solving the problem. Kanfer et al. (1994)
3. I thought ahead to what I would do next to solve the problem. Kanfer et al. (1994)
4. I focused my attention on correctly performing as many steps as I could. Kanfer et al. (1994)
Technology anxiety
1. I became frustrated with my inability to solve the problem using the Kanfer et al. (1994)
software.
(table continues)
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(continued)
Constructs/Items Source
2. I got mad at myself when I used the software. Kanfer et al. (1994)
3. I was concerned about how poorly I was doing using this software. Kanfer et al. (1994)
4. I felt anxious about using this software to complete my task. Thatcher and Perrewe (2002)
5. I was worried about how I was going to make a mistake by choosing the Thatcher and Perrewe (2002)
wrong options.
6. I was worried about how I was going to make a mistake that I cannot Thatcher and Perrewe (2002)
correct when I used the software.
User satisfaction
After doing your assignment using this software, how do you feel about your Nadkarni and Gupta (2007)
overall experience with the software?
1. …I am very dissatisfied / very satisfied.
2. …I am very displeased / very pleased. Nadkarni and Gupta (2007)
3. …I feel absolutely terrible / very delighted. Nadkarni and Gupta (2007)
4. …I will strongly recommend this software to my friends. Nadkarni and Gupta (2007)
Perceived task complexity
Seijts et al. (2004); Winter
1. This task required me to coordinate many different things at the same time.
and Latham (1996);
2. This task required me to check one thing before I can move to work on Winter and Latham (1996)
something else. (dropped)
2. This task required a lot of my effort. Jiang and Punj (2010)
3. On scale 1 (extremely easy) to 7 (extremely difficult), how difficult was this Jiang and Punj (2010)
task?
Media multitasking Ophir et al. (2009)
Did you use any electronic devices/media/software (besides your
computer/laptop and MS. Access) when you did your assignment? If yes, please
specify:
__ Television
__ Computer based video (such as YouTube or online television episodes)
__ Music
__ Non‐music audio
__ Video/Computer game
__ Telephone or mobile phones
__ Instant messaging
__ Email
__ Web surfing
__ Other computer based applications.
Software self‐efficacy
1. After I did my assignment, I believe I have the ability to export data from Self‐developed following
MS. Access to Ms. Word format. Agarwal et al.’s (2000)
2. …I believe I have the ability to export data from MS. Access to MS. Excel procedures.
format
(table continues)
161
(continued)
3. …I believe I have the ability to export data from MS. Access to PDF format.
4. …I believe I have the ability to export data from MS. Access to another
database.
Self‐regulation (performance evaluation)
1. I thought about how others would have known better about this software. Kanfer and Ackerman (1989)
2. I thought about how I was doing compared to others. Kanfer and Ackerman (1989)
3. I thought about others’ ability compare to mine needed to accomplish this Kanfer and Ackerman (1989)
task.
Self‐regulation (self‐reactions)
1. I thought about how much my knowledge about this software has improved. Kanfer and Ackerman (1989)
2. I thought about how well I was doing. Kanfer and Ackerman (1989)
3. I thought about how enjoyable the task was. Kanfer and Ackerman (1989)
4. I thought about outdoing my previous performance. Kanfer and Ackerman (1989)
Self‐regulation (self‐monitoring)
1. I monitored how well I was learning the software requirements. Grafill and Compeau (2008)
2. I asked myself questions to make sure I understood. Grafill and Compeau (2008)
3. I made sure I sorted it out as soon as I could before moving on. Grafill and Compeau (2008)
4. I tried to monitor where I needed the most improvement. Grafill and Compeau (2008)
5. I made up questions to help focus on my learning. (dropped) Grafill and Compeau (2008)
6. I monitored my time spent learning skills to determine if it’s worth it. Grafill and Compeau (2008)
(dropped)
General computer self‐efficacy
1. I was able to use MS. Access if there was no one around me to tell me what Thatcher and Perrewe (2002)
to do.
2. I was able to use MS. Access if I had never used a package like it before. Thatcher and Perrewe (2002)
3. I was able to use MS. Access if I had only the software manuals for Thatcher and Perrewe (2002)
references.
Focus of attention (Used in Chapter 4)
When I was using the website to complete the task, Nadkarni and Gupta (2007)
1. …, I had a distinct identifiable purpose.
2. …, I was able to look up specific information. Nadkarni and Gupta (2007)
3. …, I was able to focus on finding specific information. Nadkarni and Gupta (2007)
4. …, I was absorbed in finding specific information. Nadkarni and Gupta (2007)
Mind wandering (Used in Chapter 4)
When I was using the website to complete the task, Mrazek et al. (2013)
1. …, sometimes I cannot easily pay attention when I should.
2. …, I found myself always distracted by other things in mind. McVay and Kane (2009)
3. …, I had so many things in mind. Mrazek et al. (2013)
4. …, my mind wandered. Mrazek et al. (2013)
5. …, I was easily distracted by unnecessary information in mind. Mrazek et al. (2013)
6. …, sometimes I had trouble concentrating on the tasks. McVay and Kane (2009)
162
APPENDIX C
LEARNING PERFORMANCE MEASURES
163
1. When you export data from MS. Access to MS. Excel, you need to make sure each of the
following, except:
(a) Verify my access database is selected in the Navigation Pane
(b) Specify the destination of my file
(c) Specify the export option
(d) Open the destination file after the export is complete
2. What would you do if you only want to export only a subset or a portion of the table?
(a) Create a query, and then copy it manually to excel
(b) Filter a table and then export the data
(c) Remove the unnecessary record and then export the data
(d) a and b are correct
3. What is the major different between exporting data to Excel and Word format?
(a) In Excel, I have to make sure the file type is .xlsx or .xls, whereas in Word, I have to
make sure the file type is .rtf or .doc.
(b) They are similar, except that I will not be able to analyze my data in Word.
(c) There is no major different, all the steps are all the same.
(d) a and b are correct
4. What is an RTF file?
(a) A word file format introduced by the new version of Microsoft.
(b) A word format that supports a tabular report.
(c) A word format that enables documents to be flexibly opened using different
application.
(d) A word format that supports special text formatting, such as bold, italic, and
underline.
5. What types of Access format can be exported to PDF?
(a) Only tables and queries
(b) Only tables and forms
(c) Tables, queries, and forms
(d) Only forms, reports, and limited tables.
6. What is the initial step you need to do when you want to export your access data to
another access database?
(a) Make sure my query is opened in Design view
(b) Make sure I create a new Table in the Query Type group
(c) Make sure I combine two databases in Design view
(d) Make sure the categories in my databases belong to the same tables
7. Why would you decide to export the definition of a table to a different database, but
not the data?
(a) Because you generally only need the table format for a new database.
164
(b) Because you don’t want to have an overlapping data.
(c) Because data from the original table may not less useful for the new purpose.
(d) Because if you export the data, you will not be able to edit the table.
8. Which document formats can be edited once you export your data from Access?
(a) Word and XPS
(b) Word and PDF
(c) Word and Excel
(d) Excel and PDF
9. What advantage of exporting your Access data to Excel?
(a) There is no advantage at all.
(b) For easy reporting.
(c) For easy editing.
(d) For easy reporting and editing
10. Which type of objects can be exported from one database to another?
(a) Table only
(b) Tables and queries
(c) Reports only
(d) All objects
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APPENDIX D
EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS TASKS
166
Executive Functions were measured using three cognitive tasks (i.e., color shape task,
Stroop task, and N‐Back task). All three tasks were administered in Inquisit Web Version 4
(Millisecond Software LLC, Seattle). The experiment materials are available on the Millisecond
Test Library (http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/) and customized to fit the needs
of this dissertation.
Color Shape Task
The version of color shape task in this study followed a similar procedure used in Miyake
et al. (2004). Before starting the target trials, participants completed a total of 80 training trials,
administered in five blocks of 16 trials each, to familiarize themselves with the response‐
mapping rules. The responses for both color and shape tasks were mapped onto two keyboard‐
selection rules in a bivalent manner (e.g., the left button for “red” and “circle” and the right
button for “green” and “triangle”). The response‐mapping rules were kept constant for all
participants in order to maintain consistency. In each training trial, a cue letter (C for color and
S for shape) appeared above a colored rectangle with a shape in it. Participants were instructed
to indicate whether the color was red or green when the cue was C, and whether the shape was
a circle or triangle when the cue was S. If the response was correct, the next trial appeared
after a 600 ms intertribal interval (ITI). If it was incorrect, the computer beeped and error
message (i.e., “incorrect”) was displayed for 1000 ms followed by an ITI of 600 ms (Miyake et
al., 2004).
In the first three blocks of the training trials, the stimulus was univalent and was
applicable to only one task—either a color or shape task. In the first block, the shape task (i.e., a
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black line‐drawing of either a circle or square shape) was presented on each trial, whereas in
the second block, the color task (i.e., a square‐shaped color patch of either red or green color)
was presented. In the third block, a shape or a color patch was presented in a random order
(e.g., a black line drawing of a square on one trial, followed by a red color patch on the next). In
the last two blocks of the training session, the stimulus was bivalent and consisted of a shape
(either circle or triangle) superimposed on a square color patch (either red or green).
Participants performed the shape task throughout the fourth block and the color task for the
last, fifth block.
After completing the training trials, participants performed two blocks of target pure‐
task trials with 64 trials in each block. The trial set‐up was identical to the training trials.
However, participants no longer received an error message for incorrect responses but were
informed of their accuracy (percentage correct) at the end of each block. After completing the
pure‐task trials, participants performed blocks of mixed‐task trials. In these trials, the cues were
the combination of both color and shape tasks (C for color and S for shape). To familiarize
participants with the procedure, they were first asked to practice mixed‐task trials for two
blocks consisting of 16 trials in each block. The stimulus was the same as in the target pure‐task
trials and consisted of a shape (circle or triangle) superimposed on a square‐shaped color patch
(red or green) presented in the middle of the screen. The cue‐to‐stimulus interval (CSI) was 200
ms. The cue and stimulus remained on‐screen until responses from participants were received.
During this practice phase, participants were given immediate feedback for incorrect responses
using the same procedure as in the pure‐task trials. After practicing the mixed‐task trials,
participants performed two blocks consisting of 50 target mixed‐task trials in each block. The
168
trial setup for these mixed‐task trials was identical to the practice trials except that feedback
was no longer provided for incorrect responses (Miyake et al., 2004).
Stroop Task
On each trial of the Stroop task, participants saw words presented in one of four colors:
red, blue, green, or black. Participants are instructed to name the color of each stimulus while
ignoring what the words actually say as quickly and as accurately as possible. The response
rules were kept constant for all participants (i.e., d for red words, f for green words, j for blue
words, and k for black words). If an incorrect response was made, a red x was flashed on the
screen. In this experiment, participants were given three types of trials: (a) incongruent colors
condition—30 trials with a color word printed in a different color (e.g., BLUE printed in red
color); (b) congruent colors condition—30 trials with a color word printed in the same color
(BLUE in blue color); and (c) control condition—30 trials with rectangles printed in one of four
colors (red, green, blue, or black). Participants also received three short blocks of approximately
6 trials apiece for practice.
N‐Back Task
This task followed the same procedure used in Jaeggi et al. (2010). In this task,
participants were shown a sequence of visual stimuli and they had to respond each time the
current stimulus was identical to the one presented n positions back in the sequence. The
stimulus material consisted of 8 random shapes. The shapes were all shown in yellow and
presented centrally on a black background for 500 ms each, followed by a 2500 ms inter‐
169
stimulus interval. Participants were required to press a pre‐defined key for targets, and their
response window lasted from the onset of the stimulus until the presentation of the next
stimulus (3000 ms). No response was required for non‐targets. Participants completed a total of
9 blocks (2‐, 3‐, and 4‐back levels, with each level presented for 3 consecutive blocks).
Participants completed 10 trials of practice session per level n tested and then three blocks of
each n‐back task—with each block consisted of 20 trials, including 6 target and 14 non‐target
trials. Omissions were counted as errors.
170
APPENDIX E
SAMPLE EXPERIMENT MATERIALS
171
Instructions for Experiment7
Please read this following information carefully.
1. Your primary task is to do an online shopping search, and then make a decision based on
the criteria provided by the researchers.
2. The excel file on your computer provides the criteria you need to make your final
decision.
3. Please save your response regularly.
4. Please let the researcher know if you have any questions.
5. Now, you are about to begin your task. Your completion time will be automatically
monitored. Click ‘START’ once you are ready to begin and click ‘STOP’ once you finished
making your decision.
Scenario8
Your birthday is just around the corner. Your parents want to buy you a new laptop. So,
you think of doing some research about laptops/computers. Because you are so excited about
it, you go online to search for information about laptop, including the features, specifications,
and the price. So, you turn on your computer, open internet explorer, and go to
www.amazon.com. You particularly are interested in five different laptops (see the list below).
But, you don’t know which one is the best. In order to help you make the best decision, you
asked for help from your introduction for information systems’ instructor and he provided you
with a scoring sheet in Excel where you can give a point score based on 15 criteria for each
laptop.
Note: Please copy the product name and paste it in the website’s search box.
A. MacBook Pro MD101LL/A (750 Storage)
7
The instruction was printed and was also conveyed verbally before the experiment.
8
The scenario shown here was for the high complexity condition. For the low complexity condition, only the first
five products were presented and for the medium complexity condition, only the first ten products were
presented.
172
B. Asus X202E‐DB21T
C. HP Envy 14‐3010NR Spectre
D. Samsung Series 5 550 (Wi‐Fi)
E. MacBook Air MD711LL/A
You talk to your friend, Amanda, about it and she suggests you to take a look at another
website (www.bestbuy.com). She believes you can find a good laptop on that website. She also
gives you a list of laptops you may be interested in.
F. Acer E14314404
G. Toshiba C75DA7310
H. Asus Q550LF‐BBI7T07
I. Dell I7437T‐2509SLV
J. HP Envy 15‐J175NR
You tell your parents that you get confused because you have so many options. Because
your dad works as a Manager at the Staples, he thinks you should check out some laptop on his
company’s website (www.staples.com). He gives you some recommendations to look up.
K. Lenovo G710 ‐ 59395518
L. Gateway NV570P07u
M. HP Pavilion 15‐N020US
N. Samsung NP600B4C‐A01US
O. Acer NX.V8WAA.001
After you calculated the total point of each laptop, you decided to buy the product with
the highest total points. Please enter your product selection below:
___________________________________________
Total Completion Time: _______ (Minutes, Seconds)
You have just finished your tasks. Do not forget to save your Excel file. Thank you for your
participation.
173
Table E.1
Excel Scoring Sheet
Product
Criteria Guidelines A B … O
Operating Guidelines:
System (OS) 1 point if Chrome OS
2 points if Windows 7
3 points if Windows 8
4 points if Mac OS
Laptop Size Guidelines (rounded to the closest decimal):
No point if >16"
3 points if 14‐16"
5 points if 11‐13"
Memory and Guidelines:
Battery Life No point if battery life < 8 hours; memory < 4 GB
2 point if battery life < 8 hours; memory > 4 GB
4 points if > 8 hours; memory > 4 GB
Price (New Item) Guidelines:
No point if > US$1,000
1 points if US$1,000‐750
2 points if US$750‐500
3 points if < US$500
Harddrive Guidelines:
No point if < 128 GB
2 points if 128‐256 GB
4 points if > 256 GB
Processor Guidelines:
No point if Intel Celeron/Atom/Core 2 Duo/AMD
1 point if Intel Pentium
2 points if Intel core i3
3 points if Intel core i5
4 points if intel core i7
Item Weight Guidelines:
No point if > 7 pounds
2 point if 6.99‐5 pounds
4 points if 4.99‐3 pounds
5 points if < 3 pounds
Wi‐Fi and Guidelines:
Bluetooth No point if neither are available
1 point if Wi‐Fi OR Bluetooth is available
2 points if both Wi‐Fi and Bluetooth are available
(table continues)
174
Table E.1 (continued)
Product
Criteria Guidelines A B … O
Screen Guidelines:
Resolution No point if less than 1024 x 768
1 point if between 1152 x 768 to 1280 x 854
2 points if greater than 1280 x 854 or 1366 x 768
Number of USB 3 Guidelines:
Port No point if none
1 point if 1
2 point if 2 or more
TOTAL Guidelines: The total point of each product is
automatically computed using the SUM Function in
Excel.
175
APPENDIX F
INFORMED CONSENT NOTICE
176
177
178
179
180
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