CHRISTOPHER G.

HAYES
PREFACE

English at Hand isa concise, easy-to-use reference tool for the first-year college writer and researcher as well as for the
more advanced student needing a quick answer to a writing question. Its modest price and compact form make this
book easy to have and keep at hand—in a notebook or binder, in a folder of essay drafts, or in a backpack. ;
English at Hand reviews the basics of traditional English grammar and the conventions of academic and profession-
al punctuation, mechanics, and usage. In addition, it offers the following: illustrations and explanations of the most
common sentence errors and how to correct them; advice on constructing clear, effective sentences; valuable ESL point-
ers for nonnative speakers; advice for writing effective paragraphs, essays, and research papers; and MLA and APA
guidelines for documentation. Throughout, the explanations are always brief, clear, and fully illustrated.
The book is also easy to use. Because it can fit inside a three-ring notebook, its information is only a finger-flip away.
Because of its clear headings and thorough index, it takes only a moment to find the answers to your questions. Need to
review sentence types? Look at Chapter 5. Don’t know what your instructor means by parallelism? Turn to Chapter 12.
Unsure of whether to use affect or effect or lay or lie? Page through Chapter 28, “Glossary of Usage.” Want to know how
to document a quotation from a book? Refer to Chapters 36-38, “Documentation.”
English at Hand will be an invaluable resource in any course that requires writing. Keep it with you, and you'll
always have the answer—right at hand.

CONTENTS

Grammar Mechanics and Spelling

1 PartsofSpeech 1 22 Manuscript Format 34
2 Sentence Basics 4 23 Capital Letters 35
3 Phrases 5 24 Italics(Underlining) 37
4 Clauses 6 25 Numbers 37
5 Sentence Types 7 26 Abbreviations 38
6 Verbs 7 27 Spelling Improvement 39
7 Pronouns 13
8 Adjectives and Adverbs 16 Usage
28 GlossaryofUsage 41 e
Effective Sentences
9 Fragments 18 ESL Pointers
10 Fused Sentences and Comma Splices 19
29 Articles with Count and Noncount Nouns 48
11 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers 19
30 Subjectsand Verbs 49
12 Parallelism 20
31 Adjectives 50
13 Sentence Variety and Style 21
32 Prepositions Used for Time and Place 51
14 WordChoice 24

Punctuation
Effective Writing
33 Writinga Paragraph 52
15 EndMarks 26
34 WritinganEssay 54
16 TheComma_ 26
35 Writinga Research Paper 56
17 TheSemicolon 28
18 TheColon 29
19 TheApostrophe 30 Documentation
20 Quotation Marks 31 36 An Overview of Documentation 59
21 Other Punctuation Marks 32 37 MLAStyle 59
388 APAStyle 65

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GRAMMAR PARTS OF SPEECH

1 / Parts of Speech Relative pronouns. A relative pronoun refers to a per-

son or thing already mentioned in the sentence. It begins
Words—the building blocks of sentences—can be
a dependent clause: Here is a watch that I found.
divided into eight parts of speech. Parts of speech are
classifications of words according to their meaning and who whose whom which that
use in a sentence.
This section will explain the eight parts of speech: Interrogative pronouns. An interrogative pronoun
introduces a question: What day is this?
nouns prepositions conjunctions
pronouns adjectives interjections who whose whom which _ what
verbs adverbs
Demonstrative pronouns. A demonstrative pronoun is
used to point out a particular person or thing: This is
la Nouns
my car.
A noun is a word that is used to name something: a
person, a place, a thing, or an idea. this that these those
Nouns are classified in various ways: Do not use them (as in them shoes), this here, that
there, these here, or those there to point out.
Proper nouns and common nouns. A proper noun
refers to someone or something specific and is capitalized Reflexive pronouns. A reflexive pronoun is one that
(Alice Walker, Chicago, July). All other nouns are com- ends in -se/f or -selves. It is used as the object of a verb:
mon nouns (woman, city, month). (See 23g, page 36.) Cary cut herself. It can also be used as the object of a
preposition when the subject of the verb is the same as
Singular and plural nouns. A singular noun names one that object: James sent a birthday card to himself.
person, place, thing, or idea (boy, alley, truth). A plural
noun refers to two or more persons, places, things, or Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
ideas. Most singular nouns can be made plural with the Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves
addition of an s (boys, alleys, truths). Some nouns, like
box, have irregular plurals (boxes). You can check on Intensive pronouns. Intensive pronouns have exactly
nouns you think may have irregular plurals by looking the same forms as reflexive pronouns. The difference is
up the singular form in a dictionary. (See 2a, page 4.) in how they are used. An intensive pronoun is used to
add emphasis: I myself will need to read the contract
Collective nouns. A collective noun refers to a group of before I sign it.
persons or things that is generally thought of as one
unit. Examples are group, jury, and team. (See 6d, page Indefinite pronouns. An indefinite pronoun refers to a
12.) nonspecific person or thing.
each either everyone nothing both
Count and noncount nouns. Count nouns name per- several all any most none
sons, places, things, or ideas that can be counted (one
man, two cities, three balls, four questions). Noncount Reciprocal pronouns. A reciprocal pronoun expresses
nouns name things that come in forms that cannot be shared actions or feelings. It refers to individual parts
counted (flour, air, affection). (See “Articles with Count of a plural antecedent: The students help each other
and Noncount Nouns,” page 48.) ; prepare for finals.
each other one another
1b Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that stands for a noun. Pronouns (For more information on pronouns, see 6d, pages
eliminate the need for constant repetition. Compare the 12-13, and “Pronouns,” pages 13-16.)
following two examples:
Verbs
Lisa met Lisa’s friends in the record store at the mall.
Lisa meets Lisa’s friends there every Saturday. Verbs generally express action or being. Every com-
plete sentence must contain at least one verb. There
Lisa met her friends in the record store at the mall. She are several categories of verbs.
meets them there every Saturday.
The pronoun her is used to replace the word Lisa’s. The Action and linking verbs. A verb that expresses action
pronoun she replaces Lisa. The pronoun them replaces is called an action verb. It tells what is happening in
the words Lisa’s friends. a sentence.

Personal pronouns. A personal pronoun refers to a Mr. Jensen swatted at the bee with his hand.
particular person, place, or thing. It can act in a sen-
A verb that expresses a state of being is a linking
tence as subject, object, or possessive. verb. A linking verb joins (or links) the subject of a
Singular: I, me, my, mine, you, your, yours, he, him, sentence to a subject complement, a word that modi-
his, she, her, hers, it, its fies or renames the subject. Linking verbs are usually
Plural: we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, they, forms of be.
them, their, theirs
PARTS OF SPEECH
PARTS OF SPEECH

Forms of the Linking Verb Be Transitive and intransitive verbs. A transitive verb
requires a direct object to complete its meaning. A
am are were have been had been
direct object is a word or words that receive the
will be has been will have been
is was action of the verb and answer such questions as whom?
or what?
The sun is a star. The florist uses wildflowers.
Is joins the subject, sun, to a word that renames, or Uses is a transitive verb. The direct object is wildflow-
identifies, it: star. ers; it answers the question uses what?

Verbs such as look, seem, and taste are also linking An intransitive verb does not need a direct object
verbs when theyare followed by a subject complement. to complete its meaning.
(For more about subject complements, see 2b, page 5.) Oil floats.
This cucumber tastes bitter.
Many verbs can be transitive or intransitive depend-
Tastes links the subject, cucumber, to a word that modi- ing on their use. For instance, in the following sen-
fies it: bitter. tence, floats is transitive:
Other Common Linking Verbs My brother floats paper boats in the tub.

sound smell In this sentence, floats has a direct object—paper boats.

become appear Paper boats answers the question floats what?

Phrasal verbs. A phrasal verb is made up of a main

verb followed by a particle. A particle is a preposition
Main and helping verbs. A verb is made up of at least that functions as part of the verb. The particle gives the
one word, the main verb, plus one or more helping verb a different meaning than it has by itself. For
verbs that may precede it. example, the particle up changes the verb look to look
The basketball team will be leaving for a game at six up: Look up the definition in the dictionary. There are
o'clock. numerous phrasal verbs, including call up, find out,
In this sentence, the main verb is leaving. The helping hand in, make up, and put off.
verbs are will and be. Leaving by itself would not make When your papers are done, hand them in.
sense as a verb. It would be incorrect to say, “The bas-
ketball team leaving for a game at six o'clock.” Words Let’s hug and make up.
that end in -ing cannot be the verb of a sentence unless
they are accompanied by at least one helping verb. Words that are not verbs. Here are some tips to help
you find the verb in a sentence:
Oscar should have worn ajacket to his job interview.
e The verb of a sentence never begins with the word
In this sentence, Oscar is the subject. What should
Oscar have done? He should have worn (a jacket). to.
Should and have are helping verbs. The last verb in the The instructor agreed to provide ten minutes for study
phrase, worn, is the main verb. Worn by itself could not before the quiz.
be the verb. It would not be correct to say, “Oscar worn Although provide is a verb, to provide cannot be the
a jacket to his job interview.” verb of a sentence. The verb of this sentence is
agreed.
The Helping Verbs
(For more information on verbs that follow the word
Forms of be: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been to, see 3b, page 5, and 13b, page 23.)
Forms of have: have, has, had
Forms of do: do, does, did ¢ Certain adverbs—such as not, just, never, only, and
Modals: can, could, may, might, must, always—may appear between the main verb and the
ought (to), shall, should, will, would helping verb. They describe the verb, but they are
never part of it.
The canary does not sing in front of visitors.
Each of the helping verbs can be used alone or in a
We will never eat at that restaurant again.
variety of combinations, such as have been, may be,
might have been, and would have been.
Modals, unlike other helping verbs, do not change 1d_ Prepositions
form to indicate tense. In other words, they do not take A preposition is a word that connects a noun or a pro-
such endings as -ed, -s, and -ing. After the modals, noun to another word in the sentence.
always use the basic form of a verb, the form in which a
A man in the bus was snoring loudly.
verb is listed in the dictionary (go, see, work, and so on).
In is a preposition. It connects the noun bus to man.
The factory will close tomorrow.
We should attend the wedding. On the next page is a list of common prepositions.

Helping verbs are sometimes called auxiliary verbs.

(For more about helping verbs, see “Verbs,” pages 7-13.)
 PARTS OF SPEECH PARTS OF SPEECH

Common Prepositions The canary sang in the pet store window as the shoppers
greeted each other.
about before down through
above behind during to Now look at this sentence after adverbs have been
across below except toward inserted:
after beneath for under
among beside from up The canary sang softly in the pet store window as the
around between in with shoppers loudly greeted each other.
at by instead of without
The adverbs add details to the sentence. They also
allow the reader to contrast the singing of the canary to
the noise the shoppers are making.
A prepositional phrase is a group of words that Look at the following sentences and the explanations
begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pro- of how adverbs are used in each case:
noun. The words in the bus, for example, are a preposi-
tional phrase. There is a prepositional phrase in the The chef yelled angrily at the young waiter.
following sentence: The adverb angrily describes the verb yelled.

The man with the black mustache left the restaurant My mother has an extremely busy schedule on Tuesdays.
quickly. The adverb extremely describes the adjective busy.
The noun mustache is the object of the preposition with. The sick man spoke very faintly to his loyal nurse.
The prepositional phrase with the black moustache
describes the word man. It tells us exactly which man The adverb very describes the adverb faintly.
left the restaurant quickly.
Some adverbs do not end in -ly. Examples include
(For more about prepositions, see 3a, page 5, and 6d, very, often, never, always, and well.
pages 11-12.) (For more information on adverbs, see 2b, pages 4-5,
and “Adjectives and Adverbs,” pages 16-17.)
le Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes a noun (the
1g Conjunctions
name of a person, place, thing, or idea). Look at the fol- Conjunctions are words that connect. There are three
lowing sentence: kinds of conjunctions.

The dog lay down on a mat in front of the fireplace. Coordinating conjunctions. A coordinating conjunc-
tion joins ideas with equal roles in a sentence.
Now look at this sentence when adjectives have been
inserted: Max and Roger interviewed for the job, but their friend
Anne got it.
The shaggy dog lay down on a worn mat in front of the
fireplace. The coordinating conjunction and connects two proper
nouns that are both subjects of the same verb: Max and
The adjective shaggy describes the noun dog; the adjec- Roger. The coordinating conjunction but connects two
tive worn describes the noun mat. equal word groups (independent clauses): Max and
Adjectives add spice to our writing. They also help us to Roger interviewed for the job and their friend Anne got it.
identify particular people, places, or things. They can The Coordinating Conjunctions
be found in two places:
e An adjective may come before the word it
describes: a damp night, the moldy bread, a
striped umbrella.
e An adjective that describes the subject of a sen- (For more on coordinating conjunctions, see 5b, page 7;
tence may come after a linking verb. The linking 10c, page 19; and 18a, page 21.)
verb may be a form of the verb be: He is furious.
I am exhausted. They are hungry. Other link- Correlative conjunctions. Correlative conjunctions,
ing verbs include feel, look, sound, smell, taste, which function in pairs, also join ideas with equal roles
appear, seem, and become: The soup tastes salty. in a sentence.
Your hands feel dry. The dog seems lost. We will either repaint the room or wallpaper it.
The words a, an, and the (called articles) are generally Either and or join the two verbs of the sentence: repaint
classified as adjectives. and wallpaper.
(For more information on adjectives, see “Adjectives
Common Correlative Conjunctions
and Adverbs,” pages 16-17. Also see page 41 for when
to use a and an.) both... and neither... nor whether... or
either ... or not only .. . but also
we 1f Adverbs
An adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjec-
tive, or another adverb. Many adverbs end in the let- (For more on correlative conjunctions, see 12a, pages
ters ly. Look at the following sentence: 20-21.)
PARTS OF SPEECH SENTENCE BASICS

Subordinating conjunctions. When a subordinating 2a Subjects and their modifiers

conjunction is added to a clause, the clause can no The simple subject of a sentence is the noun or pro-
longer stand alone as an independent sentence. It is no noun—the person, place, thing, or idea—that the sen-
longer a complete thought. For example, look at the fol- tence is about. The subject usually performs an action or
lowing sentence: is described by the sentence. The subject can be called
Karen fainted in class. the “who or what” word. To find the subject, ask your-
self, “Who or what is doing something in this sentence?”
The word group Karen fainted in class is a complete or “Who or what is being described in this sentence?”
thought. It can stand alone as a sentence. See what
happens when a subordinating conjunction is added to The players ran onto the field.
a complete thought: Who is doing something in the sentence? The answer is
players. That’s who ran onto the field. So players is the
When Karen fainted in class. subject of the sentence.
Now the words cannot stand alone as a sentence. They The popcorn is overly greasy.
are dependent on other words to complete the thought: What is being described in this sentence? The answer is
When Karen fainted in class, we put her feet up on some popcorn. That’s what is overly greasy. So popcorn is the
subject of the sentence.
books.

Common Subordinating Conjunctions Singular, plural, and compound subjects. A subject is

singular or plural. Most plural subjects simply end in s.
after because if unless where
wherever Singular: The car in front of us is speeding.
although before since until
Plural: The cars in front of us are speeding.
as even if sothat when whether
as if eventhough though whenever while Some plural subjects are irregular:
Singular: The child was crying.
(For more information on subordinating conjunctions,_ Plural: The children were crying.
see 5b, page 7; 9a, page 18; and 13a, page 22.)
(For more information on making nouns plural, see
27e, page 40.)
th Interjections A compound subject is two or more subjects con-
Interjections are words that are used to express emo- nected by a coordinating conjunction such as and.
tion. They have no grammatical connection with the Compound subjects are usually plural. (See 6d, page 12.)
rest of a sentence and can stand alone. Mild interjec-
Compound: The car and the truck in front of us are
tions are followed by commas; strong ones are followed
speeding.
by exclamation marks. Examples are oh, wow, ouch,
and oops. These words are usually not found in formal Modifiers. The subject of a sentence may be accompa-
writing. nied by words, phrases, and clauses that modify it.
Oh, we're late for class. A very large truck stalled on the bridge.
“Hey!” yelled Maggie. “That’s my bike.” The subject, truck, is modified by the words a very large.

Several bunches of green grapes fell onto the super-

A note on words being more than one part of
market floor.
speech
The subject, bunches, is modified by the word several
A word may function as more than one part of speech. and the prepositional phrase of green grapes.
For example, the word dust can be a verb or a noun,
depending on its role in a sentence. The wallet that I lost was never found.
The subject, wallet, is modified by the word the and the
I dust my bedroom once a month, whether it needs it or
clause that I lost.
not. (verb)
The top of my refrigerator is covered with an inch of
dust. (noun)
2b Verbs and their modifiers, complements, and
objects

The verb of a sentence is the word or words—the main

2 / Sentence Basics verb and any helping verbs—that express action or
being. (See lc, pages 1-2, for a more complete explana-
A sentence is made up of two basic parts: tion of verbs.)
1 A complete subject—the simple subject and its
ino The verb and its modifiers. The verb of a sentence may
; . ; be accompanied by words, phrases, and clauses that
2 A predicate—a verb and its modifiers, objects, and modify it.
complements.
Traffic moved slowly.
The verb moved is modified by the adverb slowly.
SENTENCE BASICS
PHRASES

The boy was waving at the airplane. Object complements are found with verbs such as
The verb was waving is modified by the prepositional appoint, call, consider, name, and make.
phrase at the airplane.
I sneezed when the instructor called on me.
The verb sneezed is modified by the clause when the 3 / Phrases
instructor called on me.
A phrase is a word group that never functions as a
Compound verbs. A sentence may contain a compound complete sentence. It may lack a subject, a verb, or
verb—two or more verbs that have the same subject or both. Phrases function as parts of speech—nouns,
subjects. verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

The impatient customer tapped her fingers on the

counter and cleared her throat.
3a__ Prepositional phrases
The subject of this sentence, customer, did two things: A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition (a
tapped (her fingers) and cleared (her throat). word such as from, on, and to) and ends with the object
of the preposition. It may also include modifiers of the
Subject complements. A subject complement follows a object.
linking verb (such as is, was, were, look, appear, and Prepositional phrases function as adjectives or
seem) and provides information about the subject. A adverbs. (For a list of prepositions, see 1d, page 3.)
subject complement is either an adjective or a noun or
The 1995 earthquake in Kobe, Japan, killed more than
pronoun. If it is an adjective, it describes the subject.
five thousand people within minutes.
This potato is blue. The first prepositional phrase functions as an adjective;
The verb is links the subject, potato, to an adjective that it modifies the noun earthquake. The second preposi-
describes it: blue. tional phrase functions as an adverb; it modifies the
verb killed.
Nouns and pronouns are naming words. When a sub-
ject complement is a noun or pronoun, it renames the
3b Verbal phrases
subject, identifying it in some way.
A verbal phrase is a word group that contains one of
Cara’s boyfriend is a good mechanic.
the three types of verbals—infinitives, participles, and
The verb is links the subject, boyfriend, to a noun that gerunds.
identifies it: (a good) mechanic.
Infinitive phrases. An infinitive phrase is made up of to
Direct and indirect objects. A direct object is a noun plus the base form of a verb (for example, to go or to
or pronoun that receives the action of a verb. sing) and any modifiers or objects. It can function as a
Mr. Duncan built a bookcase. noun, adjective, or adverb.
Bookcase is the direct object; it is what was built. To delay is dangerous.
Sometimes a direct object is preceded by an indirect To delay functions as a noun, the subject of the sentence.
object. The indirect object is the noun or pronoun that I would like a place to do my woodworking.
tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done.
To do my woodworking functions as an adjective modi-
Mr. Duncan built me a bookcase. fying the noun place.
Me is the indirect object. It tells for whom the bookcase The old cat is happy to sleep all day.
was built.
To sleep all day functions as an adverb modifying the
To find out if an object is direct or indirect, try men- adjective happy.
tally inserting the word to or for before it. If the word is
an indirect object, the sentence will make sense. Participial phrases. A participial phrase is made up of a
present participle (the -ing form of a verb) or a past par-
Mr. Duncan built [for] me a bookcase. ticiple (the -ed form of a regular verb or the past partici-
ple form of an irregular verb) plus accompanying words.
Object complements. An object complement follows a A participial phrase always functions as an adjective.
direct object and describes or renames it. An object
complement is either an adjective or a noun or pronoun. Bobbing in the air, the round white kite resembled a
drunken cloud.
My boss made me angry.
The participial phrase modifies the noun kite.
The direct object is me—that’s who received the action
of the verb, made. The object complement is angry, an The instructor smiled, delighted at the class’s enthu-
adjective that describes the direct object. siasm.
The participial phrase modifies the noun instructor.
She called the puppy Minnie.
The direct object is puppy—that’s what was called Frozen with fear, Rashid felt his heartbeat accelerate.
something. The object complement is Minnie, a proper The participial phrase frozen with fear describes the
noun that renames the direct object. proper noun Rashid.
 CLAUSES
PHRASES

There is a rumor that our apartment building is

Gerund phrases. A gerund phrase—the -ing form of a ‘
going to be sold.
verb plus any modifiers or objects—always functions as
a noun. You can distinguish between a participial That refers to rumor, so the adjective clause modifies
rumor. The word that can be omitted from a dependent
phrase that contains the -ing form of a verb and a
clause if the sentence remains clear without it: There is
gerund phrase because of their different functions—a
a rumor our apartment building is going to be sold.
participial phrase functions only as an adjective.
Adjective clauses may be essential to the meaning of
Spanking children may cause them to become aggres-
sive toward their peers.
the independent clause or nonessential. Nonessential
material is set off by commas.
The gerund phrase serves as the subject of the sen-
tence. The Shu family moved to Cherry Hill, where the
schools are considered excellent.
3c Absolute phrases Adverb clauses. An adverb clause, like an adverb, can
An absolute phrase usually includes a noun or pro- modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. It begins with
noun followed by a participle or participial phrase. a subordinating conjunction, such as because or if.
Absolute phrases modify an entire clause or sentence. Adverb clauses generally explain when, where, why,
how, under what condition, to what degree, or with
Dental fear being common, some dentists advertise a what result.
gentle approach.
The noun fear is followed by the participial phrase
being common. Words That Begin Adverb Clauses

Subordinating conjunctions:
after because if unless where
4 / Clauses although before since until wherever
as even if sothat when whether
A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a as if even though though whenever while
verb. There are two types of clauses—independent and.
dependent.
Tina decided to study more after she saw her mid-
semester grades.
4a _ Independent clauses
The adverb clause modifies the verb decided, explaining
An independent clause is able to stand alone as a when Tina decided to study more.
sentence.
If an adverb clause begins a sentence, it is usually fol-
The breeze is chilly. lowed by a comma.
After she saw her mid-semester grades, Tina decided
4b Dependent clauses to study more.
A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sen-
tence. It begins with a word that requires it to be con- Noun clauses. Noun clauses begin with some of the
nected to an independent clause. same words that adjective clauses begin with. Unlike
adjective clauses, however, noun clauses do not modify.
Although the sun is shining brightly. A noun clause can function in the same ways that a sin-
The word although makes this clause dependent—it gle noun does, including as a subject, a subject comple-
must be joined to an independent clause: ment, and a direct object. A noun clause may begin with
a pronoun such as who or whoever or with a subordinat-
Although the sun is shining brightly, the breeze is chilly. ing conjunction such as when or where. Words that com-
There are three types of dependent clauses. They are monly begin noun clauses are listed below.
named according to their function in a sentence. Words That Begin Noun Clauses
Adjective clauses. An adjective clause, like an adjec- Relative and who, whoever, whom, whomever,
tive, can modify a noun or a pronoun. It begins with a related pronouns: whose, what, whatever, that,
relative pronoun, such as who, or a relative adverb, which, whichever
such as where. Words that commonly begin adjective Subordinating when, whenever, where, wherever,
clauses are listed below. conjunctions: how, why, if, whether
Words That Begin Adjective Clauses
What you see is what you get.
Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that The first noun clause is the subject of the sentence; its
Relative adverbs: when, where, why verb is is. The second noun clause is the subject comple-
ment.
We gave cereal samples to every customer who came in The plastic spider on the wall tile surprises whoever
today. enters the shower.
Who refers to customer, so the adjective clause modifies The noun clause is the direct object of the verb surprises.
customer.
SENTENCE TYPES VERBS

5 / Sentence Types Complex sentences. A complex sentence includes one

independent clause and at least one dependent one.
Sentences can be classified according to their purpose When a dependent clause begins a sentence, it is gener-
or their structure. ally followed by a comma. In the following sentence, the
dependent clause is boldfaced:
5a_ The four sentence types based on purpose
Although nearby trees were blown down, our house
Declarative sentences. A declarative sentence makes a escaped the tornado.
statement. Most sentences are declarative. The first clause begins with the subordinating conjunc-
tion although, so it depends on the independent clause
The average human body is covered with fourteen to
to finish the thought.
eighteen square feet of skin.

Interrogative sentences. An interrogative sentence Compound-complex sentences. A compound-complex

asks a question.
sentence has the characteristics of both a compound
sentence and a complex sentence. Like the compound
Where are we? sentence, the compound-complex sentence includes at
least two independent clauses. Like the complex sen-
Imperative sentences. An imperative sentence gives a tence, it contains at least one dependent clause. In the
command, makes a request, or offers advice. Generally following example, the dependent clause is boldfaced:
the subject, you, is omitted, but understood.
When the children’s parents were out of town, the
Stay away from that closet. babysitter had parties, and the children watched TV
until midnight.
Exclamatory sentences. An exclamatory sentence
The two independent clauses are connected by the coor-
expresses sudden strong emotion. It is often an incom-
dinating conjunction and. Together they could make a
plete sentence. compound sentence: The babysitter had parties, and the
You’ve come back! children watched TV until midnight. The dependent
clause begins with the subordinating conjunction when.
What a game! Combined with either of the two independent state-
ments, it would make a complex sentence, for example:
5b The four sentence types based on structure When the children’s parents were out of town, the
babysitter had parties.
Sentences can be divided into four types according to
how many and what kind of clauses they contain. (See
“Clauses,” page 6.)
6 / Verbs
Simple sentences. A simple sentence is made up of a
single independent clause. (Below, subjects are itali- 6a_ Verb tenses
cized, and verbs are boldfaced.) The four principal parts of verbs. Each verb tense is
A jet soared through the darkening sky. formed with one of the four principal parts of verbs.
Several customers complained about the slow service. Following are explanations of each of these verb parts.

A simple sentence may have a compound subject, a 1 Basic form. The basic form is the form in which
compound verb, or both. verbs are listed in the dictionary (the infinitive form). It
is used for the present tense for all subjects except
Shorts and T-shirts sway on the clothesline. third-person singular subjects.
The children splashed and squealed in the swimming
I ask questions in class.
pool.
Every weekend, Gary, Chet, and Rita go to the movies, Third-person singular verbs are formed by adding -s to
eat at a Chinese restaurant, and dance at a club. the basic form.
Dalila always asks questions in English class.
Compound sentences. A compound sentence is made
up of two or more independent clauses. The two clauses 2 Past tense form. The past tense of regular verbs is
may be joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunc- formed by adding -ed or -d to the basic form.
tion (such as and, but, or so) or by a semicolon.
We asked the instructor to postpone the test.
Rose wants chili for dinner, but she forgot to buy beans. I named my son after my grandfather.
This sentence is made up of two independent clauses
joined by a comma and the coordinating conjunction 3 Present participle. The present participle is the
but. -ing form of a verb. It is used in the progressive tenses
(see page 9).
The plane landed safely; everyone felt relief.
The two independent clauses are joined by a semicolon. Mimi is asking the instructor something in the hallway.
I am naming my next child after my grandmother.
(For a complete list and explanation of coordinating
conjunctions, see 1g, page 3.)
VERBS VERBS

4 Past participle. The past participle of a regular finish the paper an hour before class” instead of “I finished
verb is the same as its past tense form. The past par- the paper an hour before class.” In written English, how-
ever, the -ed or -d ending is essential.
ticiple is the form that is used with the helping verbs
have, has, and had and with am, is, are, was, or were. Future tense (will + basic form). Verbs in the
future tense describe future actions.
Our lab instructors have asked us to study in groups.
I was named after my mother. The dew will evaporate by noon.

Here are the principal parts of three regular verbs: Future Tense Forms

Basic Past Present Past

Singular Plural
Form Tense Participle Participle
I, you, he, she, it will work _—_ we, you, they will work
work worked working worked
smile smiled smiling smiled
wonder wondered wondering wondered
THE PERFECT TENSES
Irregular verbs, which have irregular forms for the past
tense form and past participle, are explained in 6c on The perfect tenses are made up of a form of have plus
pages 10-11. the past participle.

Six main tenses. The six main tenses in English are Present perfect tense (have or has + past partici-
ple). The present perfect tense describes an action
present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and
future perfect. In addition, there is a progressive form that began in the past and either has been finished or
of each of those six tenses. Following are more detailed is continuing at the present time.
explanations of the tenses. I have taken five pages of notes on the textbook chapter.
Mr. Alvarez has known me all my life.
THE SIMPLE TENSES
Present tense (basic form; add -s in the third-per- Here are the present perfect tense forms of work.
son singular). Verbs in the present tense express pre- Notice the difference between the third-person singular
sent action or habitual action. (A habitual action is one and the other present perfect tense forms.
that is often repeated.)
Present Perfect Tense Forms
The dogs smell the neighbor’s barbecue.
Singular Plural
Smell expresses a present action.
First person I have worked we have worked
Mick plays basketball every Saturday. Second person you have worked you have worked
Plays expresses a habitual action. Third person he, she, it has worked they have worked

The forms of present tense verbs are shown with the

verb work in the box below. Notice the difference Past perfect tense (had + past participle). The
between the third-person singular and the other present past perfect tense describes an action that was com-
tense forms. pleted in the past before another past action.
Present Tense Forms My neighbor had watered all of his tomato plants just
before the sudden rainstorm arrived.
Singular Plural
First person I work we work Past Perfect Tense Forms
Second person you work you work
Third person he, she, it works they work Singular Plural
I, you, he, she, it we, you, they
had worked had worked
Past tense for regular verbs (basic form + -ed or
-d). Verbs in the past tense express actions that took
place in the past. Future perfect tense (will have + past participle).
The future perfect tense describes an action that will be
The town painted designs on all of its fire hydrants.
completed before some time in the future.
Last night our dog chased a raccoon.
By graduation, Arthur will have sent out a hundred
Past Tense Forms résumés.

Singular Plural Future Perfect Tense Forms

I, you, he, she, it worked we, you, they worked
Singular Plural
I, you, he, she, it we, you, they
Note: People sometimes drop the -ed or -d ending in their will have worked will have worked
everyday speech. They then tend to omit those endings in
their writing as well. For example, someone might say, “I
VERBS VERBS

THE PROGRESSIVE TENSES Present perfect progressive tense (have been or

The progressive tenses express actions still in has been + present participle). The present perfect
progress at a particular time. The simple progressives— progressive tense expresses an ongoing action that
present, past, future progressive tenses—are made by began in the past and continues in the present.
adding a form of the helping verb be to the present par- I have been waiting for the bus for twenty minutes.
ticiple, the -ing form of the verb. The perfect progres-
It has been raining for days.
sives—present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect
progressive tenses—are made by adding a form of the Present Perfect Progressive Tense Forms
helping verb have plus been to the present participle.
Singular Plural
Present progressive tense (am, are, or is + pre-
First I have been we have been
sent participle). The present progressive tense
person working working
expresses an action taking place at this moment or that
Second you have been you have been
will occur sometime in the future. person working working
You are acting strangely. Third he, she, it has they have been
person been working working
Jay is washing his car now.
I am going to get home late tonight.

Present Progressive Tense Forms Past perfect progressive tense (had been + pre-
sent participle). The past perfect progressive tense
Singular Plural expresses an ongoing action that was completed before
First person I am working we are working another action.
Second person you are working you are working The mayor had been planning on running for office
Third person he, she, itis working they are working again until he became ill.

Past Perfect Progressive Tense Forms

Past progressive tense (was or were + present par-
ticiple). The past progressive tense expresses an action Singular Plural
that was in progress at a certain time in the past. I, you, he, she, it had we, you, they had been
been working working
Mr. Austin was talking to a client when you called.
Early this morning, geese were honking loudly over-
head. Future perfect progressive tense (will have been
+ present participle). The future perfect progressive
Past Progressive Tense Forms
tense expresses an ongoing action that will be com-
Singular Plural pleted at some time in the future.
First person I was working we were working Next year, Professor Walters will have been teaching
Second person you were working you were working for forty years.
Third person he, she, it was they were
working working Future Perfect Progressive Tense Forms

Singular Plural
Future progressive tense (will be + present par- I, you, he, she, it will have we, you, they will have
been working been working
ticiple). The future progressive tense expresses an
action that will be in progress at a certain time in the
future.
Consistent verb tense. Avoid illogical or needless shifts
A reporter will be interviewing the governor this after-
in tense. For example, if you are writing a paper with
noon.
the action in the past tense, don’t shift suddenly to the
Future Progressive Tense Forms present for no reason.
Inconsistent verb tense: Harry saw my grade on the
Singular Plural
chemistry test and then asks me to tutor him.
I, you, he, she, it will we, you, they will be
be working working There is no reason for the writer to shift suddenly from
the past tense (saw) to the present tense (asks). The
inconsistency can be corrected by using the same tense
Note: The -ing form of a verb cannot stand by itself as the for both verbs:
verb of a sentence—it must be accompanied bya helping
verb. Consistent verb tense: Harry saw my grade on the
chemistry test and then asked me to tutor him.
Incorrect: The visitors pacing in the hospital lobby.
Correct: The visitors were pacing in the hospital
lobby.
 10 VERBS
VERBS

The Japanese maple tree in the front yard was planted

6b Mood and voice
by my father.
Correct and consistent use of mood. A verb’s mood
reveals how a writer views a thought or action—as a The verb in this sentence is was planted. The subject of
fact, a question, a wish, and so on. There are three the sentence, tree, did not perform the action. The tree
moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. was acted upon by the father. When the subject of a sen-
Use the indicative mood—the most common tence is acted upon, the verb is in the passive voice.
English mood by far—for facts, opinions, and questions Passive verbs are formed by combining a form of to
of fact. be (am, is, are, was, were) with the past participle of a
verb (which for regular verbs is the same as their past
Jan is majoring in special education. tense form). For example, in the sentence above, was
She has made a good choice. plus the past participle of plant results in the passive
What is your major? verb was planted. Below are some other passive verbs.
Form of tobe + past participle = passive verb
Use the imperative mood for commands, requests,
and advice. Imperative verbs are always in the second am + pushed = am pushed
person (you). The subject, you, is understood but not is + surprised = is surprised
stated. was + delayed = was delayed

Go away! In general, write in the active voice. Because it

Please wipe your shoes off. expresses action, it is usually more energetic and effec-
tive than the passive voice.
Try the mushroom soup.
Active: Sheila tossed an apple to me.
Use the subjunctive mood for wishes and in if Passive: An apple was tossed to me by Sheila.
clauses that express desires or conditions contrary to
The active version is more lively and direct.
fact. In such cases, use the past tense of the verb. For
the verb be, the past tense subjunctive is always were However, use the passive voice when you wish to
(not was), even for singular subjects. emphasize the receiver of the action or when the per-
former of the action is unknown.
I wish Tai were here.
It would be nice if you came to the meetings Last week my car was stolen.

If I were Opal, I would look for a more satisfying job. Telephone orders are taken twenty-four hours a day.

Also use the subjunctive mood in that clauses that Irregular verbs
express demands, recommendations, or requests. In
such cases, use the base form (the dictionary form) of Most English verbs are regular. That is, they form
the verb (for example, be, go, and buy). their past tense and past participle by adding -ed or -d
to the basic form, as for work (worked) and smile
The company insists that all employees be at work (smiled). Irregular verbs, however, do not follow that
exactly at eight o’clock. pattern. Instead, their past tense forms and past par-
We ask that each worker go to the polls today. ticiples are formed in various ways, as with these two
The instructor recommends that each student buy a good irregular verbs:
paperback dictionary. Basic Form Past Tense Form Past Participle
Avoid illogical or needless shifts in mood. hide hid hidden
swim swam swum
Inconsistent mood: Read the chapter, and you should
do the practices. Note: The present participle of both regular and irregular
verbs is formed simply by adding -ing to the basic form
The sentence changes from the imperative mood (Read (sometimes with minor spelling variations): working, smil-
the chapter) to the indicative mood (you should do... .). ing, hiding, swimming.
Consistent mood: Read the chapter, and do the prac-
On the next page are some of the most common
tices.
irregular verbs. Review them enough to become famil-
The subject of a sen- iar with them. When deciding on whether to use the
The passive and active voices.
past tense form or the past participle, keep in mind
tence usually performs the action of the verb. In such
these points:
cases, the verb is in the active voice. For example,
look at the following sentence: ¢ Ifa sentence does not include a helping verb, choose
My father planted the Japanese maple tree in the front the past tense form.
yard. e If the sentence includes a helping verb, choose the
past participle.
The verb in this sentence is planted. Who performed
that action? The answer is father, the subject of the
sentence. Therefore, the verb is in the active voice. Now
look at this version of that sentence:
VERBS 11 VERBS

Common Irregular Verbs 6d Subject-verb agreement

Basic Form Past Tense Form Past Participle In a correctly written sentence, the subject and verb
be (am, are, is) was, were been agree (match) in number. Singular subjects have sin-
become became become gular verbs, and plural subjects have plural verbs.
begin began begun In simple sentences of few words, it’s not difficult to
blow blew blown make the subject and verb agree:
break broke broken Ss Vv S
bring brought Our baby sleeps more than ten hours a day. Some babies
brought V
catch caught caught sleep even longer.
choose chose chosen
come came come However, not all sentences are as straightforward as
cut cut the above examples. This section will explain situations
did done that can cause problems with subject-verb agreement.
drew drawn
drank drunk Words between subject and verb. A verb often comes
drove driven right after its subject.
ate eaten
fell
The sealed boxes belong to my brother.
fallen
felt felt (Here and in the rest of the section, the subject is shown
found found in italic type, and the verb is shown in boldface type.)
flew flown
However, at times the subject and verb are separated
freeze froze frozen
get got got, gotten
by other words. In such cases, be sure that the verb
give gave given agrees with the subject, not one of the in-between
go went gone words. For instance, the subject and verb often have a
grow grew grown prepositional phrase between them. A prepositional
have had, has had phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun
hide hid hidden or pronoun. Jn, on, for, from, of, to and by are common
keep kept kept prepositions. (A longer list of prepositions is on page 3.)
know knew known
lay (put) laid laid The sealed boxes under the bed belong to my brother.
leave left left
This subject and verb are separated by the preposi-
lend lent lent
lie (recline) lay lain
tional phrase under the bed. The verb must agree with
lose lost lost the subject, boxes, not with bed.
make made made The tomatoes in this salad are brown and mushy.
read read read
ride rode ridden Because the subject, tomatoes, is plural, the verb
rose risen must also be plural. The prepositional phrase, in this
ran run salad, has no effect on the subject and verb agreement.
say said said
see saw seen Note: Phrases that begin with such words as as well as,
sell sold sold along with, together with, and in addition to do not make a
set (place) set set singular subject plural: My mother, as well as her sister,
shake shook shaken speaks Japanese. A fax machine, along with a computer,
sit (take a seat) sat sat is useful in a home office.
sleep slept slept
speak spoke spoken Verb before the subject. The verb follows the subject
spend spent spent in most sentences: Hank passed the course. The plane
steal stole stolen roared overhead.
stink stank, stunk stunk However, in some sentences, the verb comes before
swim swam swum the subject. To make the subject and verb agree in such
take took taken cases, look for the subject after the verb. Then decide if
teach taught taught the verb should be singular or plural. The verb will
tell told told
always come first in sentences that begin with such
think thought thought
threw thrown words as there is or here are.
throw
wear wore worn There are mice in the basement.
win won won
Because the subject of this sentence (mice) is plural, the
write wrote written
verb (are) should be plural as well.
Here is the menu.
If you think a verb is irregular and it is not in the The subject of this sentence is menu, which needs a sin-
above list, look it up in your dictionary. If it is irregu- gular verb.
lar, the principal parts will be listed.
 VERBS
VERBS

The verb may also come first in questions or sentences Collective nouns are considered singular unless they
that begin with prepositional phrases. specifically refer to members of the group as individuals.
What was your score on the test? The family lives on Russell Avenue.
The verb was is singular. It agrees with the singular Family refers to a single unit, so the singular verb lives
subject score. On the test is a prepositional phrase. The is used.
subject of a sentence is never in a prepositional phrase.
The family are Republicans, Democrats, and Indepen-
On that shelf are the reports for this year. dents.
The sentence begins with the prepositional phrase on Since one unit cannot have three different political
that shelf, which is followed by the plural verb are. You views, family in this sentence clearly refers to the indi-
can find the subject by asking, “What are on that shelf?” vidual members of the group, so the plural verb are is
The answer is the subject of the sentence: reports. used.

Note: The subject may be easier to find if you rearrange Note: To emphasize the individuals in the example sen-
the sentence so the subject comes first. For the sentences tence above, some writers would use a subject that is
above, you would then get the following: Mice are in the clearly plural: The members of the family are Republicans,
basement. The menu is here. Your score on the test was Democrats, and Independents.
what? The reports for this year are on that shelf.
Indefinite pronoun subjects. Indefinite pronouns
Linking verbs. A linking verb may join the subject to a are pronouns that do not refer to a specific person or
noun or pronoun that describes the subject. Be sure thing. The ones in the box below are always singular.
the verb agrees with its subject, not with the noun or
Singular Indefinite Pronouns
pronoun that follows the verb.
The last item on the menu is special coffees. each anyone anything
either everyone everything
The linking verb must agree with the singular subject, neither someone something
item, not with the plural noun coffees. one no one nothing
Special coffees are the last item on the menu.
The verb must agree with the subject, coffees, not with Each of the puppies is cute in its own way.
item. Neither of the girls knows her Social Security number.
Special singular and plural subjects Despite the rules, nearly everyone in my apartment
building owns a pet.
Compound subjects. A compound subject is made up
of two nouns connected by a coordinating conjunction. The following indefinite pronouns are always plural:
Subjects joined by and generally take a plural verb.
Plural Indefinite Pronouns
Running and weightlifting are good ways to keep in
shape. many several
Fear and ignorance have alot to do with hatred. others

Exception: When the subjects refer to one person or thing,

use a singular verb: The vice president and general man- Both of the puppies are cute in their own ways.
ager [one person] is out of town. Chips and dip [one snack] The following indefinite pronouns are singular or
is one of my favorite snacks.
plural, depending on their context:
However, when a compound subject is connected by
Indefinite Pronouns That Can Be Singular or Plural
or, nor, either... or, or neither... nor, the verb must
agree with the part of the subject that is closer to it.
A cup of coffee or a glass of soda is always on Ken’s desk.
Either he or his parents were home that night.
Most of her outfit is white.
Note: Since it sounds more natural to use a plural verb in
sentences with compound subjects, most writers would put Most here refers to one thing—the outfit, so the singu-
the plural subject second, as above. lar verb is is used.

Most of the salespeople are friendly.

Collective nouns. A collective noun refers to persons
or things that are generally thought of as one unit. Most here refers to several salespeople, so the plural
Following are some examples: verb are is used.

Relative pronoun subjects: who, which, that. The

Collective Nouns
relative pronouns who, which, and that are singular
audience committee group quartet when they refer to a singular noun. They are plural
band couple herd society when they refer to a plural noun.
class family jury team e
Elaine bought a used T-shirt that looks brand-new.
Elaine bought two used T-shirts that look brand-new.
VERBS PRONOUNS

When aphrase begins with the words one of the, use Subjective case. Pronouns in the subjective case act as
a plural verb for the relative pronoun that follows. the subjects of verbs or, after linking verbs, as subject
Ramon is one of the students who volunteer at the local complements. Here are the subjective forms of personal
nursing home. pronouns.
Who refers to students, so a plural verb is needed. Subjective Case
When a phrase begins with the words the only one of First Person Second Person Third Person
the, use a singular verb for the relative pronoun that
Singular I you he, she, it
follows. Plural you they
He is the only one of the students who speaks Spanish.
In this case, who refers to one, so a singular verb is used. She always brings her lunch to work.
Singular subjects with a plural form. Some nouns She is the subject of the verb brings.
with a plural form often have singular meanings. The person in charge is he.
Examples include athletics, mathematics, politics, and
He is the complement of the subject, person.
mumps. When used with a singular meaning, such
nouns take singular verbs. Objective case. Pronouns in the objective case act as
Mathematics is Yuri’s favorite subject. the objects of verbs or of prepositions. Here is a list of
the objective forms of personal pronouns.
Exceptions: Some words ending in s that refer to two-part
things—such as pants, trousers, and eyeglasses—need a Objective Case
plural verb: My eyeglasses often slip down my nose. If
you’re unsure about whether a word takes a singular or a First Person Second Person Third Person
plural verb, check a dictionary. Singular me you him, her, it
Plural us you them
Titles and words used as words. Titles of works
and words used as words are singular.
When a pronoun is a direct or an indirect object, use
Little Women remains popular more than a century
the objective form.
after it was written.
The subject is the book (singular), not the women (plu- The cat scratched her.
ral). Her is the direct object of the verb scratched. Her tells
who was scratched.
Appendixes is the preferred plural of appendix.
The subject is the singular word appendixes, not two or Flo knitted him atie.
more appendixes. Him is the indirect object of the verb knitted. Him tells
for whom the tie was knitted.
Amounts and measurements. When an amount or
measurement is referred to as a single thing, use a sin- When a pronoun is the object of a preposition, use the
gular verb. objective form. Prepositions are words such as {o, for, of,
and from. (A longer list of prepositions is on page 3.)
These days, five dollars gets you a ticket to the movies
and no popcorn. My sister tossed the car keys to me.
One-half of the yard is mowed. Me is the object of the preposition to.

When the items that make up the amount are referred Possessive case. Pronouns in the possessive case show
to as separate parts, use a plural verb. that something is owned, or possessed. Here are the
The dollars are stuffed into an old pickle jar. possessive forms of personal pronouns.
Two-thirds of the students have given their speeches. Possessive Case
The word number takes a singular verb when it is
First Person Second Person Third Person
preceded by the; it takes a plural verb when preceded by
Singular my, mine your, yours his, her, hers, its
a.
Plural our, ours your, yours their, theirs
The number of unemployed workers is down.
A number of workers in our office were laid off. Neal and Emily saw many of their friends at the party.
Their friends means the friends belonging to Neal and
Emily.
7 / Pronouns If Gordon needs a sweater, he can borrow mine.
7a Pronoun case Mine means the sweater belonging to me. Note that in
cases in which the pronoun is not followed by a noun,
Depending on their use in a sentence, pronouns have the form mine, yours, his, hers, ours, or theirs is used.
different cases, or forms: the subjective, objective, and
possessive cases. Note: Possessive pronouns never contain an apostrophe:
During the last storm, our apple tree lost all of its blos-
soms [not its’ blossoms].
PRONOUNS 14 PRONOUNS

7b Pronoun usage Professor Bell is the person who I believe is head of the
English department.
Pronouns with and and or. Deciding which pronoun to Who is the subject of the verb is. I is the subject of the
use may become confusing when there are compound verb believe.
subjects or objects (that is, more than one subject or
object) joined by and or or. However, the rules remain Who and whom in questions. In questions, who is a
the same: Use the subjective case for the subject of a subject pronoun, and whom is an object pronoun. You
verb; use the objective case for the object of a verb or can often decide whether to use who or whom in a ques-
preposition. tion in the same way you decide to use those words in
clauses. (See the previous section.)
My brother and I loved the Wizard of Oz books.
I is a subject of the verb loved. Brother is also a subject Who should go?
of loved. The verb after who is should go, which does not have
another subject. Therefore, use the subject form of the
Our parents often read to my brother and me.
pronoun, who.
Me is an object of the preposition to. Brother is also an
object of to. Whom should I hire?
I is the subject of the verb should hire, so use the object
You can figure out which pronoun to use by mentally form of the pronoun, whom (I should hire whom?).
leaving out the other word that goes with and or or. For
instance, in the first example above, omitting the words Pronoun appositives. An appositive renames a noun
my brother and makes it clear that J is the correct pro- or pronoun, identifying it in some way. When the
noun to use:... I loved the Wizard of Oz books. (You appositive is a pronoun, it has the same function within
would never say, “Me loved the Wizard of Oz books.”) a sentence as the noun or pronoun it renames.
Pronouns in comparisons. When pronouns are used in Incorrect: The coaches, Hana and me, tried to raise
comparisons, they often follow the word than or as. money for uniforms.
Correct: The coaches, Hana and I, tried to raise money
My roommate, Matt, wakes up earlier than I. for uniforms.
Rhonda’s behavior puzzled you as much as me.
Since coaches is the subject of the sentence, the apposi-
Words are often omitted in comparisons. To see tive must be in the subjective case.
whether you should use a subject or an object pronoun, Incorrect: The tutor worked at the same time with both
mentally fill in the missing words. In the first sentence students, Ravi and I.
above, J is the subject of the understood verb do. Correct: The tutor worked at the same time with both
My roommate, Matt, wakes up earlier than I [do]. students, Ravi and me.
Since students is the object of the preposition with, the
In the second sentence, me is the object of the verb puz- appositive must be in the objective case.
zled. That verb is understood but not stated for the sec-
ond part of the comparison. We or us followed by a noun. If the pronoun functions
Rhonda’s behavior puzzled you as much as [it puzzled]
as the subject of the sentence, use we. If the pronoun
serves as an object, use us. You may find it easier to
me.
choose the pronoun by imagining that the noun after
Who and whom in dependent clauses. Who is a sub- we or us is not there.
ject pronoun; whom is an object pronoun. Choose one of Incorrect: Us gardeners can’t wait for spring.
these pronouns based on its function in a dependent Correct: We gardeners can’t wait for spring.
clause. If gardeners were removed, then the sentence would be
The person who owns the expensive car won't let any- We can’t wait for spring (not Us can’t wait for spring).
body else park it.
Incorrect: Seed catalogues inspire we gardeners
Who owns the expensive car is a dependent clause. Who throughout the winter.
is the subject of the verb owns. Correct: Seed catalogues inspire us gardeners through-
The babysitter whom they trust cannot work tonight. out the winter.

Whom they trust is a dependent clause. Whom is the If gardeners were removed, the sentence would be Seed
object of the verb trust. The subject of trust is they. catalogues inspire us throughout the winter [not Seed
catalogues inspire we throughout the winter).
As a general rule, to know which of the two words to
use, find the first verb after who or whom. Decide Pronouns in infinitive phrases. An infinitive is fo fol-
whether that verb already has a subject. If it doesn’t lowed by a verb (for example, to work or to speak). Use
have a subject, use the subject pronoun who. If it does objective pronouns as both subjects and objects of
have a subject, use the object pronoun whom. infinitives.
Don’t be confused when words such as I think or we Kareem asked me to drive him to work tomorrow.
believe intervene. When a dependent clause contains
Me is the subject and him is the object of the infinitive
such an expression, mentally omit the expression
to drive.
before deciding between who and whom.
 PRONOUNS 15 PRONOUNS

Pronouns before a gerund. A gerund is the -ing form Indefinite Pronouns That Can Be Singular or Plural
of a verb functioning as a noun: Laughing can be ther-
apeutic. Use the possessive case of a pronoun that is
followed by a gerund.
Incorrect: Me leaving was a problem for my boss. Some of the pie is fine, but its crust is burnt.
Correct: My leaving was a problem for my boss.
Some here refers to one thing, the pie, so the singular
Incorrect: The instructor was pleased with us handing pronoun its is used.
in all the papers on time.
Correct: The instructor was pleased with our handing Some of the students forgot their books.
in all the papers on time. Some here refers to several students, so the plural pro-
noun their is used.
7 Pronoun-antecedent agreement Antecedents that are joined by or or nor. When
Pronoun agreement in number. A pronoun must agree antecedents are joined by or or nor, the pronoun should
in number with its antecedent, the noun or pronoun it agree with the nearer antecedent.
refers to. Singular antecedents require singular pro- Either Judith or Ivy will give her speech in class today.
nouns; plural antecedents require plural pronouns.
Neither the coach nor the parents will get their way.
(In the examples, pronouns are printed in boldface
type; antecedents are printed in italic type.) Note: Since it would sound odd to use a singular pronoun
in sentences like the second example, most writers would
Singular: The dying tree lost all its leaves. put the plural antecedent second, as above.
Plural: Do the neighbors know that their dog is loose?
Collective nouns. Acollective noun refers to a group
Plural: Linda and Ted act like newlyweds, but they of persons or things. Collective nouns are singular
have been married for years.
when they refer to the group, not the individuals.
When a pronoun refers to antecedents joined by and,
use a plural pronoun. Some Collective Nouns

Indefinite pronouns. Unlike other pronouns, indefi- audience committee quartet

group
nite pronouns do not refer to particular persons or band couple herd society
things. The following indefinite pronouns are always class family jury team
singular:
Singular Indefinite Pronouns The class voted to take its final exam early.

each anyone anybody However, if a collective noun refers to the individual

either everyone everybody members of the group, a plural pronoun is used.
neither someone somebody
one no one nobody The class handed in their essays before vacation.

Many writers feel it is awkward to use a collective noun

Something has left its muddy footprints on the hood of as a plural. They prefer to revise the sentence.
the car.
The class members handed in their essays before vaca-
One of my sisters has lost her job. tion.
Everybody is entitled to change his or her mind.
Pronoun agreement in person. A pronoun that refers
Note on gender agreement: Choose a pronoun that agrees to the speaker, such as/ or our, is called a first-per-
in gender with its antecedent. The clearly feminine son pronoun. A pronoun that refers to someone being
antecedent one of my sisters is correctly referred to with
spoken to, such as you, is a second-person pronoun.
her. However, everybody includes males and females, so it
should be referred to with his or her. If his or her seems And a pronoun that refers to another person or thing,
awkward, rewrite the sentence with a plural subject: such as he or it, is a third-person pronoun.
People are entitled to change their minds. Following are the personal pronouns in first-, second-,
and third-person groupings:
The following indefinite pronouns are always plural:
Personal Pronouns
Plural Indefinite Pronouns
First person Second person Third person
many several
Singular 5 me, my, you, your, he, him, his;
others mine yours she, her, hers;
it, its
Plural we, us, you, your, they, them,
Both of my brothers worked their way through college.
w
our, ours yours their, theirs
The following indefinite pronouns are singular or
plural, depending on their context:
PRONOUNS 16 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Pronouns must agree in person with their Who said there’s a free preview? We don’t know because
they has no word to refer to.
antecedents. The sentences below, for example, show
some needless shifts in person. Incorrect: My older brother is a chemist, but that
Incorrect: The worst thing about my not writing letters doesn’t interest me.
is that you never get any back. ~ The pronoun that is meant to refer to the implied sub-
ject chemistry, but a pronoun must have a named
Incorrect: Although we like most of our neighbors,
antecedent, not an implied one.
there are a few you can’t get along with.
These sentences begin with first-person pronouns (my, To correct an unclear reference in which a pronoun
we and our) but then shift unnecessarily to the second- has no antecedent, replace the pronoun with the word
person pronoun you. In academic writing, use you to or words it is meant to refer to.
refer only to the reader. Correct: I just received our cable TV bill. The cable
Correct: The worst thing about my not writing letters is company said the Disney Channel is providing a free
that I never get any back. preview next month.
Correct: Though we like most of our neighbors, there Correct: My older brother is a chemist, but chemistry
are a few we can’t get along with. doesn’t interest me.
Keep in mind that possessives and other modifiers
7d Clear pronoun reference cannot serve as antecedents.
A pronoun must refer clearly to its antecedent, the
Incorrect: William Henry Harrison’s presidency was
word or words it stands for. If a pronoun’s antecedent is the shortest in American history. He died in 1841 after
uncertain, the sentence will be confusing. Pronouns being in office for only thirty-one days.
will be unclear if they have two possible antecedents or
He has no word to refer to—it cannot refer to the pos-
no clearly stated antecedent. sessive William Henry Harrison’s.
Avoiding two or more possible antecedents. A pro- Correct: William Henry Harrison’s presidency was the
noun’s reference will not be clear if there are two or shortest in American history. Harrison died in 1841
more possible antecedents. after being in office for only thirty-one days.
Incorrect: Eva told her mother that she had received a
postcard from Alaska.
Who received the letter, Eva or her mother? 8 / Adjectives and Adverbs
Incorrect: I wrote a to-do list with my purple pen, and An adjective modifies (describes) a noun or pronoun.
now I can’t find it. It usually comes before the noun or pronoun it modifies
What can’t the writer find, the list or the pen? and explains such things as what kind, which one, and
how many. An adjective that modifies the subject of a
Be especially careful with this, that, and which. They sentence may also come after a linking verb (such as is,
are commonly used to refer vaguely to previously stated be, were, seem, and smell).
ideas.
The weary hikers shuffled down the dusty road.
Incorrect: Many people moved years ago to big homes
The adjectives weary and dusty describe the nouns that
in the suburbs with big lawns, which have become hard
follow them.
for their now elderly owners to care for.
What have become hard for the elderly owners to care The flowers smell sweet.
for—the big homes, the big lawns, or both? The adjective sweet follows the linking verb smell and
describes the subject, flowers.
An unclear sentence with two antecedents can some-
times be corrected by using the speaker’s exact words. An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjec-
tive, or another adverb. Adverbs generally explain such
Correct: Eva told her mother, “I received [or “You
things as how, when, where, why, and how much.
received] a postcard from Alaska.”
While many adverbs end in -ly, not all do (run fast, run
In other cases, the best solution is to replace the pro- late, run more).
noun with the word or words it was meant to refer to.
The chef carefully spread raspberry frosting over the
Correct: I wrote a to-do list with my purple pen, and cake.
now I can’t find the list [or the pen]. The adverb carefully modifies the verb spread.
Correct: Many people moved years ago to big homes in
Ann was extremely embarrassed when she stumbled on
the suburbs with big lawns, both of which have become
stage.
hard for their now elderly owners to care for.
The adverb extremely modifies the adjective embar-
Avoiding no antecedent. A pronoun’s reference will rassed.
not be clear if its antecedent is missing. That lamp shines very brightly.
Incorrect: I just received our cable TV bill. They said the The adverb very modifies the adverb brightly. Brightly
Disney Channel is providing a free preview next month. modifies the verb shines.
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 17 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Be careful to use an adverb—not an adjective—to Sid is doing badly in speech class, but I’m doing even
modify an action verb. worse.
The grape cough syrup tastes better than the orange
Incorrect: Rajit snored loud at his desk. syrup, but the lemon cough drops taste the best.
Correct: Rajit snored loudly at his desk.
Some verbs—such as look, sound, smell, feel, and 8b Using two troublesome pairs: good and well,
taste—can function as either linking or action verbs. bad and badly
Incorrect: The child smelled the flowers enthusiastic. Good is an adjective that often means “enjoyable,” “tal-
Correct: The child smelled the flowers enthusiastically. ented,” or “positive”: I had a good day. Sue is a good
skier. Think good thoughts.
Smelled in this case is an action verb—it tells what the
Bad is an adjective; badly is an adverb: I feel bad. I
child did. Therefore, the modifier describes the verb, not
the subject, so an adverb is needed. need sleep badly.
As an adverb, well often means “skillfully” or “suc-
cessfully”: Sue skis well. The schedule worked well.
8a Using adjectives and adverbs in comparisons
Pedro interacts well with others.
To compare two persons or things, add -er to most As an adjective, well means “healthy”: The patient is
adjectives of one and two syllables and to adverbs of well once again.
one syllable. For longer adjectives and adverbs, do not
add -er. Instead, add the word more. 8c Avoiding double negatives
Grilling food is faster than roasting. In standard English, it is incorrect to express a nega-
My dog is more intelligent than my cat. tive idea by pairing one negative with another.
Common negative words include not, nothing, never,
To compare three or more persons or things, add -est nowhere, nobody, and neither. To correct a double nega-
to most adjectives of one and two syllables and to tive, either eliminate one of the negative words or
adverbs of one syllable. For longer adjectives and replace a negative with a positive word.
adverbs, do not add -est. Instead, add the word most.
Incorrect: I shouldn’t go nowhere this weekend.
Grilling food is faster than roasting, but microwaving is Correct: I should go nowhere this weekend.
fastest of all. Correct: I shouldn’t go anywhere this weekend.
My dog is more intelligent than my cat, but my parrot is
the most intelligent pet I have ever had. The words hardly, scarcely, and barely are also nega-
tives. They should not be paired with other negatives,
Note: Do not use both an -er ending and more, or an -est such as never and not. Correct a double negative con-
ending and most: One twin’s hair is ##ene curlier than the taining hardly, scarcely, or barely by eliminating the
other’s. other negative word.
Irregular adjective and adverb forms. Certain short Incorrect: I couldn’t hardly recognize you.
adjectives and adverbs have irregular forms: Correct: I could hardly recognize you.

Comparing two Comparing three or more

bad, badly worse worst
good, well better best
little less least
much, many more most
EFFECTIVE SENTENCES 18 FRAGMENTS

revise the material as necessary. When an -ing or fo |

9 / Fragments word group starts a sentence, follow it with a comma.
A fragment is a part of a sentence that is punctuated Fragment: Hoping to furnish their new home cheaply.
as if it were a complete sentence. Following are several The newlyweds often go to garage sales.
common types of sentence fragments and ways to cor- Revision: Hoping to furnish their new home cheaply,
rect them. the newlyweds often go to garage sales.
The fragment has been added to the sentence that fol-
9a_ Dependent-clause fragments lows it. :
A dependent clause begins with a word such as after,
Fragment: Lee jogged through the park. To clear her
because, if, since, when, who, and which that keeps the
mind before the midterm.
clause from being able to stand on its own as a sen- Revision: Lee jogged through the park. She wanted to
tence. (Dependent clauses are explained further in 4b,
clear her mind before the midterm.
page 6.)
The fragment has been rewritten to include a subject
To keep a dependent clause from being a fragment,
(she) and a verb (wanted).
connect it to a sentence that comes before or after it.
Fragment: After he turned off the television set. Tomas Example and list fragments. Another common type of
picked up a book. fragment without a subject or a verb may begin with a
Revision: After he turned off the television set, Tomas word or words like including, such as, especially, for
picked up a book. . example, or for instance. This type of fragment is often
Fragment: I had to break a window. Since I had lost my best corrected by attaching it to the sentence that
house key. comes before it.
Revision: I had to break a window since I had lost my Example fragment: Most English words come from
house key. other languages. Including German, Latin, and Greek.
Fragment: Yesterday my wife ran into a fellow. Who Revision: Most English words come from other lan-
had been her best friend in high school. guages, including German, Latin, and Greek.
Revision: Yesterday my wife ran into a fellow who had
been her best friend in high school. A fragment may also be made up ofa list of items
that is not preceded by an example word.
Punctuation note: A dependent clause that begins a sen-
tence should generally be followed by a comma. (See 16b, List fragment: A poll revealed three things Americans
page 26.) most fear. Speaking before a group, heights, and insects.
Revision: A poll revealed three things Americans most
fear: speaking before a group, heights, and insects.
9b Fragments without a subject
The list fragment has been joined to the sentence before
Some fragments have a verb, but lack a subject. A word
it with a colon.
group without a subject is not a complete sentence. Such
a fragment can be corrected in two ways: 1) Connect it Appositive fragments. An appositive is a word or
to the sentence that comes before it. 2) Create a new word group that renames a noun or pronoun, identify-
sentence by adding a subject to the fragment. ing it in some way. It is not a complete sentence.
Fragment: The landlord unclogged the drain. And Usually the best way to correct an appositive fragment
found a dishcloth stuck in the pipe. is to use a comma to add it to the sentence that comes
In the second word group, the verb found has no sub- before it.
ject. Fragment: The bookstore is owned by Louise Mason. A
Revision: The landlord unclogged the drain and found spunky seventy-year-old woman.
a dishcloth stuck in the pipe. Revision: The bookstore is owned by Louise Mason, a
spunky seventy-year-old woman.
The first clause now has one subject (landlord) and two
verbs (unclogged and found).
9d Fragments for emphasis and for realistic dia-
Revision: The landlord unclogged the drain. She found logue
a dishcloth stuck in the pipe.
Occasionally a sentence fragment may be used deliber-
The fragment has been changed to a sentence with the
ately for emphasis.
addition of the subject she.
Should the city put more police officers on the streets?
9c Fragments without a subject and a verb Definitely yes!

-ing and to fragments. When -ing or to appears at or Since we frequently use fragments in conversation,
near the beginning of a phrase, a fragment may result. fragments are also useful for adding realism to dialogue.
There are two ways to correct -ing and to fragments: “Last night, I found the ring I had lost.”
1) Connect the fragment to the sentence that comes “Wonderful. Where?”
before or after it. 2) Create a complete sentence by “In the garbage disposal.”
adding a subject and a verb to the fragment. To do so, “No kidding.”
FUSED SENTENCES AND COMMA SPLICES 19 MISPLACED AND DANGLING MODIFIERS

10 / Fused Sentences and Comma Splices Method 4: Use a semicolon. Put a semicolon between
the two independent clauses. This method is appropriate
10a Fused sentences when the independent clauses are closely related and
A fused sentence is made up of two independent their relationship is clear without a subordinating word.
clauses that are incorrectly joined without a connection
Fused sentence: The fish was served with its head still
between them. (To review independent clauses, see 4a,
on Jesse quickly lost his appetite.
page 6.) Fused sentences are also known as run-
Comma splice: The fish was served with its head still
together sentences and run-on sentences. on, Jesse quickly lost his appetite.
Fused sentence: Dolphins have killed sharks they Revision: The fish was served with its head still on;
never attack humans. Jesse quickly lost his appetite.
The independent clauses are dolphins have killed Use a semicolon with a transitional expression. A
sharks and they never attack humans. semicolon can also be used with a transitional expres-
10b Comma splices sion—such as however, also, consequently, for example,
or as a result—to join two independent clauses. (For a
A comma splice is made up of two independent more complete list of transitional expressions, see page
clauses that are incorrectly joined (or spliced) together 29.) When a transitional expression begins an indepen-
with only a comma. A comma alone is not enough to dent clause, it is generally followed by a comma.
connect two independent clauses.
Revision: The fish was served with its head still on; as
Comma splice: Dolphins have killed sharks, they never a result, Jesse quickly lost his appetite.
attack humans.
Note: Transitional expressions do not have to introduce an
independent clause. They can also be used at other points
10c Correcting fused sentences and comma splices within a clause, generally set off by commas: The fish was
There are four main ways to correct fused sentences served with its head still on; Jesse, as a result, quickly
and comma splices. lost his appetite.

Method 1: Use a period and a capital letter. Put each

independent clause into its own sentence.
11 / Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
Fused sentence: The computer hummed loudly the
sound was annoying. A modifier is one or more words that describe other
Comma splice: The computer hummed loudly, the words. Two common errors involving these descriptive
sound was annoying. words are misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.
Revision: The computer hummed loudly. The sound
was annoying. 11a Misplaced modifiers
A misplaced modifier is a modifier that is incorrectly
Method 2: Use a comma and a coordinating conjunc- separated from the word or words that it describes. In
tion. Connect two independent clauses into one sen-
general, keep modifiers and the words they describe as
tence with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
close as possible to each other so that their relationship
The most common coordinating conjunctions are and,
is clear.
but, and so. The others are or, nor, for, and yet.
Fused sentence: Dolphins have killed sharks they One-word limiting modifiers. A word such as almost,
never attack humans. only, nearly, and even usually must be placed in front of
Comma splice: Dolphins have killed sharks, they never the word it limits. Otherwise, the sentence will convey
attack humans. an unintended meaning.
Revision: Dolphins have killed sharks, but they never
Misplaced modifier: Kwan almost sneezed fifteen
attack humans.
times last evening.
Revision: Kwan sneezed almost fifteen times last
Method 3: Change one of the independent clauses to a
evening.
dependent one. Make one of the independent clauses
dependent by beginning it with a word such as Readers of the first sentence might think Kwan almost
sneezed fifteen times but in fact did not sneeze at all. To
although, because, since or who, which, that. (For a
prevent confusion, put almost in front of the word it
more complete list of these words, see the subordinat- modifies, fifteen.
ing conjunctions on page 4 and the relative pronouns on
page 1.) The sentence will then have one dependent Squinting modifiers. A squinting modifier seems to
clause and one independent clause. When a dependent modify both the word before it and the word after it,
clause begins a sentence, it generally should be fol- leaving the reader unsure about which is meant. Put a
lowed by a comma. squinting modifier in a place where its meaning is clear.
Fused sentence: The roads are covered with ice school Squinting modifier: The soprano who performed at
has been cancelled. the choir audition confidently looked forward to being
Comma splice: The roads are covered with ice, school chosen as a soloist.
has been cancelled. Revision: The soprano who performed confidently at
Revision: Because the roads are covered with ice, the choir audition looked forward to being chosen as a
school has been cancelled. soloist.
MISPLACED AND DANGLING MODIFIERS 20 PARALLELISM

Revision: The soprano who performed at the choir audi- The modifier sitting in the dentist’s chair is meant to
tion looked forward confidently to being chosen as a describe Larry, which is absent in the first sentence. ~
soloist. The problem can be solved by adding to the modifier a
subject (Larry) and a verb (sat).
The word confidently must be placed so the reader
knows whether the soprano.was confident about per-
forming or about being chosen as asoloist.
12 / Parallelism
Misplaced phrases or clauses. A misplaced phrase or
clause confuses readers by seeming to modify a word At times, you will need to present two or more equal
ideas in a sentence. You must then be careful to pre-
the author did not intend it to describe. In general, the
solution is to place the modifier as close as possible to sent the ideas in matching form. This matching form is
called parallelism.
the word or words it describes.
Not parallel: Dinner consisted of broiled chicken, baked
Misplaced phrase: Sam bought a used car from a local
potatoes, and broccoli that was steamed.
dealer with a smoky tailpipe.
Revision: Sam bought a used car with a smoky All of the items in the list of foods play an equal role in
tailpipe from a local dealer. the sentence, so they should be expressed in parallel
form. Broiled chicken and baked potatoes are parallel.
The phrase with a smoky tailpipe is meant to modify
The adjectives (broiled and baked) come before the
the word car, not dealer.
nouns they describe (chicken and potatoes). But the
Misplaced clause: Take this note to Mr. Henderson’s form of broccoli that was steamed is different. To
office that Kim wrote. achieve parallelism, give the nonparallel item the same
Revision: Take this note that Kim wrote to Mr. form as the others:
Henderson’s office.
Parallel: Dinner consisted of broiled chicken, baked
The clause that Kim wrote is meant to modify the word potatoes, and steamed broccoli.
note, not office.
The adjective roasted has been placed before chicken.
Split infinitives. A split infinitive occurs when the two In the above example, the parallel forms are adjec-
parts of an infinitive (to plus the base form of a verb— tive-noun combinations. When using parallelism, note
to swim, to imagine) are separated by a modifier. Often, the grammatical forms you are using. Match nouns
a split infinitive sounds natural and is clear: to truly with nouns, verb forms with the same types of verb
believe, to actually win. However, when a split infini- forms, and so on, as in the following examples:
tive is awkward or confusing, move the modifier to
another place in the sentence. e Nouns: rain, hail, and sleet
e Adjectives: tall, dark, and handsome
Awkward split infinitive: It is possible to each March ¢ Prepositional phrases: over the moon and beyond
or April see whale sharks by the hundreds on the coast of the rainbow
Western Australia. ¢ -ing phrases that end in nouns: singing duets,
Revision: It is possible each March or April to see
playing the piano, and dancing the tango
whale sharks by the hundreds on the coast of Western
e Clauses in the past tense: he washed and she
Australia.
dried
11b Dangling modifiers
12a The uses of parallelism
A dangling modifier has no word in a sentence to log-
ically modify. Dangling modifiers are usually phrases When presenting a series of items
that begin a sentence. When a modifier begins a sen- Not parallel: On summer weekends, my family spends
tence, it must be followed by the word or words it is time hiking, visiting friends, and they go to the movies.
meant to describe. There are two methods of correcting Parallel: On summer weekends, my family spends time
a dangling modifier: 1) Follow the modifier with the hiking, visiting friends, and going to the movies.
word or words it is meant to modify. 2) Add a subject The sentences list a series of activities. Hiking and vis-
and verb to the modifier. iting both end in -ing. To be parallel, they go to the
movies must be revised to include an -ing word.
Dangling modifier: Depressed and disappointed, run-
ning away seemed the only thing for me to do. For pairs of ideas linked by connecting words, such as
Revision: Depressed and disappointed, I felt that run- and and or. Other connecting words are either .. . or,
ning away was the only thing for me to do.
neither... nor, and not only... but also.
The modifier depressed and disappointed is meant to
describe the word J, which is missing in the first sen- Not parallel: My older brother and the only sister I have
tence. are not coming to my wedding.
Parallel: My older brother and my only sister are not
Dangling modifier: Sitting in the dentist’s chair, the coming to my wedding.
sound of the drill awakened Larry’s old fears.
My older brother and the only sister I have are connected
Revision: As Larry sat in the dentist’s chair, the sound
by the conjunction and, so they have equal roles in the
of the drill awakened his old fears.
sentence. They need to be worded in parallel form.
 PARALLELISM SENTENCE VARIETY AND STYLE

Not parallel: The painters were not only late but also show the relative importance of ideas.
were messy. Following are some ways to add variety and empha-
Parallel: The painters were not only late but also sis to your writing.
messy.
Since the adjective late follows not only, the adjective 13a Combine simple sentences into compound or
messy must follow but also.
complex sentences.
In comparisons using than or as. The items being com- Use compound and complex sentences to emphasize or
pared should be presented in parallel form. subordinate ideas and to highlight relationships. Also,
use a mix of sentence types for variety.
Not parallel: It is often kinder to tell a partial truth
than revealing the whole truth. Use coordination to create compound sentences. Give
Parallel: It is often kinder to tell a partial truth than to ideas equal emphasis by joining them in compound sen-
reveal the whole truth. tences (see 5b, page 7). To do so, use one of the follow-
In the parallel version, the two items being compared ing two methods:
begin with to plus the basic form of the verb (fo tell and
to reveal). 1 Combine simple sentences with a comma fol-
lowed by a coordinating conjunction, such as and
12b The effects of parallelism or but.
Parallelism will help you write more smoothly and Simple sentences: It rained all morning. The sky was
clearly and eliminate awkward language from your cloudless by noon.
papers. In general, parallelism adds power and polish Compound sentence: It rained all morning, but the
to writing. sky was cloudless by noon.
Many famous speeches and pieces of writing feature The simple sentences have been connected by using a
skillful parallelism. The matching form of their words comma plus the coordinating conjunction but. But high-
and phrases helps makes them memorable. lights the contrast between the two ideas.

“I know not how others may feel, but as for me, give me There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but,
liberty or give me death!”—Patrick Henry so, for, yet, or, and nor. In addition to connecting ideas,
Would Henry’s speech have had the same ring if he’d they clarify the relationships between clauses, as illus-
said, “.. . give me liberty or else I would prefer to die”? trated below.

“T have a dream that my four little children will one day The driver failed to signal, and he went through a stop
live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color sign.
of their skin, but by the content of their character.”— And shows addition: The driver’s second error is added
Martin Luther King, Jr. to the first one.
Dr. King’s words gain power because “by the color of I felt like sleeping, but I still had two hours of homework.
their skin” and “by the content of their character” have
But shows contrast: The wish to sleep contrasts with
the same form. His statement would have been much
the need to stay up and study.
less forceful if he had said instead, “. . . not be judged by
the color of their skin but by the kind of people that The meal was not hot, so we sent it back to the kitchen.
they are.”
So shows the effect of a previously stated cause: The
Also consider the following use that one student, Jon cause was the cool meal; the effect was that it was sent
Carney, made of parallelism: back to the kitchen.

Some of my best childhood memories are of my par- I work at home, for I want to be with my two young chil-
ents’ New Year’s Eve parties. Some guests came in dren.
sequins; others showed up in jeans. The spicy aromas For shows the cause of a previously stated effect: The
of cold cuts and pickles mingled with the sweet scents cause is the desire to be with the children; the effect is
of after-shaves and cologne. that the speaker works at home.
Those sentences would have been less impressive My brother loves cooking, yet he decided to major in
had Jon written, “Some guests came in sequined out- business.
fits. Jeans were also worn to the party. Among the
Yet shows contrast: The brother’s choice of major differs
foods my parents served were spicy cold cuts and
from his true interest.
pickles. The sweet scents of after-shaves and cologne
filled the house.” You can ride with us to the game, or you can go in some-
one else’s car.
Or introduces a second alternative: A second way to go
13 / Sentence Variety and Style to the game is added to the first one.

® Writing clearly and correctly is only part of your chal-

lenge as a writer. You should also aim for variety and
Eli does not eat meat, nor does he eat fish.
Nor introduces a second negative statement: The point
meaningful emphasis. As you revise, design sentences that Eli doesn’t eat fish is added to the statement that
of varying lengths and patterns. Use the patterns to he doesn’t eat meat.
SENTENCE VARIETY AND STYLE SENTENCE VARIETY AND STYLE

2 Join two closely related simple sentences with Relative Pronouns

a semicolon. that
who whose whom which
Simple sentences: Twenty students were registered for
class. Only eight were present.
Relative pronoun clauses describe nouns and pro-
Compound sentence: Twenty students were registered
for class; only eight were present. nouns.
Simple sentences: My guitar teacher is very patient.
The semicolon is often followed by a transitional
He plays with a local band.
expression such as one of those in the box below. Like
Complex sentence: My guitar teacher, who plays
coordinating conjunctions, transitional expressions
with a local band, is very patient.
clarify the relationships between ideas.
The dependent clause describes the word teacher.
Common Transitional Expressions
Simple sentences: To the cauliflower, add some saf-
afterwards for instance meanwhile fron. Saffron comes in tiny packets.
also furthermore moreover Complex sentence: To the cauliflower, add some saf-
as a result however nevertheless fron, which comes in tiny packets.
besides in addition on the other hand The dependent clause describes the word saffron.
consequently in fact otherwise
finally in other words then Punctuation note: When relative pronoun clauses provide
for example instead therefore nonessential information, as above, they are set off by com-
mas. When they provide essential information, they are
not set off by commas.
Compound sentence: Twenty students were registered
The man who usually sleeps by the steps of City
for class; however, only eight were present.
Hall is not there today.
However emphasizes the contrast between the two parts
The boldfaced clause is essential. Without it, we
of this sentence.
would not know which man is being referred to.
Use subordination to create complex sentences. Give
ideas unequal emphasis by combining them into com- 13b Use a variety of sentence types and elements.
plex sentences. As a rule, put the idea you wish to Use various sentence types. Try to use a variety of
emphasize in an independent clause (the clause that sentence types in your writing. Too much of the same
can stand alone as a sentence), and subordinate the kind of sentence can be dull and choppy. Also, you can
less important idea or ideas by putting them in depen- organize your ideas more meaningfully with differing
dent clauses. (For information on the types of depen- sentence structures. For example, read this paragraph:
dent clauses, see 4b, page 6.)
A dependent clause often begins with a subordi- There was a lack of convenient transportation at the
beginning of the nineteenth century. The stagecoach was
nating conjunction or a relative pronoun. Common sub-
the major form of transportation. It wasn’t a very com-
ordinating conjunctions and relative pronouns are in the
fortable one. Twelve passengers were crowded into the
following two boxes; each box is followed by examples.
coach. It traveled at just four miles an hour. Roads were
Subordinating Conjunctions mostly dirt. They were usually either rutted or muddy.
These were unpleasant conditions. Many people pre-
after because if unless where ferred to stay home.
although before since until wherever
Notice how choppy the passage is at points. It has a
as even if sothat when whether
as if even though though whenever while
dull rhythm because it is made up entirely of simple
sentences. Also, the relationships between ideas aren’t
clear. Below is a revision. Some simple sentences have
been combined into compound sentences and a complex
Simple sentences: The sun is low in the sky. A mural sentence, which add interest and meaning to the para-
of tree shadows appears on the bedroom wall. graph.
Complex sentence: When the sun is low in the sky, a
mural of tree shadows appears on the bedroom wall. There was a lack of convenient transportation at the
The word when changes an independent clause into a beginning of the nineteenth century. The stagecoach was
dependent one and clarifies the time relationship the major form of transportation, and it wasn’t a very
between two clauses. comfortable one. Twelve passengers were crowded into
the coach, which traveled at just four miles an hour.
Remember that when writing a complex sentence, Roads were mostly dirt, so they were usually either rut-
you should generally put the idea you want to empha- ted or muddy. Because of these unpleasant conditions,
size in the independent clause: many people preferred to stay home.
After the dog barked, the doorbell rang. In addition to using simple, compound, and complex
The ringing of the doorbell is emphasized. sentences of various lengths, add variety to your writ-
ing with an occasional question, command, or exclama-
Before the doorbell rang, the dog barked.
tion. (See 5a, page 7.)
The dog’s barking is emphasized.
SENTENCE VARIETY AND STYLE SENTENCE VARIETY AND STYLE

What do you think is in that cubic foot of air in front Being creative, I thought of a good reason to put off
of your nose? A few dust particles, you say? Guess again. doing my homework.
That transparent square of space contains bits of skin
and soil, parts of insect limbs, radio waves from outer Participles and participial phrases can also be effec-
space, fragments of dead stars, and more. tively used within sentences after the words they
describe:
Use compound elements. A great deal of information An old couch, sagging deeply, sat on the curb.
can be communicated in one sentence by using com-
The cake, decorated to look like a Social Security
pound elements.
card, was for someone’s sixty-fifth birthday.
The helpful tax accountant was a friendly young man
Punctuation note: In general, when a participial phrase
in a wheelchair.
begins a sentence, follow it with a comma. When apar-
Pairing adjectives is one way to combine ideas that ticipial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, inter-
might otherwise end up in two less interesting sen- rupting the flow of the sentence, place commas before
tences: The tax accountant was a young man in a and after the phrase.
wheelchair. He was helpful and friendly.
The gerund. A gerund is an -ing word (in the form of
Punctuation note: Use commas between two or more a present participle) that is used as a noun.
adjectives that can be joined by and: My husband
refuses to throw away his old, ragged [old and ragged] There is no reason for your lying.
shirt. (See 16d, page 27.) Agreeing with Susan is often easier than arguing
with her.
While we waited for our waiter, he took a phone call,
chatted with the cashier, and disappeared into the Use prepositional phrases and adverbs to begin sen-
kitchen. tences. Another way to achieve variety is by beginning
One subject (he) has a compound verb (took, chatted, sentences with prepositional phrases and adverbs.
and disappeared). What might have been two or three
dull simple sentences are combined into one longer, Prepositional phrases. A prepositional phrase begins
more interesting one. with a preposition and ends with a noun, the object of
the preposition. Common prepositions include in, on, of,
A mesh of white flakes blanketed the apple blossoms,
by, from, across, before, under, and behind. (See page 3
the tomato plants, and a startled robin.
for a longer list of prepositions.) When the prepositional
A series of nouns provides a stream of images to suggest
phrase comes at the beginning of the sentence, it is gen-
a late spring snow.
erally followed by a comma.
Use verbals (infinitives, participles, and gerunds). In the dark basement, I heard breathing.
Verbals are words that are formed from verbs but that
do not function as verbs. There are three kinds of ver- Prepositional phrases are generally found within a
bals: infinitives, participles, and gerunds. Use them to sentence. As a result, beginning a sentence with one
add variety to your writing. draws attention to a description of time, place, or the
like. It also allows the writer to place a more dramatic
The infinitive. The infinitive is formed by adding the idea at the end, as in the second sentence below.
base form of the verb to the word to, as in fo go or to
work. An infinitive generally describes or explains Preposition within a sentence: I began sneezing
other words in the sentence. (It may also function as a uncontrollably during the love scene.
Preposition at the beginning: During the love
noun.) To add variety to your writing, try beginning
scene, I began sneezing uncontrollably.
some sentences with infinitives. An infinitive or an
infinitive phrase that begins a sentence is usually fol- Adverbs ending in -ly. When an adverb ending in -ly
lowed by a comma. is at the beginning of a sentence, it is usually followed
by a comma.
To knit, all you need are needles, yarn, and patience.
To reach a goal, you usually must aim for it. Expertly, Cliff changed the baby’s diaper.
Selfishly, I ate both deliciously chewy ends of the fresh
The participle. Present participles end in -ing. Most
rye bread.
past participles end in -ed. This type of verbal always
functions as an adjective. Sometimes a participle comes Adverbs ending in -ly may be used in more than one
before the word being described. place within a sentence. The first sentence above, for
example, might be written as follows: Cliff changed the
The snoring man never heard the burglar enter his
baby’s diaper expertly. Beginning with an -ly word gen-
home.
erally draws attention to how something is done.
The painted desk was bought at a garage sale.
Use appositives. An appositive is a word or phrase
Participles and participial phrases can be used effec-
that renames, or identifies, a noun or pronoun. The
tively at the beginning of sentences. In that position,
appositive follows the word or words it explains.
they must be followed by the word they describe:
The only air conditioning in Ed’s car, a twelve-year-old
Delayed, Marge came home too late to see her son’s
Volkswagen bug, was a hole in the floor.
Little League game.
SENTENCE VARIETY AND STYLE 24 WORD CHOICE

Turning a simple sentence into an appositive is one 14c Clichés

way to combine two sentences into one more interesting A cliché is an expression that was once lively and col-
sentence. orful. However, because it has been used too often, it
Two sentences: Greta Garbo retired from filmmaking has become dull and boring. Try to use fresh wording in
at the age of thirty-six. She was a beautiful and adored place of predictable expressions. Following are a few of
actress. the clichés to avoid in your writing:
One sentence: Greta Garbo, a beautiful and adored
Common Clichés
actress, retired from filmmaking at the age of thirty-six.
Punctuation note: When an appositive is not essential avoid like the plague pie in the sky
to the main meaning of a sentence, it is set off by com- better late than never pretty as a picture
mas, as above. Most appositives are not essential to the bored to tears sad but true
meaning of a sentence. They may add interesting infor- easy as pie sick and tired
mation, but the sentence makes full sense without in the nick of time sigh of relief
them. Without its appositive, for example, the sentence in this day and age time and time again
above still makes sense: Greta Garbo retired from film- last but not least tried and true
making at the age of thirty-six. light as a feather under the weather
make ends meet without a doubt

14 / Word Choice
Cliché: My new advisor is as sharp as a tack.
A sentence may be grammatically correct, yet fail to Revision: My new advisor is very insightful.
communicate well because of the words that the writer
has chosen. This section explains common types of inef-
fective word choice: slang, jargon, clichés, wordiness, 14d Wordiness
showy language, and sexist language. Some writers think that using more words than neces-
sary makes their writing sound important. Actually,
14a Slang wordiness just annoys and confuses your reader. Try to
Slang expressions are lively and fun to use, but they edit your writing carefully. First of all, remove words
should be avoided in formal writing. One problem with that mean the same as other words in the sentence.
slang is that it’s not always understood by all readers. Wordy: Though huge in size and blood red in color, the
Slang used by members of a particular group (such as cartoon monster had a sweet personality.
teenagers or science-fiction fans) may be unfamiliar to Revision: Though huge and blood red, the cartoon
people outside the group. Also, slang tends to change monster had a sweet personality.
rapidly. What was cool for one generation is awesome Huge refers to size, so the words in size can be removed
for another. Finally, slang is by nature informal. So with no loss of meaning. Red is a color, so the words in
while it adds color to our everyday speech, it is gener- color are also unnecessary.
ally out of place in writing for school or work. Use slang
Wordy: I finally made up my mind and decided to look
only when you have a specific purpose in mind, such as
for a new job.
being humorous or communicating the flavor of an
Revision: I finally decided to look for a new job.
informal conversation.
Note how the wordy expressions below can be made
Slang: After a bummer of a movie, we pigged out on a
concise by eliminating repetitive words.
pizza.
Revision: After a disappointing movie, we devoured Examples of Wordiness Due to Repetition
a pizza.
few +-aussbes green +-eeler
14b Jargon postponed untitater small #-si#e
hevriedly rushed punched with-his-fet
Jargon is the specialized language of a particular field, listened with-hereazs the-feeling-of sadness
such as any of the various types of professional, busi- the first paragraph at-the-beginning of the chapter
ness, and entertainment fields. For instance, a lawyer’s
language includes such _ specialized terms as
magistrate, tort, and writ. Avoid using unexplained jar- Secondly, avoid puffed-up phrases that can be
gon for an audience that will be unfamiliar with it. expressed in a word or two instead.
Jargon: Many myocardial infarctions result from Wordy: Due to the fact that the printer was out of paper,
atherosclerosis. Renee went to a store for the purpose of buying more.
Revision: Many heart attacks result from a form of Revision: Because the printer was out of paper, Renee
hardening of the arteries. went to a store to buy more.

Notice how easily each of the wordy expressions on

the next page can be replaced by one word:
WORD CHOICE WORD CHOICE

14f Sexist language

Wordy Expression Concise Replacement
a large number of many Sexist language characterizes people or roles solely
at an earlier point in time before according to gender. To avoid sexist language, do not
at this point in time now refer to people in general as men or mankind; instead
be in possession of have use a term such as people or humankind. Instead of
due to the fact that because manpower, use a term such as human resources. Also,
during the time that while do not refer to an unknown individual as he. Instead,
each and every day daily use he or she, or recast the sentence so you can use the
in order to to plural they.
in the event that if
in the near future soon Sexist: The average American saves too little of his
in this day and age today income each year.
made the decision to decided Revision: The average American saves too little of his
or her income each year.
Revision: Average Americans save too little of their
In general, work to express your thoughts in the incomes each year.
fewest words possible that are still complete and clear.
Also, avoid describing or identifying men and women
Because writers initially concentrate on ideas and
in different ways. For instance, don’t describe women
organization, early drafts are often wordy. When revis-
by their clothes or their marital status if you are not
ing, watch for repetition that can be eliminated and
doing the same for men.
wordy expressions that can be replaced, as well as other
opportunities to eliminate wordiness. For example, sen- Sexist: Co-chairing the art auction are Julius Brown,
tences with such beginnings as there was or it is can first vice-president of Neighborhood Banks, Inc., and
often be condensed. Mrs. Freda Wright, wife of Dr. Ellis Wright.
Revision: Co-chairing the art auction are Julius Brown,
Wordy: There was a mountain lion that was roaming first vice-president of Neighborhood Banks, Inc., and
the suburbs. Freda Wright, art teacher at South High School.
Revision: A mountain lion was roaming the suburbs.
You can also avoid sexist language by using gender-
Phrases and clauses can often be shortened. neutral words for jobs and other roles when both sexes
Wordy: A number of studies of people who experienced may be included. For example, don’t assume that a
the event of a major earthquake reveal some of the psycho- nurse is necessarily she and that a doctor is necessarily
logical effects that natural disasters can have on people. he. Don’t refer to an individual as a female engineer or a
Revision: Studies of people who experienced a major male kindergarten teacher, which may imply that
earthquake reveal some psychological effects of natural women are inferior engineers and that men are poor
disasters. kindergarten teachers.
Words can sometimes be eliminated by combining sen- Sexist: A politician must spend much of his time run-
tences. ning for office.
Revision: A politician must spend much of his or her
Wordy: The Civilian Conservation Corps was estab- time running for office.
lished in 1933. It was created to provide jobs during the Revision: Politicians must spend much of their time
Depression. running for office.
Revision: The Civilian Conservation Corps was estab-
lished in 1933 to provide jobs during the Depression. Following are some titles commonly considered sexist,
along with corresponding nonsexist terms:
14e Showy language
While it is very useful to expand your vocabulary, avoid Sexist Position Titles Alternatives
using long words and sentences just to impress. A flow- businessman businessperson
ery, overblown style calls attention to the words them- chairman chairperson, chair
selves at the expense of the ideas. congressman congressperson
fireman firefighter
Showy: Please place the refuse receptacles by the side- mailman letter carrier, mail carrier
walk-street boundary. policeman police officer
Revision: Please put the trash cans by the curb. sculptress sculptor
stewardess flight attendant
PUNCTUATION 26 THE COMMA

15/ End Marks 16/TheComma _,

A comma often indicates a slight pause. It is used to sepa-
15a Theperiod . rate parts of a sentence.
Use a period at the end of a statement, a mild com- Use a comma as follows:
mand, or an indirect question.
The children jumped over all the rain puddles. 16a Between independent clauses connected by
a coordinating conjunction (and, but, so, or, nor,
Hand me the red pen.
for, or yet)
I wonder if there will be a surprise quiz today.
Put a comma before (not after) a coordinating conjunc-
Use a period after many abbreviations. Common tion that connects two or more independent clauses into
abbreviations with periods include the following: one sentence. An independent clause is a word group
that can stand alone as a separate sentence.
Mr. B.A. B.C.
Ms. R.N. etc. Gabe eats like a horse, but he is pencil-thin.
Mrs. M.D. a.m. (or A.M.) Exception: If the two independent clauses are short, the
comma may be omitted, especially before and or or: You jog
A period is not used in abbreviations of names of
and I'll walk.
organizations and government agencies (such as NBC
and the IRS) and in U.S. Postal Service abbreviations Do not put a comma
for states (such as FL, IL, and TX).
¢ Between two equal parts of a sentence that are not
independent clauses.
15b The question mark ? Incorrect: My neighbor’s dog dislikes children, and
Use a question mark after a sentence that asks a direct hates the mailman.
question. Correct: My neighbor’s dog dislikes children and hates
Are you ready for the exam? the mailman.

“Can I have your phone number?” Lynda asked Phil. e Between independent clauses that have no coordi-
nating conjunction between them. (See 10b, page 19.)
Some writers prefer not to use a question mark after
a polite request worded as a question. Incorrect: Matt is a great pitcher, he is a great dancer
too.
Would you please forward this letter. Correct: Matt is a great pitcher. He is a great dancer too.

Do not put a question mark 16b After introductory material

¢ At the end of an indirect question. Indirect ques-
Use a comma to separate introductory phrases and
tions tell the reader about questions, rather than
clauses from the rest of the sentence.
asking them directly. They end with periods, not
question marks. After a hot shower, Vince fell asleep on the sofa.
Incorrect: The instructor asked if we were ready for the To reach me tomorrow, you'll have to call my car phone.
exam? As the movie credits rolled, we stretched and headed
Correct: The instructor asked if we were ready for the
toward the exits.
exam.
Incorrect: Lynda asked Phil if she could have his phone Exception: Short introductory material need not be fol-
number? lowed by a comma as long as the meaning is clear: While
Correct: Lynda asked Phil if she could have his phone driving I listen to self-help tapes.
number.
16c Between items ina series
15c The exclamation point ! The comma is used to separate items in a series of
Use an exclamation point after a word or statement three or more.
that expresses extreme emotion or surprise or that School cafeterias have learned not to serve broccoli,
gives a strong command. spinach, or Brussels sprouts.
Wow! Our tasks for the party include blowing up balloons,
Help! Somebody help me! setting the table, and planning the music.
I wrote out my résumé, my mother corrected it, and
Note: Exclamation points lose their power if they are used my brother typed it.
too frequently. By choosing your words carefully, you can
often show strong feeling without an exclamation point, as Do not use a comma or commas
in this sentence: The cat was stretched out limply in the
middle of the road, lifeless. ¢ When using and or or between all the items in the
series.
Incorrect: School cafeterias have learned not to serve
broccoli, or spinach, or Brussels sprouts.
THE COMMA ae THE COMMA

Correct: School cafeterias have learned not to serve Such clauses are interrupters and should be set off with
broccoli or spinach or Brussels sprouts. commas.
¢ When alist contains only two items. To find out whether a clause is nonessential, try read-
Incorrect: School cafeterias have learned not to serve ing the sentence without it. If the word being described
spinach, or Brussels sprouts. is clear without it, then the clause is nonessential.
Correct: School cafeterias have learned not to serve Nonessential: Harvey, who came to the party with
spinach or Brussels sprouts. Joy, says he was kidnapped by aliens.
If the boldfaced clause were removed, we would still
16d Between coordinate adjectives know who said he was kidnapped by aliens: Harvey
Put a comma between coordinate adjectives—adjec- says he was kidnapped by aliens.
tives that sound right when joined with and. Such However, a clause that is needed to identify another
adjectives each modify the noun separately. word in the sentence is not an interrupter. Since it
Cecelia has a cheerful, friendly smile. answers the question “Which one?” (or “Which ones?”),
Cheerful and friendly smile sounds right. it is essential and should not be set off with commas.

The tomb contained a large gold mask. Essential: The man who came to the party with Joy
says he was kidnapped by aliens.
Large and gold mask does not sound right.
Without the boldfaced words, we would not know who
said he was kidnapped by aliens: The man says he was
16e To set off transitional and other parenthetical kidnapped by aliens. (Which man?)
expressions and absolute phrases
Hint: If the word who, whom, or which can be replaced
A word or word group that interrupts the flow of by that, then you know the clause is essential. “Harvey
thought in a sentence should be set off by commas. that came to the party .. .” does not sound right. “A
man that came to the party . . .” does.
Transitional and other parenthetical expressions.
Transitional expressions are words or word groups As with descriptive clauses, descriptive phrases should
that help connect ideas and sentences. They include be set off by commas if they are nonessential. Phrases
such words and phrases as however, furthermore, as a that are essential should not be set off with commas.
result, and on the other hand. (A list of transitional
Nonessential: The mayor’s house, with a red front
words is on page 29.) Parenthetical expressions should door and shutters, is easy to find.
generally be set off with commas. Essential: The house with a red front door and
Of course, it started to rain after I’d watered my garden. shutters belongs to the mayor.
I had also, believe it or not, just washed my car. Nonessential appositives. An appositive is a word or
Notes: (1) Commas may be omitted around certain short word group that renames a noun or pronoun.
transitional expressions if you feel they do not interrupt Nonessential appositives are set off by commas.
the flow of thought: I therefore went to sleep early. Essential appositives are not.
(2) Transitional words may be used after a semicolon to
connect two independent clauses. To see how to punctuate Nonessential: “The Star-Spangled Banner,” the
in such cases, see 17b, pages 28-29. American national anthem, was written to the melody
of an eighteenth-century drinking song.
Absolute phrases. Absolute phrases modify the whole This sentence would be clear without the appositive:
sentence, not just a part of it. (See 3c, page 6.) They “The Star-Spangled Banner” was written to the melody
should be set off with commas. of an eighteenth-century drinking song.

His tail wagging, our dog barked halfheartedly at the Essential: Robert Louis Stevenson dreamed the plot of
mail carrier. his novel The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
Lanelle, her voice trembling, explained what had hap- Hyde.
pened. Since Stevenson wrote more than one novel, this sen-
tence would not be clear without the appositive: Robert
Louis Stevenson dreamed the plot of his novel. (Which
16f Around nonessential clauses and phrases novel?)
(including appositives)
Note: Grammar books often refer to nonessential elements 16g To set off words of direct address, yes and no,
as “nonrestrictive elements” and to essential descriptions mild interjections, expressions of contrast, and tag
as “restrictive elements.” questions
Nonessential clauses and phrases. A nonessential Words of direct address. Use commas to set off names
clause provides a description that is not essential to the or other words used to address directly the person or
meaning of the sentence. The description may be inter- people being spoken to.
esting, but the word being described is clear without it.
You, Mr. Gimble, are the lucky winner of a ballpoint pen.
THE COMMA 28 THE SEMICOLON

Yes and no. Use commas to set off yes and no at the In informal letters. Place a comma after the opening
beginning of a sentence. and closing.
No, you cannot have a raise. Dear Grandma, . . . With love,
Note: In business letters, a colon is used after the opening:
Mild interjections. Use commas to set off words such Dear Mr. Cramer:
as well, ah, and oh.
With titles. When a person’s name is followed by an
Well, that’s a shame.
abbreviated title (including a degree), set off the title
Note: Follow an interjection that represents strong emo- with commas.
tion with an exclamation point: Wow! I won.
Martin Luther King, Jr., inspired a generation of civil-
rights workers.
Expressions of contrast. Sharply contrasting elements
that begin with such words as not, but, and unlike
should be set off with commas. 16j To prevent misreading
Use a comma to separate words that might otherwise
The American flag was designed by Francis Hopkinson,
be misread.
not Betsy Ross.
Incorrect: Before the movie cheered us up.
Tag questions. Set off added-on questions with a Correct: Before, the movie cheered us up.
comma, and end the sentence with a question mark.
We were certainly lucky the storm passed us by, weren’t
16k Misuses of the comma
we? In general, use a comma only when a comma rule
applies or when a comma is otherwise needed to help a
sentence read clearly. Do not use a comma in the fol-
16h To set off direct quotations
lowing situations:
Use commas to separate direct quotations from such
words as he wrote or she said. Between a subject and its verb
“Children,” wrote a wise man, “need models rather than Incorrect: The rubber band, was invented in the mid-
critics.” 1800s.
Correct: The rubber band was invented in the mid-
Exception: When quoted words are blended into a sen-
1800s.
tence, they are not set off by a comma. The word that often
precedes quoted words that are blended into a sentence:
Between a verb and its object
Mark Twain wrote that some people think public opinion
“is the voice of God.” Incorrect: Irving Berlin played, the piano.
Correct: Irving Berlin played the piano.
Note: Do not use a comma to set off an indirect quotation,
which reports on what was said instead of exactly quoting
its
Incorrect: A wise man wrote that, children need mod- 17/The Semicolon ;
els, not critics. A semicolon can be used to join independent clauses. It
Correct: A wise man wrote that children need models,
is also used between items in a series when the items
not critics.
themselves contain commas.
Use a semicolon as follows:
16i With dates, addresses, letters, and titles
Use commas with dates, addresses, letters, and titles 17a To join two independent clauses that are
according to established usage. (For the use of the
closely related but are not connected by a coordi-
comma in numerals, see 25d, page 38.)
nating conjunction (such as and, but, or so)
Within a date. Place commas after the the day of the The cat knocked over a can of cola; the soda foamed over
week (if used), the date, and the year. the white carpet.
The two independent clauses could have been separated
Professor Ruiz is getting married on Friday, December
by a period. However, the author has stressed their
27, 1996. close relationship by using a semicolon instead.
Exception: If only the month and year are given, no comma
is used: Our lease runs from May 1996 through April 1998. 17b To join two closely related independent
In an address within a sentence. Place a comma after clauses with a transitional word or phrase
each part of the address except between the state and The transitional word or phrase shows the relationship
the ZIP code. between the two independent clauses. When it comes
right after the semicolon, it is usually followed with a
Send your comments about this book to Townsend comma. (See also 10c, Method 4, page 19.) &

Press, Pavilions at Greentree, Suite 408, Marlton,

NJ 08053.
THE SEMICOLON 29 THE COLON

Common Transitional Expressions On her first day of vacation, Carrie did three things: she
watched a funny movie, took a long nap, and ate at her
afterwards for instance meanwhile favorite restaurant.
also furthermore moreover
Students must bring the following items to the drawing
as a result however nevertheless
besides in addition on the other hand class: a sketch pad, a charcoal pencil, and a rubber eraser.
consequently in fact otherwise
finally in other words then An appositive. After an independent clause, a colon can
for example instead therefore be used to introduce an appositive—a word or words
that rename or identify a nearby noun or pronoun.

Marta began school without knowing any English; never- Frederic Dannay and Manfred B. Lee wrote under one
theless, she will graduate at the top of her class. pen name: Ellery Queen.
The transitional word nevertheless clarifies the contrast
between the two independent clauses. A quotation. A quotation can be introduced by an inde-
pendent clause followed by a colon.
17c To separate items in a series when the items Eleanor Roosevelt wrote this about courage: “You gain
themselves contain commas strength, courage and confidence by every experience in
which you really stop to look fear in the face. You are
Items in a series are usually separated by commas. able to say to yourself, ‘I lived through this horror. I can
However, if the items already contain commas, prevent take the next thing that comes along.’”
confusion by using semicolons to separate the items.
Driving down Sunset Strip, we passed La Boutique, A second independent clause that explains or illus-
which sells women’s clothing; The Friendly Cafe, which trates the first one
serves twenty different kinds of coffee; and Pet Palace, Bert suddenly cancelled his evening plans for a simple
which sells snakes, parrots, and spiders. reason: his [or His] car was out of gas.

17d Misuses of the semicolon A business letter. Put a colon after the greeting of a
business letter.
Do not use a semicolon in the following situations:
Dear Sir or Madam:
Between an introductory phrase and the rest of the Note: Use a comma after the greeting of a personal letter:
sentence Dear Mom,
Incorrect: His hands trembling; the speaker admitted
that he was nervous. 18b To separate parts of conventional material
Correct: His hands trembling, the speaker admitted
that he was nervous. Hours and minutes. 3:15 p.m.

Between a dependent clause and an independent Title and subtitle. 1 Had a Hammer: The Hank Aaron
clause Story
Incorrect: Although the garbage collectors have no con-
tract; they have agreed to continue working.
Biblical chapter and verse references. Matthew 7:7
Correct: Although the garbage collectors have no con- Note: The Modern Language Association guidelines call
tract, they have agreed to continue working. for a period: Matthew 7.7

To introduce alist In bibliographic entries

Incorrect: The suitcase was filled with everything but Place of publication and the publisher. Boston:
clothing; books, games, snacks, crayons, and a teddy bear. Houghton Mifflin
Correct: The suitcase was filled with everything but
clothing: books, games, snacks, crayons, and a teddy bear. Volume number and page numbers. Smithsonian
25: 90-99

18c Misuses of the colon

18/The Colon : Do not use a colon in the following situations:
The colon comes at the end of an independent clause to
direct attention to what follows. It is also used to sepa- Between a verb and its object
rate parts of conventional material. Incorrect: Roxanne collects: stamps, coins, and hus-
Use a colon as follows: bands.
Correct: Roxanne collects stamps, coins, and husbands.
18a To direct attention to what follows Between a verb and the subject complement
A list. A colon may be used to introduce a list that fol-
Incorrect: The dog’s name is: Stuart.
lows an independent clause. The clause may include Correct: The dog’s name is Stuart.
words such as the following or as follows.
THE COLON 30 THE APOSTROPHE

Between a preposition and its object Hyphenated words. To show possession in a hyphen-
Incorrect: Jean lives with: two cats, a dog, and a six-
ated noun, add the apostrophe to the last part of the ~
foot python. word.
Correct: Jean lives with two cats, a dog, and a six-foot Mr. Wright has been working part-time at his brother-in-
python. law’s pizza place.

After including, for example, or such as

19b To mark omissions in contractions
Incorrect: Geese have become a nuisance at such places
as: yards, roads, and golf courses. The apostrophe takes the place of missing letters in
Correct: Geese have become a nuisance at such places contractions.
as yards, roads, and golf courses. I can’t [cannot] believe that you’re [you are] really in
town.

The apostrophe also takes the place of the missing first

19 / The Apostrophe ” two numerals in years.
The apostrophe is used to show possession. It is also The computer has greatly changed our lives in the ’90s
used in contractions and certain plurals. [1990s].
Use an apostrophe as follows:
19c To form the plurals of letters, abbreviations,
19a To show possession words referred to as words, and numerals
Possessives show ownership, or belonging. Possession Kenneth received two B’s and two C’s this semester.
can be expressed in a phrase that contains the word of.
There are numerous YMCA’s throughout the country.
For example, the waiting room of the doctor means the
same as the doctor’s waiting room. If you’re not sure if a The parents of a two-year-old hear many no’s throughout
word is possessive, try turning it into a phrase with of. a day.
Following are ways to change the form of nouns and_ The address is easy to remember—it has four 7’s in a row.
indefinite pronouns to show possession. Note: The plural of decades can be shown either with or
without an apostrophe: In the 1930’s [or 1930s], an inven-
Adding an apostrophe plus s. Add -’s to form the pos- tor named Earl D. Tupper experimented with a strong new
sessives of the following: plastic.
¢ All singular nouns, including those that end in s
19d Misuses of the apostrophe
The coat’s lining is torn.
An apostrophe should not be used in the following situ-
The press’s right to print unpopular views is protected
ations:
by the First Amendment.
Note: When adding -’s makes a word hard to pronounce, In plurals that are not possessives. A plural that is not
many writers omit the s: Norman Cousins’ experiences with possessive is formed simply by adding -s or -es to a
illness taught him that laughter can improve one’s health. noun.
¢ Plural nouns that do not end ins Incorrect: The daffodil’s are peeking through the snow.
Holly often buys clothes from the men’s department. Correct: The daffodils are peeking through the snow.

¢ Indefinite pronouns (pronouns, such as nobody In verbs. Many verbs end with an s. Do not use an
and everyone, which do not refer to a specific person apostrophe in a verb.
or thing) Incorrect: Jenny play’s poker once a week.
Someone’s dog was barking all night. Correct: Jenny plays poker once a week.

Adding only an apostrophe. To form the possessive of In possessive pronouns. There is no apostrophe in the
plural nouns that end in s, add only an apostrophe. possessive pronouns his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs,
and whose.
The Clarks’ family tree goes back two hundred years.
We're going to the Joneses’ house for dinner tonight. Incorrect: Our old tree is losing it’s leaves.
Correct: Our old tree is losing its leaves.
Joint and individual possession. To show joint posses- Note: Do not confuse some of the possessive pronouns with
sion by two or more nouns, add an apostrophe to only contractions that look and sound similar to them.
the last noun.
Possessive
Beth and Jeremy’s new van broke down on the highway. pronouns Contractions
your you're (meaning you are)
If each noun possesses something individually, each its it’s (meaning it is or it has)
one gets an apostrophe. their they're (meaning they are)
whose who’s (meaning who is or who has)
Boys’ and girls’ shoes are sized differently.
 QUOTATION MARKS QUOTATION MARKS

20/ Quotation Marks “ ” Do not use quotation marks

Quotation marks are used to enclose the exact words of
e Around indirect quotations. We often express some-
a speaker or writer as well as certain titles or words one’s spoken or written thoughts in our own words.
used with a special meaning. Such statements are called indirect quotations.
Use quotation marks as follows: Indirect quotations should not be enclosed in quota-
tion marks. (Indirect quotations often include the
word that.)
20a To enclose direct quotations Incorrect: The mechanic said “that Fred’s car has real
Put quotation marks around a direct quotation, the problems.”
exact words of a speaker or writer. Correct: The mechanic said that Fred’s car has real
“Your car is in big trouble,” the mechanic muttered to problems.
Fred. Incorrect: M. Scott Peck wrote that “we cannot expect
“We cannot solve a problem by hoping that someone else others to solve a problem for us.”
will solve it for us,” wrote psychiatrist M. Scott Peck. Correct: M. Scott Peck wrote that we cannot expect oth-
ers to solve a problem for us.
Exception: Long quotations are indented and not enclosed
within quotation marks. (For more details on indenting
quotations, see 37a, page 59, and 38a, page 65.) 20b To enclose titles of short works
Put quotation marks around the titles of short stories,
Quotations with split sentences. If a directly quoted newspaper or magazine articles, songs, poems, episodes
sentence is split up, each part must be enclosed bya set of TV series, book chapters, and other parts of longer
of quotation marks. works.
“After inserting the disk,” said the instructor, “turn on Our instructor assigned the short story “The Open Boat”
the computer.” by Stephen Crane.
The words said the instructor are not enclosed in quota- The magazine article titled “Policing the Police” is about
tion marks because they were not spoken by the good cops who go bad.
instructor. The words turn on the computer begin with a
small letter because they are a continuation of a sen- Use italics, or underlining, to present titles of longer
tence, not a new sentence. (The full sentence spoken by works. See 24a, page 37.
the instructor is “After inserting the disk, turn on the
computer.”) 20c To enclose words used in a special sense
Quotations of more than one sentence. If an uninter- Words used ironically or in another special way may be
rupted direct quotation is more than one sentence, enclosed in quotation marks. Use quotation marks for
enclose the entire quotation in one set of quotation this purpose sparingly.
marks. The “fast-food” order took twenty minutes.
Our minister always says, “It’s every citizen’s responsi-
Do not use quotation marks
bility to vote. If you don’t vote, you shouldn’t complain.”
¢ To enclose familiar slang.
If a quotation is interrupted between sentences, enclose
Incorrect: When I have to give a speech in class, I feel
each part of the quotation in quotation marks. “uptight” for days.
“I really hate my job,” Stan told his wife. “I think I’d bet- Correct: When I have to give a speech in class, I feel
ter start looking for a new one.” uptight for days.
The words Stan told his wife are not part of the direct Slang generally should be avoided in formal writing.
quotation. (For more about slang, see 14a, page 24.)

¢ To show humorous intent.

Dialogue. In dialogue, which is directly quoted conver-
sation between two or more people, start a new para- Incorrect: Dan really “fell” for his wife—he met her on
graph for each change of speaker. the ice rink after toppling into her.
Correct: Dan really fell for his wife—he met her on the
“Can I help you?” asked the waitress.
ice rink after toppling into her.
“Just a tall cup of coffee,” Ramon answered.
Humor is generally more effective if readers are left to
Quotations within quotations. Use single quotation see it on their own.
marks (‘ ’) to set off quotations within quotations. (On
most keyboards and typewriters, use the apostrophe 20d To enclose definitions
key to create a single quotation mark.) The word crystal comes from a Greek word that means
sce.”

Verna said, “It was Rick who yelled ‘Bravo!’ during the
applause.”
@ 20e With other punctuation
Following are accepted ways of using quotation marks
with other punctuation:
QUOTATION MARKS OTHER PUNCTUATION MARKS

Commas. When a quotation is introduced with 21 / Other Punctuation Marks

explanatory words such as he said, separate those
words from the quotation with a comma. When the 21a The hyphen -
explanatory words come first, put the comma before the
Hyphens are used within a word or between two words.
first quotation mark.
Use a hyphen as follows:
My brother yelled, “Is roommate spelled with one or two
m’s?” To divide a word at the end of a line of writing. If all
of a word won't fit at the end of a line, follow these
When the explanatory words come after the quotation, guidelines:
put the comma inside the closing quotation mark.
1. Never divide a word which has only one syllable.
“My greatest challenge is balancing my personal life with
2. Divide words only between syllables.
my career,” Tama informed us.
3. Never divide a word in a way that leaves only one or
Note: When there are no explanatory words (like he said) two letters alone ona line.
just before the quotation and the quotation is blended into 4. When dividing a word that already contains a
a sentence, no comma should be used: Author Bertrand hyphen, divide where the hyphen is.
Russell once referred to becoming drunk as “temporary sui-
The lawyer stood up, shoved some papers into her brief-
cide.”
case, and hurried to court.
Periods. Put a period inside quotation marks when the
sentence ends with quoted material.
To join two or more words that act as a single modi-
fier before a noun
Franklin D. Roosevelt said, “Peace, like charity, begins at The sports car swerved around the slow-moving truck.
home.”
Slow and moving work together to modify the noun truck.
In 1877, a sixteen-year-old girl wrote the piano exercise
“Chopsticks.” Exceptions:
¢ Do not use a hyphen when the two words come after the
Colons and semicolons. Put colons and semicolons word they modify: The truck was slow moving.
outside the quotation marks. ¢ Do not use a hyphen when the first word is an -ly
The security guard said, “No one is allowed in here. adverb: The sports car swerved around the slowly
You'll have to leave”; then he walked us to the door. moving truck.

There’s a famous line in Alexander Pope’s poem “An Essay Note: In a series, use the word after the hyphen only
on Criticism”: “A little learning is a dangerous thing.” once—following the last hyphen.
This neighborhood has a mixture of one-, two-, and
Question marks and exclamation points. When a three-story houses.
question mark or exclamation point applies only to the
quoted words, put it within the quotation marks. In numbers. Hyphenate any two-word number from
twenty-one to ninety-nine and any two-word fraction.
“Where are my red shoes?” asked Lana.
The question is within the quotation marks. Karen is twenty-two, and her husband is forty-two.
Give me only a fourth of that chocolate bar; you may
My father shouted, “Turn down that music!”
have the other three-fourths.
The entire exclamation is within quotation marks.
In some compound words. Compound words are made
When the question mark or exclamation point applies to
up of two or more words. Some are joined with a
the whole sentence, put it outside the quotation marks.
hyphen, such as old-timer and half-hour. Others may
Did you say “Thank you”? be written as one word (catlike and redhead) or as two
The whole sentence is the question. words (blue jay and figure skating).
Rani’s two-year-old daughter knows every word of “God Bonita makes extra pocket money by baby-sitting,
Bless America”! and she does her homework at the same time.
The emotional point is made by the entire sentence, not There is no clear rule to cover all compound words, so
just by the words within quotation marks. when you're unsure about whether or not to hyphenate
such words, check your dictionary. If a compound word
20f Misuses of quotation marks is not in the dictionary, write it as two words (unless
Do not use quotation marks in the following situations: another rule calls for a hyphen).

Simply to emphasize one or more words With the prefixes all-, self-, ex- (when it means
Incorrect: “Promotion” of a product can take many former) and the suffix -elect
forms. all-around ex-president
Correct: Promotion of a product can take many forms. self-image governor-elect

Around titles introducing your own papers 21b Thedash —

Incorrect: “Types of Advertisements” While the hyphen is used within or between individual
Correct: Types of Advertisements
words, the dash is used between parts of a sentence.
 OTHER PUNCTUATION MARKS 33 OTHER PUNCTUATION MARKS

When typing, form a dash with two hyphens (--), leav- The words for recycled trash are not part of the direct
ing no space before, between, or after them. A dash is quotation. The author has inserted them to make the
used for dramatic effect or for clarity; do not use it for point clear to readers.
ordinary pauses in place of a comma, period, or semi-
colon. Do use it for the following purposes: To enclose the Latin word sic to show that an error
was made by the original writer. Sic means thus, or
To set off parenthetical material for emphasis or clar- so, and indicates that an error was made by the person
ity. Use dashes to set off parenthetical material (added being quoted.
information, explanations, and comments that are not Mr. Elwood wrote, “I would of [sic] written sooner, but I
essential to the main point) that you wish to emphasize have been ill these past weeks.”
or that itself contains commas.
The bracketed sic shows that it was Mr. Elwood who
Everyone in that family—including a teenager—has a wrote would of instead of would have.
cholesterol problem.
To enclose a parenthetical item within parentheses
The Peterson triplets—Peter, Paul, and Perry—are all on
the school baseball team. Mobiles (first created by artist Alexander Calder
[1898-1976]) are commercially available in various sizes
To signal the end of a list. Use a dash between an and materials.
introductory list and the explanation that follows.
Family support, prayer, and hope—these are what got
21e Theellipsis ...
Grady through all those months in jail. Use an ellipsis to show that words within a sentence in
a quoted passage have been omitted.
To introduce a final dramatic element. Use a dash to
Jackson writes that in December 1918 Ripley “strung
emphasize a final explanation, list, or added point.
together a collage of sports oddities .. . and submitted it
Ravi hurriedly left work in the middle of the day—his to his editor with the title Champs and Chumps.”
wife was having labor pains.
If you omit a full sentence or more from within a
Anne’s refrigerator was packed with food for the party— quoted passage, add a period before the ellipsis. Use an
trays of cold cuts, bottles of pickles, loaves of bread, and ellipsis at the end of a quotation only when you omit
several pitchers of lemonade. words at the end of the last quoted sentence. (If words
My wallet was found in a trash can—minus its cash. are missing at the beginning of a quotation, no ellipsis
Note: The colon can also be used to introduce some final is necessary.)
elements. However, a colon is more formal and less dra- Jackson goes on to explain that “according to Edward
matic than a dash. Meyer, vice president and archivist of present-day Ripley
Entertainment Inc., .. . the Believe It or Not title didn’t
21c Parentheses ( ) appear until the following year. ... within a few years it
There are two common uses of parentheses: was a regular daily feature....”
The first ellipsis shows that some words are missing
To enclose interrupting material. Use parentheses for within the sentence. The second ellipsis indicates that
secondary information you wish to de-emphasize, such a full sentence or more is omitted at that spot. The four
as minor additions and comments. When a comma, dots include the period of the omitted sentence. The
semicolon, or period immediately follows parenthetical last ellipsis shows that feature is not the last word of
material, put the punctuation mark after the closing that sentence. The four dots include the period at the
parenthesis. end of the sentence.
According to Dr. Ford (my dentist), the mercury in fill-
ings poses no health problem. 21f Theslash /
Note: Too many parentheses can be distracting to readers. The slash is used to separate. Use a slash as follows:
Use commas to enclose most interrupting material.
To separate alternatives. Leave no space before and
Around numbers or letters that list items within a after the slash.
sentence I appreciate a newscast now and then without a fire
Ron’s work for the evening is as follows: (1) finish a his- and/or a natural disaster.
tory term paper, (2) read a chapter in the psychology
text, and (3) wash a load of laundry. Use the slash for this purpose sparingly. His or her is
generally better, for example, than his/her.
21d Brackets [ ] To separate two or three lines of poetry. Leave a
Use brackets within quoted material for the following space on each side of the slash.
purposes:
@ To enclose a clarifying word or phrase inserted into a
Blake’s reverence for nature is evident in such lines as
“To see a world in a grain of sand / And a heaven in a
direct quotation wild flower.”

“The increased demand [for recycled trash] is due partly

to an improving economy.”
MECHANICS 34 MANUSCRIPT FORMAT

space, both between the preceding text and the quota-

22 / Manuscript Format tion and also within the quotation. If you quote all or *
Before writing out a final copy of a manuscript, check to part of only one paragraph, do not further indent the
see if your instructor has provided guidelines. Some first line of the quotation. If you quote more than one
instructors, for instance, accept only typed or word-pro- paragraph, indent the first line of each paragraph
cessed papers. The following common guidelines for another quarter inch (or three typed spaces). However,
manuscript format include the Modern Language do not indent the first paragraph if you have omitted
Association (MLA) recommendations and may be used its first sentence. (For an example of an indented quo-
if your instructor hasn’t offered others. Where the tation in the MLA style, see 37a, page 59.)
American Psychological Association (APA) style instruc- In the APA style, use margins that are at least an
tions differ, they are also included. Note that there are inch, and indent paragraphs five to seven spaces. Do
various format styles. The MLA style is widely used in not divide words at the end of a line. Start a quotation
English and humanities papers; the APA style is gener- of forty words or more on a new line and indent it five
ally used in psychology and social science papers. to seven spaces from the left margin. Even if the quota-
tion begins at the start of a paragraph, do not indent
22a Materials and general methods the first sentence. However, indent the first line of each
additional paragraph an additional five to seven
Word-processed papers. Use 20-pound white paper, spaces. (For an example of an indented quotation in the
8% by 11 inches, and dark print. If you use a dot matrix APA style, see 38a, page 65.)
printer, use the highest quality print available, often
called near-letter quality. If you use continuous sheets Heading and title. According to MLA guidelines,
of paper, separate the sheets and remove the perforated there’s no need for a title page unless your instructor
edges before handing in your paper. If you have a requests one, in which case, use your instructor’s guide-
choice of fonts, select one (such as Times or Courier) lines. Otherwise, beginning at the left margin an inch
that resembles typewriter type. from the top of the first page, write on separate double-
If using a word processor for an APA-style paper, use spaced lines the four parts of the heading: your name,
a 12-point font. the instructor’s name, the course name and number,
and the date.
Typed papers. Use 20-pound white typing paper, 8% by Double-space once after the heading, and then cen-
11 inches. Do not use onionskin, which makes for diffi- ter the title of your paper, double-spacing it if it takes
cult reading, or erasable paper, which smudges easily. more than one line. Do not use quotation marks around
Use a typewriter ribbon with enough ink to provide the title or put a period after it. Capitalize the first and
dark letters. Keep the typewriter keys clean enough for last words of the title (and any subtitle) and all other
crisp, clear impressions. Use a pen to write in any words except for articles (a, an, and the), coordinating
marks that are not on your typewriter, such as accent conjunctions (and, but, so, for, yet, or, and nor), preposi-
marks. tions (such as about, between, in, and to), and the to
that is part of an infinitive (such as to work). Then dou-
Handwritten papers. Use white, lined paper, 8% by 11
ble-space again, and begin the text of the paper. Also
inches; do not use paper torn from a spiral notebook.
include on that page the page number with your name
Use black or blue ink, and write letters and punctua-
before it (see “Page numbers” below).
tion marks as clearly as you can, taking care to distin-
The APA style calls for a title page. If your instructor
guish between small and capital letters and to show
wants you to use one, he or she may provide you with
clearly the placement of punctuation marks.
instructions on what information to include. Otherwise,
Binding. Unless asked to do otherwise, simply secure do the following: Beginning about a third of the way
the pages with a paper clip. down the page, write on separate double-spaced and
centered lines the title of the paper, your name, the
instructor's name, the course name and number, and
22b Text layout the date. If your title should run to two lines, continue
to double-space it. Also include on the title page the
Margins and spacing. In MLA style, leave an inch on
page header and number (see “Page numbers” below).
all four sides of each page. On word-processed or typed
If you are required to write an abstract, write that
papers, double-space throughout, and print on only one
on page 2. Then begin your text on page 3; center the
side of the paper. On handwritten papers, write on only
title on that page as well. Your instructor may ask you
one side of the page and on only every other line. Try to
to use headings throughout your paper as a way of pro-
avoid dividing words at the end of a line, but if you
viding your reader with an overview of the paper’s
must divide a word, follow the guidelines in 21a, page
organization.
oo.
The first line of a paragraph should be indented a Page numbers. For a paper in the MLA style, number
half inch (or for typed papers, five spaces) from the left each page, including the first, with an Arabic number
margin. (1, 2, 8, and so on) flush with the right margin about
Quotations of more than four lines of prose or three one-half inch below the top edge. Do not use periods,
lines of poetry should be indented one inch (or ten parentheses, or any other symbol with the number.
typed spaces) from the left margin. Continue to double- Write your last name just before each page number.
MANUSCRIPT FORMAT CAPITAL LETTERS

The Top of Page 1 of an MLA Research Paper whether to capitalize a particular word, a good dic-
tionary may provide the answer.
Watkins 1
Capitalize the following:
Paul Watkins
Professor Josephs
English 101
23a The first word in a sentence or direct quota-
12 May 1995
tion
Corporal Punishment: The Unintended Effects Sentences, including those in direct quotations, begin
Natalie Owens was watching Oprah Winfrey and prepar- with capital letters.
ing dinner while Lucas, age five, and Doug, three, played
The ice cream man said, “Try a frozen banana bar.
quietly in the back yard. Suddenly, a blood-curdling scream
Theyre delicious.”
“Tm sure they are,” the woman replied, “but they’re too
hard for my dentures.”
If you use the APA style, begin numbering the pages
with the title page. Use Arabic numbers, and place In the last sentence, the word but is not capitalized
each flush with the right margin somewhere between because it does not start a sentence. It is part of the
the top of the paper and the first line of text. Write the sentence that begins with the words I’m sure they are.
first two or three words of the title either above the Exception: Do not capitalize the first word of a quoted sen-
number or five spaces to the left of it. tence that is blended into the rest of the sentence: Casey
Stengel recalled about Babe Ruth that “he had good stuff,
The Top of the First Page of Text of an APA Research Paper
a good fastball, a fine curve—a dipsy-do that made you
think alittle.”
Corporal Punishment

Corporal Punishment: The Unintended Effects 23b The first word of an independent clause that
Natalie Owens was watching Oprah Winfrey and follows a colon
preparing dinner while Lucas, age five, and Doug, three,
When an independent clause follows a colon, capitaliz-
played quietly in the back yard. Suddenly, a blood-curdling
ing the first word after the colon is optional. Capitalize
when what follows the colon is a question, a lengthy
statement, or a point you wish to emphasize.
Typing punctuation. Space once after a comma, a
semicolon, a colon, any mark of punctuation at the end There is one thing that all people who accomplish a lot
of a sentence, and between ellipses dots. (Some do: They [or they] organize their time.
instructors may prefer you to space twice after a colon Note: Do not capitalize the first word after a colon unless
or an end mark.) Form a dash by typing two hyphens it begins an independent clause.
with no space between them; there should be no space When studying class notes, don’t forget the last step:
before or after the dash. testing yourself.

List of sources. The style and layout of sources used in

23c The word /
your paper are explained in “Documentation” on pages
59-64 (for a paper using the MLA style) or pages 65-68 Capitalize the word J even when it doesn’t begin a sen-
(for a paper in the APA style). tence.
Although I’m fond of Mei Ling, I don’t care for her hus-
band.
22c Proofreading and making corrections
Before handing in your paper, proofread it carefully for 23d Titles
errors in typing, layout, spelling, punctuation, and
grammar. For suggestions on proofreading, see 33b, Capitalize the titles of works, including books, maga-
Step 5, page 54. zines, articles, stories, papers, poems, TV and stage
You can eliminate all or most of your errors on a shows, movies, and songs. Articles (a, an, and the),
self-correcting typewriter or a word processor. Other short prepositions (such as of and to), and coordinating
errors can be eliminated with white correction fluid. conjunctions (such as and and but) are not capitalized
Many instructors will allow you to cross out errors, unless they are the first or last word of the title.
with the correction neatly typed or written above. Draw Sitting in the waiting room, the man nervously paged
in a caret (a) to show where the correction is inserted. through issues of Life and People magazines.
Any page with numerous corrections should be retyped. Gwen wrote a paper titled “A View of African-American
Women,” which was based on the book and movie The
Color Purple.
23 / Capital Letters For information on when to set titles off with quotation
Following are guidelines for using capital letters. If marks and when to italicize (or underline) them, see
after checking these points you are still unsure about 20b, page 31, and 24a, page 37.
CAPITAL LETTERS 36 CAPITAL LETTERS

23e Opening and closing of aletter Names for the deity, religions, religious followers, and
sacred books ;
Capitalize all words in the salutation of a letter.
There are various names for God, including the
Dear Ms. Axelrod: Dear Sir or Madam: Almighty, Jehovah, and Allah.
Capitalize only the first word ofthe closing ofa letter. The native religion of Japan is Shintoism.
The Koran is the sacred text of Islam.
Sincerely yours, Yours truly,
Races, nationalities, tribes and languages -
23f Abbreviations
The term Caucasian was used until recently to refer to a
Capitalize radio and television station call letters and member of a particular racial division.
abbreviations of organizations, government agencies,
Karol, who is a Polish-American, can speak Chinese and
and companies. Also capitalize certain acronyms (words Russian.
formed from the initials of a name).
Exception: The racial terms black and white may be capi-
KUOM-FM KYW-TV NAACP NASA IBM NATO talized, but often are not.

23g Proper nouns and adjectives Specific places (such as countries, cities, bodies of
Capitalize proper nouns—the names of specific per-
water, streets, buildings, and parks)
sons, places, or things. Do not capitalize common Ms. Evans, who is the president of a bank in Boston,
nouns— all other nouns. grew up on a farm near Kokomo, Indiana.
Neighborhood children pretend that the pond on Farwell
Avenue is the Pacific Ocean.
Proper Nouns Common Nouns
Eve woman Note: Places that are not specifically named should not be
Thomas Edison inventor capitalized: Ms. Evans, who is president of a bank in a big
Canada country city, grew up on a farm near a small city.
Philadelphia city
Olympia College college Specific organizations (such as government agencies,
Mars planet educational institutions, businesses, political parties,
Titanic ship courts, and civic groups)
The Government Accounting Office found numerous
Do not capitalize common nouns even to give them cases of over-billing the government.
special emphasis or added importance. The local president of Mothers Against Drunk Driving is
a part-time real estate agent for Hometown Realty.
Incorrect: The College is near the State Capital.
Correct: The college is near the state capital. Days of the week, months, and holidays
Also capitalize all proper adjectives, adjectives At first, Thanksgiving was celebrated on the last Thurs-
that are formed from proper nouns. day in November, but it was later changed to the fourth
Thursday of the month.
Canadian provinces Italian cruise ship
Note: The names of the seasons (spring, summer, fall, win-
Following are types of proper nouns: ter) are not capitalized: The children love fall and winter
because their favorite holidays occur then.
People’s names and titles used as part of their names
Mayor Anderson spoke to Officer Jenkins after the bur- Brand names (but not the kind of product)
glary. Every morning Mario has Minute Maid orange juice and
Ethan Brown, Jr., and Professor Irma Stone will speak Special K cereal with milk.
at the student union this evening.
Specific school courses
Do not capitalize a title that is not used as part of a This semester, Jody is taking Dance 101, General Psy-
person’s name. chology, and Economics 235.
Irma Stone, professor of education, will retire this year. Note: The names of general subject areas are not capital-
However, usage varies for titles of high distinction. ized (except for languages): This semester, Jody is taking a
gym class, a psychology course, and an economics class.
The President [or president] held a press conference this
afternoon. Historical periods, well-known events, and documents
During the Middle Ages, only the nobility and the clergy
Family words used as names or as part of names could read and write.
Go help Grandfather carry those heavy bags. The act of protest in which 342 tea chests were thrown
Phil is staying at Uncle Raymond’s house for the holidays. into the ocean came to be known as the Boston Tea Party.
Note: Do not capitalize words such as grandfather when The Magna Carta, the charter of English liberties, was
they come after possessive words such as my, her, or your: granted in 1215.
My grandmother lives next door to your parents.
ITALICS 37 NUMBERS

24 / Italics (Underlining) 24c Do not italicize (or put quotation marks

around) the following:
Italics is a typeface slanted to the right (like this) used
for certain purposes in printed material. In typewritten The title of a paper (except for words that would oth-
or handwritten material, underlining is used instead. erwise be italicized, such as the words ina title of a
novel)
24a Italicize or underline the following: Characterization in The Scarlet Letter

Titles of separate works Titles of major sacred works, such as the Bible and
Books. Over 20 million copies have been sold of Gone books in it
with the Wind. Genesis is the first book of the Old Testament.
Magazines. The children’s magazine Cricket is avail-
able at the library. Names of legal documents
The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are
Newspapers. We buy the New York Times on Sundays. called the Bill of Rights.
Note: The word the is not capitalized or italicized in the
title of a newspaper or magazine—even if the is part of
the title on the publication.
25 / Numbers
Plays. After almost four hundred years, people are still
not tired of Hamlet. In formal writing for the general reader, follow the
guidelines below.
Long poems. In Paradise Lost, John Milton tries to
explain the prevalence of evil.
25a Spell out any number that can be written in
Comic strips. The characters in Peanuts have become one or two words; otherwise, use numerals.
part of our culture.
When written out, numbers twenty-one through ninety-
Films. Some movie fans can recite long passages from nine are hyphenated.
Casablanca.
When my grandmother turned sixty-nine, she went on a
TV and radio programs. Thirty-nine half-hour fifteen-day trip across nine states.
episodes were filmed of The Honeymooners. The mail carrier delivered 512 pieces of mail today.
Paintings and sculptures. The portrait titled Mona Exception: When one or more numbers in a series need to
Lisa is of a young woman with a charming smile. be written as numerals, use numerals for the entire series:
The movie theater sold 137 tickets to a horror movie, 64 to
Computer software. People in our office use
a comedy, and 17 to a romance.
WordPerfect.

Names of specific ships, aircraft, and spacecraft 25b Spell out any number that begins a sentence.
The Titanic sank on its very first voyage. Eight hundred and seventy-one dollars was found in
the briefcase.
Foreign words used in English sentences Note: To avoid writing out a long number, you can rewrite
My French instructor calls me mademoiselle. the sentence: The briefcase contained $871.
Note: Many foreign words, such as burrito and karate, are
so widely used and understood that they have become part 25c Use numerals for the following:
of the English language and should not be italicized. In
Dates
general, if a foreign word is listed in an English diction-
ary, it is considered to have been absorbed into English. My grandfather was born on July 4, 1909.
Note: Do not use such forms as Ist, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th in
Words, letters, and numbers referred to as such dates unless the year is not given: The deadline is
When d and g are paired in a word, as in fudge, they November 10th.
have the sound of /.
Written on the front of the envelope was the number 4. Times of the day
The last guest left at 1:45 a.m.
24b Italicize for emphasis. Exception: When the word o'clock is used, the time is
Use italics for this purpose rarely. It is generally better spelled out: I got home at six o’clock.
to find words that, through their meaning and order, Note: Spell out the numbers when describing amounts of
provide the emphasis you seek. time: I worked fifty hours last week.
Marie replied, “I don’t believe you.” Addresses
The bookstore is located at 1216 North 48th Street.
NUMBERS 38 ABBREVIATIONS

Identification numbers (TV channel numbers, radio Initials in a person’s name

dial numbers, room numbers, serial numbers, road Daphne A. Miller T. Martin Sawyer
numbers, and so on)
For highway information, turn to 102.3 on your radio dial. Specific time and date references
The exam ended at 4:45 p.m.
Fractions and decimals Cleopatra lived from about 69 to 30 B.C. (or 69 to 30
The answers are 33% and 4.555. B.C.E.—“Before the Common Era”)
Note: Fractions less than one are often written in words: Muslims calculate their calendar from Friday, July 16,
one-half, a third. A.D. 622 (or 622 C.E.—“the Common Era”)
Note: Do not use time and date abbreviations without a
Percentages number:
Nearly 70 percent of the class donated blood. Incorrect: The airplane should land in the a.m.
Correct: The airplane should land in the morning.
Pages and divisions of books and plays
Please read act 1, scene 3 of the play, on pages 10-15. Organizations, agencies, countries, and corporations
known by their initials, and acronyms (words formed
Exact amounts of money from the initials of a name). These are usually written
The restaurant bill came to $8.49. in all capital letters and without periods.
The parking ticket cost $50. YMCA FBI USA NBC AIDS

Scores and statistics A long name that is used often in a paper may be
The New York Knicks beat the Indiana Pacers 94-90. abbreviated as follows: When using the name the first
time, use the full name followed by the abbreviation in
People with an IQ between 20 and 35 are considered
severely retarded.
parentheses. From that point on, you may use only the
abbreviation.
According to one survey, 6 out of 10 residents in town are
against building the mall. The Irish Republican Army (IRA) declared war against
British rule in 1969.
Exact measurements
The kitchen table is a square—4 feet by 4 feet. Latin words. Abbreviations of Latin words (such as
those below) are often considered appropriate only in
In very large round numbers scholarly, technical, and formal writing. In informal
Earth is 93 million miles from the sun. writing, use Latin abbreviations parenthetically and
sparingly.
25d When writing numerals, use commas to indi- Some flowers that do well in shade (e.g., impatiens) pro-
cate thousands. vide color all summer.
Angie has 1,243 pennies in a jar.
In formal writing, limit your use of such abbreviations
The number that comes after 999,999 is 1,000,000. to footnotes and bibliographies.
Exceptions: Do not use commas in telephone numbers (555-
1234), street numbers (3244 Oak Street), zip codes (08043), Latin abbreviation English meaning
Social Security numbers (372-45-0985), or years (1996).
e.g. (for exempli gratia) for example
et al. (for et alii) and others
etc. (for et cetera) and so forth
26 / Abbreviations i.e. (for id est) that is
N.B. (for nota bene) note well

26a Abbreviations for the following are appropri-

ate in formal writing:
26b In formal writing, do not abbreviate the fol-
Titles that are used before and after people’s names lowing:
Ms. Glenda Oaks Keith Rodham, Sr. Personal names
Dr. Jim Huang Marcia Jamison, LL.D.
Incorrect: Geo. Washington’s first inauguration was in
Rev. Thomas Ball Samuel Farmer, M.D.
1789.
Note 1: Do not use two titles at one time that mean the Correct: George Washington’s first inauguration was
same thing. in 1789.
Incorrect: Dr. Ellen Steinman, M.D.
Correct: Dr. Ellen Steinman or Ellen Steinman, M.D. States and countries
Incorrect: The company’s headquarters are in Mpls.,
Note 2: Spell out titles that are not used with a person’s
Minn.
name.
Correct: The company’s headquarters are in Minne-
Incorrect: The prof. is out of town this week. apolis, Minnesota.
Correct: The professor is out of town this week.
ABBREVIATIONS SPELLING IMPROVEMENT

Days of the week and months

Vowels
Incorrect: We’re moving on the first Mon. in Dec. ai /ay au /aw ee/ea ou / ow oo/u
Correct: Were moving on the first Monday in
Consonants
December.
e/k/ch/ck c/s f/ph g/j sch/sc/sk s/z
Holidays Combinations
re/ri able/ible ent/ant er/or_ tion/sion
Incorrect: The Whitman brothers are going home for
Xmas.
Correct: The Whitman brothers are going home for
Christmas. 27b Use an electronic spelling checker.
Take advantage of electronic spelling tools. If you work
_ School courses
on a computer or electronic typewriter that has a
Incorrect: The professor is teaching a class in ab. spelling checker, use it before finalizing your papers.
psych. this semester.
Pocket-sized electronic spelling checkers are also
Correct: The professor is teaching a class in abnormal
widely available.
psychology this semester.
However, even if you have an electronic spelling-
Parts of written works check program, you will still need to proofread your
papers for spelling errors. Spelling programs cannot
Incorrect: Turn to the first p. of the first chpt.
correct words that are not in their word list. Also, they
Correct: Turn to the first page of the first chapter.
cannot differentiate between commonly confused
Units of measurement words, such as affect and effect or their and there.
Incorrect: One /b. equals sixteen ozs.
Correct: One pound equals sixteen ounces. 27c Keep a personal spelling list.
In a special place, write down every word you misspell.
Include its correct spelling, underline the difficult part
of the word, and add any hints you can use to remem-
27 / Spelling Improvement ber how to spell it. If spelling is a particular problem
When you are developing the content of a paper, it may for you, you might even want to start a spelling note-
be difficult to pay attention to spelling. For that reason, book that has a separate page for each letter of the
it is important to spend a few minutes proofreading alphabet. Here’s one format you might use:
your final drafts for spelling errors. Pay attention to
every word, not just the ones that are difficult to spell. How I Correct Hints
Assuming that “easy” words are spelled correctly often spelled it spelling
leads to such errors as to for too or beleive for believe.
recieve I before E except after C
In addition, you can improve your spelling by using
the hints and rules that follow. seperate There’s A RAT in sepARATe
Two words (like “a little”)
27a Use the dictionary. alright allright | Two words (like “all wrong”)
The single most important way to improve your
spelling is to get into the habit of checking words in a Study your list regularly, and refer to it whenever you
dictionary. You may ask, “If I can’t spell a word, how write and proofread a paper.
can I find it in the dictionary?” The answer is that you
have to guess what the letters might be. Here are some
hints to help you make informed guesses. 27d Learn commonly confused words.
Many spelling errors result from words that sound
Hint 1. If you’re not sure about the vowels in a word, alike or almost alike but that are spelled differently,
you will have to experiment. Vowels often sound the such as brake and break, wear and where, or right and
same, so try ani in place of an a, an e in place of an 1, write. To avoid such errors, study carefully the com-
and so on. monly confused words in the “Glossary of Usage” on
pages 41-47.
Hint 2. Consonants are sometimes doubled in a word.
If you can’t find your word with single consonants, try 27e Learn some helpful spelling rules.
doubling them.
Even poor spellers can improve by following a few
Hint 3. Following are groups of letters or letter combi- spelling rules. On the next page are rules that apply to
nations that often sound alike. If your word isn’t many words.
spelled with one of the letters in a pair or group shown
below, it might be spelled with another in the same
pair or group. For example, if it isn’t spelled with a k, it
may be spelled with ac, ch, or ck.
SPELLING IMPROVEMENT 40 SPELLING IMPROVEMENT

! before E rule. Put i before e except after c or when Rules for adding -es to nouns and verbs that end in a
sounded like a, as in neighbor and weigh. consonant plus y. For nouns that end in a consonant
plus y, form the plural by changing the y to i and
I before e Except after c Or when sounded like a
adding -es.
belief, chief, receive, ceiling vein, eight
field fly + es = flies lady + es = ladies
canary + es = canaries
Exceptions to the above rule include: either, leisure, for-
eign, science, society For verbs that end in a consonant plus y, form the
third-person singular by changing the y toi and adding
Silent Erule. If a word ends in a silent (unpronounced) -es.
e, drop the e before adding an ending that starts with a
vowel. Keep the e when adding an ending that begins pity + es = pities marry + es = marries
with a consonant. bully + es = bullies

Drop the e with endings Keep the e with endings

that start with a vowel that start with a consonant 27f Learn commonly misspelled words.
like + ed = liked love + ly = lovely Following are one hundred common words that are fre-
confuse + ing = confusing shame + ful = shameful quently misspelled. To master them, have someone
fame + ous = famous hope + less = hopeless drill you on them, and then practice the words that you
guide + ance = guidance base + ment = basement misspelled.
Exceptions include: noticeable, argument, judgment, truly
absence embarrassment permanent
Y rule. Change the final y of a word to i before adding accommodate emphasize 70 perseverance
an ending when acknowledge enthusiasm persistent
acquaintance environment persuade
a_ the last two letters of the word are a consonant plus y, acquire exaggerate physically
b and the ending being added begins with a vowel or is across 40 exercise preference
-ful, -ly, or -ness. amateur existence prejudice
Exception: Keep the y if the ending being added is -ing. analyze fascinate prevalent
apparently guarantee privilege
Change the y toi Keep the y
10 appropriate guidance procedure
try + ed = tried try + ing = trying argument height procedure
carry + er = carrier carry + ing = carrying association hypocrisy 80 pronunciation
beauty + ful = beautiful gray + ed = grayed beginning imaginary psychology
lucky + ly = luckily display + ed = displayed beneficial independent recommend
happy + ness = happiness destroy + s = destroys business indispensable reference
calendar 50 inevitable repetition
Doubling rule. Double the final consonant of a word characteristic irrelevant restaurant
before adding an ending when committee irresistible rhythm
a the last three letters of the word are a consonant, a competitive legitimate ridiculous
vowel, and a consonant (CVC), 20 condemn maintenance schedule
b the word is only one syllable (for example, stop) or is conscience maneuver secretary
accented on the last syllable (for example, begin), continuous mathematics 90 separate
c and the ending being added begins with a vowel. convenient mischievous similar
courteous necessary sophomore
One-syllable words Words accented on the last
that end in CVC syllable that end in CVC criticism noticeable succeed
curiosity 60 obstacle summary
stop + ed = stopped begin + ing = beginning
definitely occasionally surprise
flat + er = flatter control + er = controller
description occurred tendency
red + est = reddest occur + ence = occurrence
desperate omission thorough
Rules for adding -es to nouns and verbs that end in s, 30 disastrous opportunity tragedy
discipline optimistic unnecessary
sh, ch, or x. Most plurals are formed by adding -s to
efficient original 100 usually
the singular noun (roses, skates, hurricanes). However,
eighth parallel
for nouns that end in s, sh, ch, or x, form the plural by
eligible particularly
adding -es.
kiss + es = kisses coach + es = coaches
wish + es = wishes tax + es = taxes

Most third-person singular verbs end in -s (he runs, she

sings, it grows). However, for verbs that end in s, sh,
ch, or x, form the third-person singular with -es.
miss + es = misses catch + es = catches
wash + es = washes mix + es = mixes
USAGE 41 GLOSSARY OF USAGE

28 / Glossary of Usage alright. Nonstandard spelling of all right.

This glossary can help you choose the correct word (or altogether, all together. Altogether means “entirely.”
spelling) as you write. The frequently misused or con- All together means “in a group.”
fused words listed here fall into several categories. The movie is altogether too violent for children.
Some are pairs of words that are similar in pronuncia- The wedding gifts were all together in the dining room.
tion but different in meaning and spelling. Others have
meanings or uses that are widely misunderstood. Still
among, between. See between, among.
others are considered colloquial (acceptable for infor- amoral, immoral. Amoral means “not concerned with
mal use only) or nonstandard (not acceptable in most moral judgments.” Immoral means “morally wrong.”
writing and speech, both formal and informal). The tiger feels no hatred for the animals it kills; its
actions are entirely amoral.
a, an. Use a before a word that begins with a conso-
Murder, rape, and robbery are all immoral acts.
nant sound: a harp, a photograph, a uniform (the u is
pronounced as though it were preceded by y). Use an amount, number. Use amount when referring to
before a word beginning with a vowel sound: an ele- things in bulk or mass that cannot be counted. Use
phant, an honor (the /is silent), an uncle. number when referring to countable things.
accept, except. Accept is a verb that means “to receive Only a small amount of oatmeal is left.
(something that’s offered).” Except is usually a preposi- There are a number of scratches on the table.
tion that means “excluding.” and/or. Use only when you mean to indicate three
Did he accept the apology? options—the first alternative mentioned, the second
All the furniture was sold except the rocking chair. alternative mentioned, or both.
adapt, adopt. Adapt means “to adjust (to new condi- The fault lies with the surgeon and/or the hospital staff.
tions).” Adopt means “to take as one’s own.” If you mean either one alternative or the other, use or.
The lion cub that was raised by humans could not adapt If you mean both, use and.
to life in the wild. The fault lies with either the surgeon or the hospital
The Vietnamese family soon adopted many American staff.
customs. The fault lies with the surgeon and the hospital staff.
advice, advise. Advice is a noun that means “guid- A common conservative view of and/or is that it should
ance” or “counsel.” Advise is a verb that means “to give be used only in legal, technical, and business writing.
advice.” anxious, eager. Anxious means “worried.” Hager
The first-year student sought a senior’s advice on course means “impatiently desirous.”
selection. The patient’s family was anxious about the results of
The senior advised her to sample courses from several the brain scan.
areas of interest. Band members were eager to see their new uniforms.
affect, effect. Affect is usually used as a verb that anymore, any more. Anymore means “any longer” or
means “to influence.” Effect is usually a noun meaning “at present.” Any more means “additional.”
“a result.” 7
Alice doesn’t live here anymore.
The crash of the stock market affected the entire country. Is there any more coffee?
The effects of the stock market crash included mass
unemployment and hunger. anyone, any one. Anyone means “any person.” Any one
refers to a single one of a number of people or items.
all ready, already. All ready means “completely pre-
I don’t know anyone from Arkansas.
pared.” Already means “previously.”
Any one of the guests could have murdered Colonel
Dinner was all ready. Mustard.
I had eaten already.
anyplace. Colloquial. In formal writing, use anywhere.
allusion, illusion. Allusion means “indirect reference.” Many people don’t go anywhere [not anyplace] without
Illusion means “erroneous belief” or “false impression.” their credit cards.
The former enemies made no reference, not even an allu-
sion, to their previous disagreement. anyways, anywheres. Nonstandard for anyway and
The illusion that Mr. Casey cared about me has been anywhere.
shattered. as. Do not use as to mean “because” if there is any
Cathedral windows gave the room the illusion of great chance of ambiguity about whether it shows cause and
height. effect or time.
almost, most. See most. I stepped out of the shower because [not as, which in
this case could also mean when] the phone rang.
a lot, alot. A Jot is colloquial when used to mean
“many” or “much” and should be avoided in formal writ- as, like. In formal writing, use only as or as if [not like]
ing. Alot is a misspelling ofa lot. to introduce a dependent clause. Like is a preposition
GLOSSARY OF USAGE 42 GLOSSARY OF USAGE

and in formal usage should be followed only by a noun brake, break. Brake means “to slow or to stop” or “the.
or noun phrase. part of a vehicle used to slow or stop it”; break means
No worker is as dedicated as [not like] Mac is. “to cause to come apart” or “a temporary stop or rest.”
The wrestler looks as if [not like] he could tear his oppo- If you get a break from your work, could you check the
nent limb from limb. brake on my bike?
The bush looks like a tree. bring, take. Use bring for something being moved
assure, ensure, insure. Assure means “to convince or toward the speaker. Use take for something being
promise.” Ensure and insure mean “to make sure or moved away from the speaker.
safe” and are generally interchangeable. However, only When you come over, please bring your class notes.
insure is used for references to insurance policies. Take the garbage out after supper.
They assured us that they would meet us at the airport. bursted, bust, busted. Bursted is a nonstandard form
We left early to ensure [or insure] that we would get to of the irregular verb burst, and bust and busted are
the airport on time. slang forms of the verb. The principal parts of burst are
Fred Astaire’s legs were insured by Lloyd’s of London. burst, burst, and burst.
awful, awfully. Awful is an adjective that means “awe- These balloons burst easily. Yesterday, the balloon
inspiring.” The use of awful to mean “terrible” is collo- burst suddenly. Most of the balloons had already burst.
quial and therefore inappropriate in formal writing.
can, may. In formal usage, can means “to be able” and
The use of the adverb awfully as an intensifier (awfully
may means “to have permission.”
good, awfully late) is also colloquial.
Can you drive a car?
The early settlers were amazed by the awful peaks of
May I borrow your car?
the Rocky Mountains.
The guest of honor had a terrible [not an awful] capital, capitol. As a noun, capital means “the city or
headache. town that is the seat of government in a state or coun-
The river was very [not awfully] polluted. try” or “wealth used or gained in business.” Capitol is
the building in which a legislature meets.
a while, awhile. A while is an article and a noun; in
that form, while can function as a subject or object. The capital of Minnesota is St. Paul.
Awhile, an adverb, can modify verbs. One needs substantial capital to finance a fast-food
restaurant.
A while passed before the rain stopped.
The dome of the capitol can be seen for miles.
He waited for a while.
We chatted awhile. cite, site. Cite is a verb that means “to quote as an
authority or an example” or “to mention as an example
bad, badly. Bad is an adjective and can follow a linking or proof.” Site means “the place where something is or
verb. Badly is an adverb and modifies an action verb.
was located.”
The weather is bad.
In his paper on mental illness, the student cited his
The guitarist played badly. father, a psychiatrist.
(See also “Adjectives and Adverbs,” pages 16-17.) To support her point, the lawyer cited a previous case.
being as, being that. Considered colloquial or nonstan- The tour guide said this was the site of a Civil War battle.
dard. Use because or since. classic, classical. Classic means “of the highest class”
Since [not being as or being that] our guest used a or “serving as a model or standard.” Classical means
wheelchair, we arranged to have a ramp at the front door. “relating to the art and culture of ancient Greece and
beside, besides. Beside means “at the side of.” Besides Rome.” Classical music refers to music in the European
means “in addition to.” Besides can also mean “except.” tradition, such as symphonies and operas.
The table beside the bed is very old. Death of a Salesman is a classic example of American
drama.
Besides being unkind, your statement is untrue.
The classical dimensions of the Parthenon in Athens are
Few people besides his wife know Mr. Morris well.
still admired by architects today.
between, among. Use between for two people or
coarse, course. Coarse refers to a roughness of texture
things. Use between for three or more when they are
or conduct. Course refers to a path or a unit of studies.
considered as distinct individuals or items. Use among
for three or more people or things when they are con- The fabric was a coarse wool.
sidered collectively or as a mass. The cowboy’s manners were coarse.
The wedding guests could choose between a chicken and The river’s course was snakelike.
a salmon entree. I’m taking a math course.
The executive’s job keeps him traveling between New
compare to, compare with. Use compare to when you
York, Chicago, and Los Angeles.
are pointing out similarities between two people or
There is a feeling among the workers that the company things. Use compare with when you are pointing out
does not have their welfare at heart. similarities and differences between two people or
Wild green onions are growing among the marigolds. things.
GLOSSARY OF USAGE 43 GLOSSARY OF USAGE

The young playwright is being compared to Neil Simon. different from, different than. Generally, use different
The assignment is to compare Romeo and Juliet with from. However, if the object of comparison is stated in a
West Side Story. clause, use than.
complement, compliment. Complement means “to Happiness is different from joy.
complete or make perfect.” Compliment means “to Our weekends are different than they used to be.
praise or flatter.” disinterested, uninterested. Disinterested means
The red scarf complements your outfit. “impartial.” Uninterested means “not interested.”
The instructor complimented Stan on his essay. A judge must be disinterested.
conscience, conscious. Conscience means “the sense of The class is dull because the instructor is so uninter-
right and wrong.” Conscious means “aware.” ested in her subject.
The lie he had told bothered the boy’s conscience. each and every. Redundant; use either each or every.
The server was conscious of the diners’ impatience.
eager, anxious. See anxious, eager.
continual, continuous. Continual implies regular or
effect, affect. See affect, effect.
frequent repetition. Continuous implies a continuing
without interruption. e.g. Latin abbreviation of words meaning “for exam-
That dog’s continual barking has annoyed the neighbors ple” or “for instance.” In formal writing, use the English
for weeks. equivalents except in footnotes.
Luckily, the force of gravity is continuous. elicit, illicit. Elicit is a verb that means “to draw
could care less. Nonstandard for couldn’t care less. forth.” Illicit is an adjective that means “unlawful.”
Fireworks always elicit admiring gasps from the crowd.
could of. Nonstandard for could have.
The gangster made his living from prostitution, drugs,
council, counsel, consul. A council is a group of people and other illicit activities.
assembled to consider and make decisions on issues.
emigrate, immigrate. Emigrate means “to leave a
Counsel means “advice” or “attorney.” A consul is a gov-
country.” Immigrate means “to enter a new country.”
ernment official who is stationed in a foreign country.
The Jaffes recently emigrated from Russia.
The city council will decide whether parking meters will
The Jaffes immigrated to Israel to join relatives there.
be installed on Main Street.
Ryan’s children often turn to him for counsel. eminent, imminent. Eminent means “distinguished in
The defense counsel objected to five questions in a row. reputation.” Imminent means “about to happen.”
The President is having dinner with the Italian consul. It’s an honor to meet such an eminent member of
Congress.
course, coarse. See coarse, course.
A fist fight between the two angry boys seemed immi-
criteria, criterion. Criteria is the plural of criterion, nent.
which means “a standard on which a judgment or deci-
ensure, assure, insure. See assure, ensure, insure.
sion can be based.”
There is only one criterion for membership in that club, enthused. Colloquial. In formal writing, use enthusias-
money. tic.
Companies are not allowed to use age and race as crite- He was enthusiastic [not enthused] about his new job.
ria for hiring or firing people.
etc. Latin abbreviation for a word meaning “and other
data. Data means “factual information.” Since it is the things.” Use and so forth or and others in formal writ-
plural of datum, some experts feel that data must ing.
always take a plural verb.
everyday, every day. Everyday is an adjective mean-
The data lead [not leads] us to conclude that inflation is ing “commonplace” or “ordinary.” The phrase every day
on the rise. functions as either a noun or an adverb meaning “each
However, many experts and writers feel that data day.”
should be treated as a singular noun when it refers to a During exam week, cramming is an everyday activity
single collection of information: for many students.
The little data we have is [not are] not sufficient to come Every day is a challenge.
to a conclusion. Janet reviews her biology notes every day.
device, devise. Device is a noun that means
“
“a everyone, every one. Everyone means “every person.”
mechanical invention.” Devise is a verb that means “to Every one means “each person or thing of a group.”
plan or invent.” Everyone wants to be liked.
This device allows deaf people to communicate over the Every one of the Andersons has the flu.
telephone.
The jewel thief devised a way to enter the museum except, accept. See accept, except.
without tripping the alarm.
GLOSSARY OF USAGE GLOSSARY OF USAGE

explicit, implicit. Explicit means “precisely expressed” In academic writing, hopefully should not be used with-.
or “specific.” Implicit means “implied, suggested.” out telling who is doing the hoping.
The children were given an explicit warning to stay Environmentalists hope [not Hopefully,] the spotted
away from the quarry. owl will not have the same fate as the passenger pigeon.
Despite the man’s friendly words, there was a threat i.e. Latin abbreviation of words meaning that is. In
implicit in his grim expression. formal writing, use that is.
famous, infamous. Famous means “widely known,” illicit, elicit. See elicit, illicit.
usually in a favorable sense. Infamous means “having a
very bad reputation.” illusion, allusion. See allusion, illusion.
A generation after her death, Marilyn Monroe is still a immigrate, emigrate. See emigrate, immigrate.
famous movie star.
Bedlam was an infamous asylum where the mentally ill imminent, eminent. See eminent, imminent.
were treated like beasts. immoral, amoral. See amoral, immoral.
farther, further. Use farther to refer to distance. Use implicit, explicit. See explicit, implicit.
further to mean “more” or “to a greater extent.”
Which is farther from here, Montgomery Mall or
infamous, famous. See famous, infamous.
Woodbury Mall? ingenious, ingenuous. Ingenious means “clever.”
The killing of black protesters led to further racial ten- Ingenuous means “unsophisticated” or “frank.”
sions in South Africa. One scientist has discovered an ingenious way to use
fewer, less. Use fewer with items that can be counted water as the main fuel for a car engine.
(plural nouns). Use less with general amounts that are Having never left home before, Felix was an ingenuous
uncountable (singular nouns). traveler.
The hen laid fewer eggs today than yesterday. The student was ingenuous enough to admit she didn’t
like much modern art.
Many people are eating less fat these days.

former, latter. Former refers to the first of two items,

in regards to. Nonstandard for in regard to or as
regards (both of which mean “with reference to”).
and latter refers to the second of two items. For three or
more items, use first and last. incredible, incredulous. Incredible means “unbeliev-
Between being too busy or bored, I'll always choose the able” or “hard to believe.” Incredulous means “unbeliev-
former because I hate the latter. ing.”
Their story of surviving a grizzly bear attack is incredi-
further, farther. See farther, further.
ble but true.
good, well. Good is an adjective that can follow a link- “I accidentally entered the wrong house,” the burglar told
ing verb. Well is usually an adverb. an incredulous police officer.
That idea is good. This sausage tastes good.
instance, instant. Instance means “an example.” As a
The team performed well today. noun, instant means “a brief time.” As an adjective,
(See also 8b, page 17.) instant means “immediate.”
hanged, hung. Use hanged for executions. Use hung Here’s an instance of a person going out of his way to
for all other contexts. help a stranger.
Most of the famous Western outlaws were finally shot or The genie appeared in an instant.
hanged. This is a crisis demanding instant attention.
Mistletoe was hung over the door. insure, assure, ensure. See assure, ensure, insure.
have got. Colloquial. In formal writing, use only have. into, in to. Into is a preposition; in to is a preposition
We have [not have got] several volunteers to drive people (in) and the first word of an infinitive (to).
to the polls. I pulled my car into the diner’s parking lot and then
hisself. Nonstandard for himself. went in to have lunch.

historic, historical. Historic is usually used to refer to irregardless. Nonstandard version of regardless.
what is important in history. Historical is usually used is when, is where. Do not use these phrases in defini-
to refer to anything concerned with history or its study. tions.
Paul Revere is a historic figure in the story of the A scavenger hunt is a game in which [not A scavenger
American Revolution. hunt is when or is where] players try to collect unusual
Gone with the Wind is a historical novel set against the items on a list from people in the neighborhood.
background of the Civil War.
its, it’s. Its is the possessive of the pronoun it. It’s is a
hopefully. In its most strict use, hopefully means “full contraction of it is or it has.
of hope.” The city of Baltimore lost its professional football team
The child stared hopefully at the chimney, waiting for when the team moved to Indianapolis.
Santa Claus to appear.
 GLOSSARY OF USAGE 45 GLOSSARY OF USAGE

It’s time for a change. lots, lots of. Colloquial when used to mean many or
It’s been a long time since I’ve seen you. much. Avoid that use in formal writing.
kind of, sort of. Colloquial when used to mean some- Many [not lots or lots of] countries have agreed that
Antarctica should remain free from mining until the year
what or rather. Avoid that use in formal writing.
2041.
The film’s plot is somewhat [not kind of or sort of] con-
fusing. may, can. See can, may.
later, latter. Later means “more late.” Latter means maybe, may be. Maybe is an adverb that means “per-
“the second of two persons or things mentioned.” haps.” May be is a verb phrase.
The lazy employee seemed to come in later every day. Maybe you are right. The game may be postponed.
Given a choice between chocolate and vanilla ice cream,
may of, might of. Nonstandard for may have and
most people prefer the latter.
might have.
latter, former. See former, latter. media, medium. Media is the plural of medium, which
lay, lie. Lay means “to put” or “to place.” It is a transi- is used to refer to a means of communication.
tive verb and therefore always requires an object. Its No medium records history as it happens better than
principal parts are lay, laid, laid. Lie means “to rest.” It television.
is an intransitive verb and therefore never takes an Most media depend on advertising for profits.
object. Its principal parts are lie, lay, lain.
moral, morale. The adjective moral means “ethical.”
Please lay the gun down. She laid the gun down. After
The noun moral means “the principle taught by a
she had laid the gun down, she was arrested.
story,” or “standard of behavior.” Morale is a noun that
The dogs lie on the couch. The dogs lay on the couch all means “state of mind with respect to confidence and
morning. The dogs have never lain on the couch before.
cheerfulness.”
lead, led. The verb lead (pronounced LEED) means “to Returning the money was the moral thing to do.
guide, conduct, escort, or direct.” The verb led is the The moral of the story is that you can’t please everyone.
past tense and past participle of the verb lead. The He has all the morals of a stray tomcat.
noun lead (pronounced LED) is a metal. The runner’s morale rose each time she passed a com-
You can lead a horse to water. petitor.
Once you have led a horse to water, you can’t make it
most. Colloquial when used to mean almost. Avoid
drink.
that use in formal writing.
The dental patient wore a lead apron to shield against X-
rays. Almost [not Most] everyone in class passed the course.

learn, teach. Learn means “to gain knowledge of”; nowheres. Nonstandard for nowhere.
teach means “to provide knowledge of.” number, amount. See amount, number.
I can teach [not learn] you some Yiddish if you'd like to
learn some.
off of. Wordy. Use off.
Please get off [not off of] my bike.
leave, let. Leave means “to go away.” Let means “to
allow.” O.K., OK, okay. Colloquial. Use words such as all
I’m leaving on time.
right, correct, or approve in formal writing.
Let the children play until dinnertime. The instructor approved [not okayed] my paper topic.

less, fewer. See fewer, less. ought to of. Nonstandard for ought to have.
liable, likely. Liable is generally used to indicate unde- passed, past. Passed is a verb that means “went by” or
sirable consequences. Likely is used for results that are “completed successfully”; past is a noun that means
probable, whether they are desirable or undesirable. “the time before the present.”
When speaking in public, I am liable to shake and stut- In the past, I passed all my courses.
ter. percent, percentage. Use percent with a specific num-
Since I have studied all semester, I am likely to do well ber. Otherwise, use percentage.
on the final.
Only 7 percent of the people surveyed returned their
lie, lay. See lay, lie. questionnaires.
What percentage of the people returned the question-
like, as. See as, like. naires?
loose, lose. Loose means “not tight”; lose means “to personal, personnel. Personal is an adjective that
misplace” or “to be deprived of something one has had.”
@ If you don’t fix that loose steering wheel, you could lose
means “private.” Personnel is a noun that means
“employees.”
control of your car. Best friends know each other’s most personal secrets.
All personnel must follow a company dress code.
 46 GLOSSARY OF USAGE
GLOSSARY OF USAGE

phenomena, phenomenon. Phenomena is the plural of reason why. Redundant. Use either reason or why.
phenomenon, which means “an observable fact,” “a fact I want to know the reason [or why, but not the reason
that is unusual or significant,” or “a remarkable person.” why] you are so late.
The rainbow is a delightful phenomenon of nature. respectfully, respectively. Respectfully means “in a
There are rumors of strange phenomena at a house that manner showing respect.” Respectively means “each in
is said to be haunted. the order mentioned.”
Isaac Stern was a musical phenomenon.
A few men respectfully removed their hats as the flag
plenty. Colloquial when used to mean very or quite. was carried by.
Avoid that use in formal writing. Fido, Jock, and Lacy won the awards for biggest dog,
The instructor was very [not plenty] interesting. smallest dog, and most beautiful dog, respectively.

plus. Do not use plus to join independent clauses. rise, raise. See raise, rise.
His clothes were dirty, and [not plus] they were torn. sensual, sensuous. Sensual means “gratifying the
physical appetites” and usually suggests sexuality.
precede, proceed. Precede means “to come before.” Sensuous means “appealing to the senses.”
Proceed means “to go forward.”
The dancer’s costume emphasized her sensual move-
Courtship usually precedes marriage.
ments.
The train proceeded to its destination. The bright colors and sweet fragrances made a visit to
pretty. Colloquial when used to mean rather or quite. the garden a sensuous delight.
Avoid that use in formal writing. should of. Nonstandard for should have.
The patient was feeling rather [not pretty] strong.
sit, set. Sit means “to be seated.” It is intransitive and
principal, principle. As an adjective, principal means therefore has no object. Its principal parts are sit, sat,
“main.” As a noun, principal’ means “the person in sat. Set means “to put or place.” It is a transitive verb
charge of a school” or “an amount of money borrowed.” and therefore requires an object. Its principal parts are
Principle means “a basic truth or guideline.” set, set, set.
Her principal job is teaching, but she also tutors. Japanese people often sit on the floor to eat. He sat on
The principal of our school once taught English. the grass. He has always sat in the back row of class.
A mortgage payment consists of principal plus interest. Set these candlesticks on the table. Last night, I set my
Our company is based on the principle that success purse on a restaurant chair and then forgot it there. I
results from the customer’s satisfaction. had set some flowers on the table without realizing there
was a hole in the vase.
quotation, quote. Quotation is a noun. Quote is a verb.
In formal writing, do not use quote as a shortened form site, cite. See cite, site.
of quotation. somewheres. Nonstandard for somewhere.
The film critic’s lecture was filled with quotations from
his favorite movies. sort of, kind of. See kind of, sort of.
The critic often quotes from his favorite movies. such a. Colloquial when used to mean a very (such a
raise, rise. Raise means “to lift.” It is a transitive verb good time). In formal writing, use such a only when it is
and therefore requires an object. Its principal parts are followed by a clause beginning with that.
raise, raised, raised. Rise means “to go up.” It is an It was such a boring play that we left after the first act.
intransitive verb and does not take an object. Its princi-
sure. Sure is an adjective. The use of sure as an adverb
pal parts are rise, rose, risen.
meaning surely or certainly is colloquial and should be
Please raise the shades. He raised his hand in class. We avoided in formal writing.
have raised the reading level of our school district this
His aim is sure.
year.
Our coastal beaches have surely [not sure] become pol-
Sunflowers rise high above the other plants in the gar-
luted.
den. The sun rose before I woke up. The curtain had
already risen when we arrived at the theater. sure and. Nonstandard for sure to.
real, really. Real is an adjective; really is an adverb. Be sure to [not sure and] watch for and eliminate wordi-
The use of real to mean really (very, extremely) is collo- ness in your papers.
quial and should not be used in formal writing. take, bring. See bring, take.
The firefighter who saved the child was really [not real]
brave. terribly. Colloquial when used to mean very or quite.
Avoid that use in formal writing.
reason is because. Redundant. Use that instead of
The governor is very [not terribly] popular at the
because. moment.
The reason she is late is that [not because] she had a flat
tire.
GLOSSARY OF USAGE 47 GLOSSARY OF USAGE

than, then. Than is a word used in comparisons. Then use, used to. Use means “to make use of.” Used to
indicates time. means “accustomed to” or “in the habit of.”
Recycling paper is much more profitable today than it I am used to very spicy food, but when I cook for others,
was a few years ago. I use much less hot pepper.
First turn the printer on; then give the print command.
way. Colloquial when used to mean “far.” Avoid that
that, which. In formal writing, some writers use that to use in formal writing.
begin essential clauses (not set off with commas) and The airport is far [not way] across the city from the hotel.
which to begin nonessential clauses (set off with com-
mas). However, today many writers also use which to ways. Colloquial when used for way, meaning “dis-
begin some essential clauses. Use the style your instruc- tance.” Avoid that use in formal writing.
tor finds acceptable. (For information on essential and The business has a long way [not ways] to go before it
nonessential clauses, see 16f, page 27.) can be called successful.

their, there, they’re. Their is a possessive pronoun weather, whether. As a noun, weather refers to atmo-
meaning “belonging to them.” There means “in that spheric conditions. Whether, as a conjunction, refers to
place” or “to that place.” Also, there is used with forms alternatives.
of to be (is, are, was, and so on). They’e is a contraction Good weather is predicted for the weekend.
of they are. He hasn’t decided whether to major in music or math.
The geese at the park hide their eggs under bushes.
well, good. See good, well.
My car is there.
There is a surfing museum in Santa Cruz, California. where. Considered nonstandard or informal when
They’re coming to visit us on Sunday. used for that. Avoid that use in formal writing.
I heard that [not where] property taxes are going up
theirselves. Nonstandard for themselves.
again.
to, too, two. To is a preposition, too is an adverb, and
which, that. See that, which.
two is a number.
Two people aren’t coming to dinner, so there are too who, which, that. Use who to refer to people and
many place settings at the table. which to refer to things. That can refer to things or to
people.
toward, towards. Both are acceptable, but toward is
The intrepid miners who [or that] rushed to California
more common. Be consistent in the form you use within
in 1849 were often disappointed in their quest for gold,
a piece of writing. which usually turned out to be fruitless.
try and. Nonstandard when used for try to. who’s, whose. Who’s is a contraction of who is or who
Try to [not try and] do the right thing. has; whose means “belonging to whom.”
uninterested, disinterested. See disinterested, uninter- When the call came into the police station, the officer
ested. asked, “Who’s willing to help a woman whose pet snake
just escaped?”
unique. Unique means “being the only one of its kind.”
It is illogical to use modifiers with that meaning (very would of. Nonstandard for would have.
unique, rather unique). While unique is also often used your, you’re. Your means “belonging to you”; you're is
to mean “unusual” (the most unique person I know), a contraction of “you are.”
that use of the word is colloquial and should be avoided
You’re going to need a first-aid kit and high boots for
in formal writing.
your camping trip.
up. Avoid tacking up onto verbs unless it is genuinely
required to modify the verb’s meaning.
The mystery novel ended [not ended up] with a surpris-
ing twist.
You must step up to get from the patio into the kitchen.
ESL POINTERS ARTICLES WITH COUNT AND NONCOUNT NOUNS

This section covers rules that most native speakers of Some words can be either count or noncount nouns:
English take for granted but that are useful for speak- depending on whether they refer to one or more indi-
ers of English as a second language (ESL). vidual items or to something in general.
Certain cheeses give some people headaches.
This sentence refers to individual cheeses; cheese in this
29 / Articles with Count and Noncount case is a count noun.
Nouns Cheese is made in almost every country where milk is
produced.
Articles are noun markers—they signal that a noun
will follow. The indefinite articles are a and an. (See This sentence refers to cheese in general; in this case,
cheese is a noncount noun.
“Glossary of Usage,” page 41, for when to use a and
when to use an.) The definite article is the. An article
may immediately precede a noun: a smile, the reason. 29a Using a or an with nonspecific singular count
Or it may be separated from the noun by modifiers: a nouns
slight smile, the very best reason. Use a or an with singular nouns that are nonspecific. A
To know whether to use an article with a noun and noun is nonspecific when the reader doesn’t know its
which article to use, you must recognize count and non- specific identity.
count nouns. (For an overview of nouns, see 1a, page 1.)
A left-hander faces special challenges with right-handed
Note: There are various other noun markers, including tools.
quantity words (some, several, a lot of), numerals (one, ten,
120), demonstrative adjectives (this, these), possessive
The sentence refers to any left-hander, not a specific one.
adjectives (my, your, our), and possessive nouns (Jaime’s, Today, our cat proudly brought a baby bird into the
the school’s). house.
Count nouns name people, places, things, or ideas The reader isn’t familiar with the bird. This is the first
that can be counted and made into plurals, such as time it is mentioned.
teacher, restroom, and joke (one teacher, two restrooms,
three jokes). 29b Using the with specific nouns
Noncount nouns refer to things or ideas that can- In general, use the with all specific nouns—specific sin-
not be counted, such as flour, history, and truth. The gular, plural, and noncount nouns.
box below lists and illustrates common types of non- Following are conditions that make a noun specific
count nouns. and therefore require the article the.
Common Noncount Nouns
A noun is specific in the following cases:
Abstractions and emotions: anger, bravery, health, e When it has already been mentioned once
pride, truth Today, our cat proudly brought a baby bird into the
Activities: baseball, jogging, reading, teaching, travel house. Luckily, the bird was still alive.
Foods: bread, broccoli, chocolate, cheese, flour The is used with the second mention of bird.
Gases and vapors: air, helium, oxygen, smoke, steam ¢ When it is identified by a word or phrase in the sen-
Languages and areas of study: Korean, Spanish, alge- tence
bra, history, physics
The pockets in the boy’s pants are often filled with sand
Liquids: blood, gasoline, lemonade, tea, water and dirt.
Materials that come in bulk form: aluminum, cloth, Pockets is identified by the words in the boy’s pants.
dust, sand, soap
Natural occurrences: magnetism, moonlight, rain, e When its identity is suggested by the general context
snow, thunder At Willy’s Diner last night, the service was terrible and
Other things that cannot be counted: clothing, furni- the food was worse.
ture, homework, machinery, money, news, transporta- The reader can conclude that the service and food being
tion, vocabulary, work discussed were at Willy’s Diner.

e When it is unique
The quantity of a noncount noun can be expressed There will be an eclipse of the moon tonight.
with a word or words called a qualifier, such as some,
Earth has only one moon.
a lot of, a unit of, and so on. (In the following two exam-
ples, the qualifiers are shown in italic type, and the e When it is preceded by a superlative adjective (best,
noncount nouns are shown in boldface type.) biggest, wisest)
Please have some patience. The best way to store broccoli is to refrigerate it in an
open plastic bag.
We need to buy two bags of flour today.
 ARTICLES WITH COUNT AND NONCOUNT NOUNS SUBJECTS AND VERBS

29c Omitting articles 30b Including pronoun subjects and linking verbs
Omit articles with nonspecific plurals and noncount Some languages may omit a pronoun as a subject, but
nouns. Plurals and noncount nouns are nonspecific in English, every clause other than a command must
when they refer to something in general. have a subject. (In a command, the subject you is
understood: [You] Hand in your papers now.)
Pockets didn’t exist until the end of the 1700’s.
Service is as important as food to a restaurant’s success. Incorrect: The Grand Canyon is in Arizona. Is 217
miles long.
Iris serves her children homemade lemonade.
Correct: The Grand Canyon is in Arizona. It is 217
miles long.
29d Using the with proper nouns Every English clause must also have a verb, even
Proper nouns name particular people, places, things, or when the meaning of the clause is clear without the
ideas and are always capitalized. Most proper nouns do verb.
not require articles; those that do, however, require the.
Incorrect: Angelita’s piano teacher very patient.
Following are general guidelines about when and when Correct: Angelita’s piano teacher is very patient.
not to use the.

Do not use the for most singular proper nouns, includ- 30c Including there and here at the beginning of
ing names of the following: clauses
¢ People and animals (Benjamin Franklin, Fido) Some English sentences begin with there or here plus a
linking verb (usually a form of to be: is, are, and so on).
¢ Continents, states, cities, streets, and parks
In such sentences, the verb comes before the subject
(North America, Illinois, Chicago, First Avenue,
(see 6d, pages 11-12).
Washington Square)
¢ Most countries (France, Mexico, Russia) There are masks in every culture on Earth.
¢ Individual bodies of water, islands, and moun- The subject is the plural noun masks, so the plural verb
are is used.
tains (Lake Erie, Long Island, Mount Everest)
Here is your driver’s license.
Use the for the following types of proper nouns: The subject is the singular noun Jicense, so the singular
¢ Plural proper nouns (the Turners, the United verb is is used.
States, the Great Lakes, the Rocky Mountains)
In sentences like the above, remember not to omit
¢ Names of large geographic areas, deserts, there or here.
oceans, seas, and rivers (the South, the Gobi
Desert, the Atlantic Ocean, the Black Sea, the Incorrect: Are several chickens in the Bensons’ yard.
Mississippi River) Correct: There are several chickens in the Bensons’
yard.
¢ Names with the format the of
(the Fourth of July, the People’s Republic of China,
the University of California) 30d Not using the progressive tense of certain
verbs
The progressive tenses are made up of forms of be plus
the -ing form of the main verb. They express actions or
30 / Subjects and Verbs conditions still in progress at a particular time. (See 6a,
page 9.)
30a Avoiding repeated subjects
George will be taking classes this summer.
In English, a particular subject can be used only once
in a clause. Don’t repeat a subject in the same clause by However, verbs for mental states, the senses, posses-
following a noun with a pronoun. sion, and inclusion are normally not used in the pro-
Incorrect: The manager he asked Dmitri to lock up
gressive tense.
tonight. Incorrect: All during the movie they were hearing whis-
Correct: The manager asked Dmitri to lock up tonight. pers behind them.
Correct: He asked Dmitri to lock up tonight. Correct: All during the movie they heard whispers
behind them.
Even when the subject and verb are separated by a
long word group, the subject cannot be repeated in the Incorrect: That box is containing a surprise for Pedro.
same clause. Correct: That box contains a surprise for Pedro.

Incorrect: The girl that danced with you she is my Common verbs not generally used in the progressive
cousin. , tense are listed in the box on the next page.
Correct: The girl that danced with you is my cousin.
s
SUBJECTS AND VERBS 50 ADJECTIVES

Common Verbs Not Generally Used in the Progressive Verb + infinitive (agree + to leave)
Following are common verbs that can be followed by an
Thoughts, attitudes and desires: agree, believe, imag-
infinitive but not by a gerund:
ine, know, like, love, prefer, think, understand, want,
wish agree decide plan
Sense perceptions: hear, see, smell, taste arrange have refuse
claim manage wait
Appearances: appear, seem, look
Possession: belong, have, own, possess Incorrect: The children want going to the beach.
Inclusion: contain, include Correct: The children want to go to the beach.

Verb + noun or pronoun + infinitive (cause + them +

30e Using only transitive verbs for the passive voice to flee)
Only transitive verbs (see 1c, page 2)—verbs that take Below are common verbs that are first followed by a
direct objects—can have a passive form (see 6b, page noun or pronoun and then by an infinitive (not a
10). Intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive gerund):
voice. cause force remind
Incorrect: If you don’t fix those brakes, an accident may command persuade warm
be happened. Incorrect: The coach persuaded Mario studying harder.
Happen is an intransitive verb—no object is needed to Correct: The coach persuaded Mario to study harder.
complete its meaning.
Following are common verbs that can be followed either
Correct: If you don’t fix those brakes, an accident may by an infinitive alone or by a noun or pronoun and an
happen. infinitive:
If you aren’t sure whether a verb is transitive or ask need want
intransitive, check your dictionary. Transitive verbs expect promise would like
are indicated with an abbreviation such as ¢r. v. or v. t.
Intransitive verbs are indicated with an abbreviation Dena asked to have a day off next week.
such as intr. v. or v. 1. Her boss asked her to work on Saturday.

Verb + gerund or infinitive (begin + packing or begin

30f Using gerunds and infinitives after verbs + to pack)
A gerund is the -ing form of a verb that is used as a Following are verbs that can be followed by either a
noun: For Walter, eating is a day-long activity. An gerund or an infinitive:
infinitive is to plus the basic form of the verb (see 6a,
page 7): to eat. The infinitive can function as an begin hate prefer
adverb, an adjective, or a noun. Some verbs can be fol- continue love start
lowed by only a gerund or only an infinitive; other The meaning of each of the above verbs remains the
verbs can be followed by either. Examples are given in same or almost the same whether a gerund or an infini-
the following lists. There are many others; watch for
tive is used.
them in your reading.
Faith hates being late.
Verb + gerund (admit + stealing) Faith hates to be late.
Verb + preposition + gerund (apologize + for + yelling)
Some verbs can be followed by a gerund but not by an
With the verbs below, the gerunds and the infinitives
infinitive. In many cases, there is a preposition (such as have very different meanings.
for, in, or of) between the verb and the gerund. forget remember stop
Following are some verbs and verb/preposition combi-
Esta stopped to call home.
nations that can be followed by gerunds but not by
infinitives: She interrupted something to call home.
Esta stopped calling home.
admit deny look forward to
apologize for discuss postpone She discontinued calling home.
appreciate dislike practice
approve of enjoy suspect of
avoid feel like talk about 31 / Adjectives
be used to finish thank for
believe in insist on think about
31a Following the order of adjectives in English
Incorrect: He must avoid to jog until his knee heals.
Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. In English, an
Correct: He must avoid jogging until his knee heals.
adjective usually comes directly before the word it
Incorrect: The instructor apologized for to be late to describes or after a linking verb, in which case it modi-
class. fies the subject (see lc, pages 1-2). In each of the fol-
Correct: The instructor apologized for being late to lowing two sentences, the adjective is boldfaced and
class. the noun it describes is italicized.
 ADJECTIVES 51 PREPOSITIONS USED FOR TIME AND PLACE

That is a false story. While both present and past participles of a particu-
The story is false. lar verb may be used as adjectives, their meanings dif-
fer. Use the present participle to describe whoever or
When more than one adjective modifies the same noun, whatever causes a feeling: an embarrassing incident
the adjectives are usually stated in a certain order, (the incident is what causes the embarrassment). Use
though there are often exceptions. Following is the typ- the past participle to describe whoever or whatever
ical order of English adjectives: experiences the feeling: the embarrassed parents (the
parents are the ones who are embarrassed).
Typical Order of Adjectives in a Series
The long day of holiday shopping was tiring.
. An article or other noun marker: a, an, the, Lee’s,
The shoppers were tired.
this, three, your
2 . Opinion adjective: dull, handsome, unfair, useful Following are pairs of present and past participles
3 . Size: big, huge, little, tiny with similar distinctions:
4 . Shape: long, short, round, square annoying / annoyed exhausting / exhausted
5. Age: ancient, medieval, old, new, young boring/ bored fascinating/ fascinated
confusing / confused frightening / frightened
6 . Color: blue, green, scarlet, white
depressing / depressed surprising/ surprised
if. Nationality: Italian, Korean, Mexican, Vietnamese exciting / excited
8 . Religion: Buddhist, Catholic, Jewish, Muslim
9 . Material: cardboard, gold, marble, silk
_ oS. Noun used as an adjective: house (as in house call), 32 / Prepositions Used for Time and Place
tea (as in tea bag), wall (as in wall hanging)
The use of prepositions in English is often idiomatic,
and exceptions to general rules are not rare. Therefore,
Here are some examples of the above order: correct preposition use must be learned gradually
a long cotton scarf through experience. Following is a chart showing how
three of the most common prepositions are used in
the beautiful little silver cup
some customary references to time and place:
your new lavender evening gown
Ana’s sweet Mexican grandmother The Use of On, In, and At to Refer to Time and Place

@ In general, use no more than two or three adjectives

after the article or other noun marker. Numerous
Time
On a specific day: on Monday, on January 1, on
adjectives in a series can be awkward: the beautiful your anniversary
big new blue cotton sweater.
In a part of a day: in the morning, in the daytime
(but at night)
31b Using the present and past participles as adjec- In a month or a year: in December, in 1776
tives In a period of time: in an hour, in a few days, in a
The present participle ends in -ing. Past participles of while
regular verbs end in -ed or -d;a list of the past partici- At a specific time: at 10:00 a.m., at midnight, at
ples of many common irregular verbs appears on page sunset, at dinnertime
11. Both types of participles may be used as adjectives.
Place
A participle used as an adjective may precede the word
On a surface: on the desk, on the counter, on a ceil-
it describes: It was an exciting ballgame. It may also
ing
follow a linking verb and describe the subject of the
sentence: The ballgame was exciting. In a place that is enclosed: in my room, in the office,
in the box
At a specific location: at the mall, at his house, at
the ballpark
EFFECTIVE WRITING 52 WRITING A PARAGRAPH

This section provides guidelines for the writing of para- them. The support in a paragraph may include exam- .
graphs, essays, and research papers. ples, reasons, descriptions, and other details that help
readers accept the validity of the main idea.
In addition, it is important to use valid support—
all of the details must actually support the main idea.
33 / Writing a Paragraph © Resist the temptation to add interesting but irrelevant
While paragraph functions vary, a typical paragraph is information to a paragraph. Imagine how it would have
a series of sentences about one main idea, or point. weakened the paragraph about spanking if Watkins
Such a paragraph often starts with the main idea, had decided to inject a few details on how useful vio-
expressed in a topic sentence, and the rest of the para- lence can be in a football game or a war.
graph provides specific details to support and develop Finally, work to achieve organized, logically con-
that idea. Consider the following paragraph written by nected support. The supporting details should be
a student named Paul Watkins. organized in a manner that allows readers to follow
your points and reasoning. The main topics of your
Spanking
paper and the relationship between your ideas should
Spanking is a poor way to discipline children. First of be clear. Although ideas can be organized in numerous
all, spanking teaches children the wrong lessons. They ways, paragraphs are generally best developed in one
learn that physical force is an acceptable way to deal with or two of a few basic patterns: illustration, description,
a problem. Spanking also teaches them that bigger,
narration, process, comparison and contrast, definition,
stronger people are entitled to hit smaller, weaker people. classification, and cause and effect.
Carla, a single mother, realized this effect of spanking
Another way to help your readers follow your line of
after her four-year-old son smacked her two-year-old for
thought is to use signal words known as transitions.
being “bad.” Secondly, a spanking often has more to do
Transitions are words and phrases that indicate the
with a parent’s emotions than the child’s behavior.
relationships between ideas. For example, Watkins has
Parents whose lives are stressful are more likely to strike
a child to ease their own frustrations than to teach the
used a transition to help readers notice each time he
child a lesson. Carla also observed this temptation in her- .
introduces a new point: first of all, secondly, and
self when she hit her ten-year-old daughter after a frus- finally. A few more transitions for introducing new
trating day at work. Finally, spanking is just not the points appear below, along with examples of other
most effective discipline. Children who are taught reason- types of transitions.
ing and consistent, meaningful standards develop better
Examples of Transitions
internal self-control than children who behave only to
avoid getting hit. Carla recently decided to give up
To introduce a list of points: also, another, further-
spanking and take a more reasoning approach. She now
more, in addition, next, last of all, finally
feels that her children are taking more responsibility for
To illustrate: for example, for instance, including, such
their own behavior and that her home is a safer place.
as, to illustrate
The above paragraph starts with the topic sentence: To compare: as, like, likewise, in the same way, simi-
“Spanking is a poor way to discipline children.” larly
Watkins then goes on to support his main point with To contrast: but, in contrast, however, nevertheless, on
three ideas. The first is that spanking teaches a child the contrary
the wrong lessons. The second supporting idea is that To emphasize: above all, indeed, in fact, in other words,
parents with stressful lives are likely to spank children most importantly
to make themselves feel better, not to teach the chil- To show time: after, before, then, until, when
dren something. The third supporting point is that To show cause and effect: as a result, because, conse-
spanking doesn’t work as well as teaching reasoning quently, therefore, thus
and consistent, meaningful standards.
Finally, keep your main topics in the reader’s mind
33a Two elements of effective writing by repeating key words or variations on them. Note
Now that you have considered an effective student that Watkins has repeated the word spanking to make
paragraph, you can see that there are two elements toa it clear to readers that each of his points is about
successful piece of writing: spanking. He avoids overusing that word (or spanked
or to spank) by using physical force, hit, smacked, and
1 A main idea. It is often best to state that idea in the to strike.
first sentence of your paper, just as Watkins has in his
paragraph about spanking. However, the topic sentence
may also come after a few sentences of introduction or 33b Steps to effective writing
transition or at the end of a paragraph, or it may even Even professional writers do not sit down and automat-
be implied. ically, in one draft, write a paper. Instead, they have to
work on it a step at a time. Writing is a process that
2 Support for the main idea. Use specific support.
can be divided into five steps. This process is the same
The more precise and particular your supporting details
whether you’re composing a paragraph or a longer piece
are, the better your readers can “see,” “hear,” and “feel”
of writing.
WRITING A PARAGRAPH 53 WRITING A PARAGRAPH

Step 1: Getting started through prewriting List making, a strategy also known as brainstorm-
There are several prewriting strategies that will help ing, means the listing of ideas and details that could go
you do the thinking needed to figure out both the point into your paper. Simply pile these items up, one after
you want to make and the support you have for that another, without worrying about putting them in any
point. special order. Watkins made upalist of details based
on some freewriting he had done. Following are a few of
Freewriting is just sitting down and writing whatever those details.
comes into your mind about a topic. Do this for ten min-
Spanking may do more harm than good
utes or so. Write without stopping and without worry-
Kids may learn wrong lessons
ing at all about spelling, grammar, or the like. Simply
One is that might makes right
get down on paper all the information about the topic
Woman hits her son, son hits his younger brother
that occurs to you.
Parent may spank after a hard day at work
Here is a bit of the freewriting done by Paul Watkins.
He had been given the assignment “Write about a com- What to expect from prewriting. Some writers may
mon family problem.” Watkins felt right away that he use only one of the prewriting strategies. Others may
could write about spanking. He began prewriting as a use bits and pieces of all four of them. Any one strategy
way to explore and generate details on that topic. can lead to another. Freewriting may lead to question-
ing or clustering, which may then lead to a list. During
I see too much spanking in families, at home, in the
this early stage of the writing process, there probably
supermarket, everywhere. Parents seem to spank with-
will be a constant moving back and forth as you work to
out thought. The anger that comes out is much greater
discover your point and just how you will develop it.
than the offense, they just whip out their hand and hit
and think about it later. May not do them or the kids any
The goal of prewriting is to get a lot of information
good at all.
down on paper. It’s better to spend some time on this
stage than to waste time writing a paragraph for which
Questioning is a way of thinking about your topic by you have no solid point and too little interesting sup-
writing down a series of questions and answers about port. You can then add to, shape, and subtract from
it. Here are a couple of questions that Watkins might your raw material as you take your paper through a
have asked while developing his paper, as well as some series of writing drafts.
answers to those questions: Keep in mind that prewriting can also help you
choose from several topics. Watkins might not have
How does spanking discipline children? Makes them
fearful of getting caught.
been so sure about which family problem to write
about. Then he could have made alist of possible top-
When is a parent likely to spank? When a child has done
ics—several family problems he could think of. After
something wrong. When the parent is feeling stressed.
selecting two or three topics from the list, he could have
In addition to asking how and when questions, you done some prewriting on each to see which seemed
should also ask who, what, where, and why questions. most promising. After finding a likely topic, Watkins
would have continued with his prewriting activities
When clustering, you begin by stating your subject in until he had a solid main idea and plenty of support.
a few words in the center of a blank sheet of paper.
Then, as ideas come to you, put them in ovals, boxes, or Step 2: Preparing a scratch outline
circles around the subject, and draw lines to connect A scratch outline is a brief plan for the paragraph. It
them to the subject. Put minor ideas or details in shows at a glance the point of the paragraph and the
smaller boxes or circles, and use connecting lines to main support for that point. This rough outline often
show how they relate as well. follows the prewriting stage, or it may gradually
Keep in mind that there is no right or wrong way of emerge in the midst of prewriting. In fact, trying to out-
clustering. It is a way to think on paper about how vari- line is a good way to see if you need to do more prewrit-
ous ideas and details relate to one another. Below is an ing. If a solid outline does not emerge, then you know
example of some of the clustering that Watkins might you need to do more prewriting to clarify your main
have done to develop his ideas. point or its support. Once you have a workable outline,
you may realize, for instance, that you want to do more
list making to develop one of the supporting details in
the outline.
As Watkins was working on his list of details, he dis-
covered what the plan of his paragraph could be. He
SPANKING used that list to construct the following scratch outline:
Spanking is a poor idea
May hit out May learn
of stress bad lessons 1. Teaches wrong lessons
2. May be done for wrong reason--parent’s mood
3. Not as effective as reasoning and standards

Once he had an outline as a guide, Watkins was ready

Bad day at
to write the first draft of his paper.
work
WRITING A PARAGRAPH WRITING AN ESSAY

Step 3: Writing the first draft 34 / Writing an Essay

When you doa first draft, be prepared to put in addi- An essay does much the same thing a paragraph does:
tional thoughts and details that didn’t emerge in your it generally starts with an idea and then provides spe-
prewriting activity. It was while Watkins was writing cific details to support and develop that idea. However,
the first draft that he realized the need to add some since an essay is much longer than one paragraph, it
details about Carla to illustrate his points. And don’t allows a writer to develop a topic in more detail. Yet
worry if you hit a snag. Just leave a blank space or add the process of writing it is the same as that for writing
a comment such as “Do later” and press on to finish the a paragraph: prewriting, preparing a scratch outline,
paper. Also, don’t worry yet about grammar, punctua- writing and revising drafts, and proofreading.
tion, or spelling. You don’t want to take time correcting Here are the major differences between a paragraph
words or sentences that you may decide to remove and an essay:
later. Instead, make it your goal to develop the content
of your paper with plenty of specific details. Paragraph Essay
Includes, usually at the be- Starts with an introduc-
Step 4: Revising ginning, the main idea of tory paragraph containing
Revising is as much a stage in the writing process as the paragraph, expressed the central idea of the
prewriting, outlining, and doing the first draft. in the topic sentence. essay, often expressed in
a sentence called the the-
Revising means that you rewrite a paper, building
sis statement (or thesis
upon what has been done to make it stronger and bet-
sentence).
ter. Look not only for errors, but also for ways to
improve your organization and sentences. (See, for Body of paragraph made Body of essay made up of
example, “Sentence Variety and Style,” pages 21-24, up of sentences that sup- paragraphs that support
and “Word Choice,” pages 24-25.) When revising, you port and develop the topic and develop the central
write at least one or two more drafts—and perhaps sentence. idea. Each of these para-
graphs has its own main
even more drafts of trouble spots.
supporting point, stated
Step 5: Proofreading in a topic sentence.

Proofreading, the final step in the writing process, is Paragraph often ends Essay ends with a con-
checking a paper carefully for spelling, grammar, punc- with a closing sentence cluding paragraph that
that rounds it off. rounds it off.
tuation, and other errors. You are ready for this stage
when you are satisfied with your choice of supporting
details, the order in which they are presented, and the 34a A sample essay
way they and your topic sentence are worded. Later in his writing course, Paul Watkins was asked to
At this point in his work, Watkins used his diction- expand his paragraph into an essay. Here is the result-
ary to check on the spelling of a couple of words. He used ing essay:
grammar reference materials (such as the “Grammar,”
“Effective Sentences,” “Punctuation,” and “Usage” units Children provide their parents with great joy and sat-
in this book) to be sure his writing was correct. Watkins isfaction, but they also inspire in parents the most
also read through the paper carefully, looking for typing intense anger and frustration. A parent may be faced
errors, omitted words, and any other errors he may have with a child’s maddening, naughty, obnoxious behavior
at any hour of the day. Often, the quickest, easiest
missed before.
response to that behavior is a spanking. However, spank-
Some proofreading tricks can help you see what is
ing is a poor disciplinary tool. It teaches a dangerous les-
really in your paper instead of what you think is there.
son, often stems from the adult’s mood, and is an inferior
One is to read the paper out loud, noting exactly the
way of changing a child’s behavior.
words you have written. Another is to take a sheet of
First of all, spanking teaches children to resort to vio-
paper and cover your writing so that you can expose
lence. Carla began to realize this on the morning that
and carefully check one line at a time. A third strategy Gary, her four-year-old, had been a real handful. It was
is to read your paper backward, from the last sentence raining, and he was whining because he couldn't go to
to the first. Doing so helps keep you from getting caught the park. The tension between Gary and his mother
up in the flow of the paper and missing small mistakes. mounted until he squirted most of a new tube of tooth-
Most instructors will allow you to add several correc- paste into the bathroom sink. Carla swatted his rear end
tions to a paper and still hand it in. Just make the cor- hard, scolding him for being wasteful. Crying, he disap-
rections neatly. Add missing punctuation marks right peared into the living room with his two-year-old brother,
in the text, exactly where they belong. Drawastraight Zack. A few minutes later Carla heard a squall from
line through any words or punctuation you wish to Zack. Looking into the living room, she saw the boys sur-
eliminate or correct. Add new material by inserting a rounded by their crayons and coloring books and Gary
caret (a) at the point where the addition should be. paddling Zack’s diapered bottom as hard as he could.
Then write the new word or words above the line at Gary announced, “I had to spank him, Mom. He broke a
that point. Retype or recopy a page if you discover a crayon. That was really wasteful, wasn’t it?” Carla’s
number of errors. If you are using a word processor or spanking had taught Gary that hitting is an appropriate
computer, make all the corrections in the file and print response to a problem and that bigger people have the
out a clean copy. right to use violence against smaller people. Calling it
WRITING AN ESSAY 55 WRITING AN ESSAY

spanking may make it seem OK, but basically that’s what ducing your general topic. They may provide useful
it is: a big person hitting a smaller person. background material as well. Watkins could have
A second important reason not to use spanking is that started his essay by talking about how parents serve
it often has more to do with releasing an adult’s anger as role models. He could then have narrowed that
than with correcting a child’s behavior. Consider the idea down to the point that spanking provides a bad
encounter between Ross and his daughter Elsie. Ross role model.
had returned home from aterrible day of work that had
ended with his accidentally pumping gasoline on his b. Present an idea or situation that is the oppo-
pants and shoes. He entered the house to have Elsie, who site of what will be written about. This approach
was then ten, look up and say, “Can we go out for din- shows the difference between your opening idea or
ner? Gee, you stink.” All Ross’s pent-up anger at his situation and the one to be discussed in the essay.
boss, coworkers, and the gas pump poured out at her. Watkins begins his essay, for example, by showing
Snatching up the sneakers that Elsie had kicked off, how spanking is an easy response to a child’s misbe-
Ross began smacking Elsie’s bottom, yelling about her havior. That idea contrasts with his main point—
rudeness, her messiness, and the cost of a restaurant that spanking is an inappropriate response.
meal. As the astonished child sobbed, “I’m sorry, Daddy!
Stop it!” Ross realized that he was furious at the world, c. Tell a brief story. In an introduction, a story
but he was hitting his daughter. should be no more than a few sentences, and it
Many parents will say, “Spanking is the only thing should relate meaningfully to—and so lead the
that really teaches a child a lesson.” However, spanking reader toward—your central idea. In his introduc-
teaches negative lessons, while nonviolent discipline can tion, Watkins could have used an anecdote about a
teach positive lessons. Effective discipline includes strate- parent and a child to show how tempting or how
gies like discussion, reasoning, consistent and meaning- counterproductive spanking can be.
ful standards, and nonviolent punishments like
“time-outs” or withdrawal of privileges. It helps a child d. Ask one or more questions. The questions
rethink his or her behavior and consider how to handle a may be ones that you intend to answer in your
situation better next time. Spanking just hurts. It leaves essay, or they may show that your topic relates
the child angry, humiliated, and frightened. He or she directly to readers. For instance, Watkins might
comes away thinking thoughts of anger, revenge, and have started his essay with such questions as Do
avoidance of punishment, not of genuine remorse or your children drive you to distraction? and Do you
increased consideration for others. One young mother, find spanking a handy household tool?
Leona, used to slap her five-year-old’s hand when he
reached into the cookie jar shortly before dinner. One 2 Supporting paragraphs. The main idea of a support-
afternoon she heard him whisper to his little sister, ing paragraph is often expressed in a topic sentence.
“Don’t take a cookie now. Wait ’til Mom’s gone.” The slap- Note that each of the three supporting paragraphs in
ping had taught the boy to avoid his mother’s scrutiny, Watkins’s essay has its own topic sentence. The first
not to stop reaching for cookies before dinner. sentence of each of the first two supporting paragraphs
Not spanking doesn’t mean ignoring misbehavior. is the topic sentence. In the last supporting paragraph,
Adults don’t need physical punishment to learn a positive the second sentence is the topic sentence.
lesson, and neither do children. In fact, their lesson will
be more positive without the negative example of physi- 3 Concluding paragraph. An essay that ended with
cal force and without a stressed-out adult meting out its final supporting paragraph would probably leave
punishment that is totally out of proportion to the misbe- the reader wondering if the author is really finished. A
havior. By acting calmly and rationally, a parent can concluding paragraph is needed for a sense of comple-
teach a child better behavior through word and through tion. As with introductions, there are various common
deed. methods of conclusions. Here are two.

34b The parts of an essay a. Provide a summary and a final thought.

Using different wording than in your introduction,
When Paul Watkins expanded his paragraph on spank- restate your thesis and main supporting points. This
ing into an essay, he knew he would need to write an review gives readers an overview of your essay and
introductory paragraph, several supporting para- helps them remember what they’ve read. Watkins
graphs, and a concluding paragraph. Each of these uses this approach in his final paragraph.
parts of the essay is explained below.
b. Focus on the future. A focus on the future
1 Introductory paragraph. Use a strategy in the often involves a prediction or a recommendation.
introductory paragraph that will gain your reader’s This method of conclusion may refer in a general
interest, such as one of the following time-tested way to the central idea, or it may even include a
methods: summary. Watkins, for example, might have ended
by discussing how improved discipline can change a
a. Begin with a broad statement and narrow it
Broad state- child’s future development.
down to your thesis statement.
ments can capture your reader’s interest while intro-
WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER 56 WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

35 / Writing a Research Paper Searching through periodical indexes. Just as a card

catalog is an indispensable guide to books on a topic,
Writing a research paper is a longer, more time-con- indexes are a key tool in the search for articles in peri-
suming project than a paragraph and most essays. It odicals (magazines, journals, and newspapers). Some
involves the added steps of researching and acknowl- indexes list articles in general magazines and newspa-
edging sources, and it demands more careful time man- pers. These indexes are especially useful as you seek an
agement. As soon as a paper is assigned, begin overview of your subject and work to hone your thesis
thinking about a topic and map out a tentative sched- statement. More specialized indexes are likely to pro-
ule for doing prewriting as needed, preparing a working vide added sources of supporting information for your
bibliography, taking notes, outlining, writing, revising, paper.
and proofreading. Indexes may be available in printed volumes or in on-
line or CD-ROM databases that are available through a
35a Finding a topic to research computer terminal. Conducting a search through a
Since you will be spending a lot of time and effort on database is very similar to searching on a computerized
your research paper, take enough time to choose a topic card catalog. In addition to bibliographic information, an
that interests you and that is worth exploring. You will abstract (a summary) or sometimes an entire article
find prewriting techniques helpful in thinking about may be shown on the screen. An abstract can save you
possible subjects and in whittling down your topic to a time by telling you whether it is worthwhile to read a
manageable size. For example, the topic of punishment particular article. At many libraries, the bibliographic
would be too broad—it covers every type of punish- information, abstract, and article can be printed out.
ment, from being kept after school to being executed. A If you are using an on-line service such as
writer interested in punishment could use prewriting to CompuServe, go to the reference section of the service.
consider instead various narrower topics, such as that Then select the newspaper or magazine database you
of physical punishment. wish to search. (It’s a good idea to read the basic
Once you have your topic, find a question about it instructions and pricing policies before you begin your
that you are interested in, or draft a working thesis search; some on-line services charge for each article
statement. As you do so, you may realize that you need displayed or downloaded.) Once in the database, you'll
to narrow your focus even further. You would probably be asked to enter key words for the topic that you are
find, for instance, that a question about the value of researching. Following the search, you'll be shown alist
physical punishment needs to be trimmed down, per- of the available articles, including their titles, sources,
haps to the value of spanking within the family, the dates of publication, and lengths. At this point, you
same issue that Paul Watkins discussed in his para- may select articles from the list and either read them
graph and essay. Of course, in a research paper the on-screen or print them out for later reading.
supporting points for such an issue would have to be When Paul Watkins did such a search on
developed with information gained from research. CompuServe for a research paper on corporal punish-
ment, he went to the Magazine Database Plus, selected
“QuickSearch,” typed the words corporal punishment,
35b Researching
found twenty-one articles, chose the eleven whose titles
To decide on or confirm your thesis statement and then seemed most promising, and then printed out the arti-
to find support for it, you'll need to read or skim all or cles. He also accessed the Health and Fitness magazine
parts of various books and articles. If you find very lit- database, found thirty-four articles, and printed out ten
tle information on your subject, you may need to of them. In little more than half an hour, he had
broaden your thesis. If you find an overwhelming twenty-one articles to consider using for his paper!
amount of material, you may decide to narrow the
scope of your work. As your thesis statement becomes Building a working bibliography. As you conduct your
sufficiently narrow and firm, you can begin searching library search, prepare a bibliography of sources that
for materials likely to provide supporting information. are likely to be useful in writing your paper. Write your
record for each source on an index card. The card
Searching through the library catalog. Every library should include information you need to find the refer-
has a card catalog that provides the titles and locations ence, including the call numbers of books. To make it
of books and other materials. Many libraries have their easier to prepare the list of references you'll eventually
card catalog on a computer database, which allows need at the end of your paper, write out complete bibli-
users to search quickly for materials by typing in top- ographic information on the card in the style your
ics, authors, and titles. Follow the directions provided, instructor asks you to use. (If you are asked to use the
or ask a librarian for assistance with this and any other Modern Language Association [MLA] style of documen-
part of your search. As you proceed to look for sources tation, see “MLA Style,” pages 59-64. If you are asked
in a card catalog, you will discover which key words to to use the American Psychological Association [APA]
use in your search. Two key terms in the search for style, see “APA Style,” pages 65-68.) Later, if you have
information on spanking at home, for example, are cor- used a particular reference in writing your paper, you
poral punishment and child abuse. will already have the necessary entry for your list of
sources.
WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER 57 WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

Bibliography Cards for an MLA-Style Paper ing the interview, or use a tape recorder if the person
you interview permits. After, send the person you inter-
viewed a short thank-you note, a basic courtesy to
someone who has taken time to assist you.
Straus, Murray A. Beating the Devil Out of Them:
Corporal Punishment in American Families. New
York: Macmillan, 1994.
35c Taking notes
Much of the work on your paper will be in the form of
carefully written notes. As you take notes on a particu-
lar source, you will need to make decisions about which
material you wish to quote, which points you wish to
restate in your own words, and which sections you wish
| HQ770.4.S77 1994 to summarize. To avoid plagiarism, use quotation
marks for all quoted material, and copy the material
carefully, including punctuation and capitalization.
When paraphrasing, reword a point entirely in your
own words; changing a few of the author’s words is not
sufficient to avoid plagiarism. Finally, don’t forget to
Samalin, Nancy. “What’s Wrong with Spanking?” credit the source of every piece of information.
Parents Magazine July 1992: 56-59. Magazine To avoid wasting much time on reading sources and
taking notes that won’t contribute to your paper, take a
Database Plus. On-line. CompuServe. 13 Apr. 1995.
few moments to evaluate how useful a reference will be.
Use tables of contents and indexes to zero in quickly on
relevant parts of a book. Read the beginning of an arti-
cle or chapter and perhaps skim the rest of the piece.
Don’t get sidetracked by interesting materials that
don’t relate to your question or thesis statement, and
avoid articles that are out of date.
You will find it helpful to take notes on index cards,
writing information from only one source and on only
To avoid accumulating an overly long working bibli- one subject per card. Write the subject at the top of the
ography, evaluate carefully the references you consider. card so you can see it at a glance. The cards, easily
Stick to information that may answer the question you rearranged, will make it easy for you to experiment
are writing about or that may support your thesis later with the organization of your paper. Using index
statement. On the other hand, it is better to include cards will also make it easy for you to eliminate any
resources you're not sure about. It is easier to record notes you eventually decide are not useful.
information about a reference than to find a book or In addition to your notes, carefully record on each
article that you have changed your mind about but card the author’s last name and the exact page(s)
have lost track of. where the information was found. If the author has
If you are working at a library where it is possible to written more than one work in your bibliography, also
print out the bibliographic information, you may wish include a shortened form of the title. Then later you
to work from the printouts when preparing your list of will be in no doubt about which bibliographic citation to
sources. include in your list of sources.
Using other sources. In addition to books and periodi- Note Card with Summary and Quotation
cals, consider other useful resources at the library, such
as pamphlets, films, videos, records, and audio tapes. Making spanking illegal Straus, Beating,
Businesses and professional associations are also possi- 161-162
ble sources of information. Make any requests for liter-
ature from such organizations early in your search, Since spanking is so common, many believe that it is
keeping in mind that it may not come for several weeks
impractical to expect parents not to spank their chil-
(or even in time for you to use). And check with your
librarian before you request the information; it may dren. However, just because something is done
already be available in the library. doesn’t mean that it should be legal. “It is no more
Finally, you may wish to interview experts for infor-
unrealistic to expect parents to never hit a child than
mation to include in your paper or for advice on how to
proceed. If you arrange such an interview, be sure you to expect that husbands should never hit their wives.”
are well prepared with questions that will draw out the
information you are after. You will need to have
already done some reading on your topic to prepare
useful questions. Since interviewers rarely remember To differentiate between the cards you use for notes
as much as they think they will, take careful notes dur- and those you've used for your working bibliography,
WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

you may wish to use different-sized cards, two colors of the first draft of your paper. (If your instructor asks for _
cards, or two colors of ink. an outline of your paper, this working outline will serve
You may occasionally want to save time by photo- as a good starting point.)
copying material from a book or article. If so, take a few
moments to indicate on the photocopy which material 35e Drafting, revising, and proofreading the
you plan to quote, summarize, and paraphrase. Later, research paper
when you have more time, you may wish to transfer the Writing and proofing the research paper is much like
important information to note cards. writing and proofing a paragraph and an essay (see
“Writing a Paragraph,” pages 52-54, and “Writing an
35d Reconsidering your thesis statement and Essay,” pages 54-55). One important difference, how-
preparing an outline ever, is the need to credit your sources using the style
Once you have done your research, reexamine your the- requested by your instructor. The unit on
sis statement. Do you think it will work as is, or based “Documentation” on pages 59-68 explains how to pre-
on what you now know, does it need reformulating? pare in-text citations in the MLA and APA styles.
Once you are satisfied with it, begin planning the order Keep in mind that in working on a paper, you can go
of your paper. Prepare a scratch outline of all the main back and forth between stages as necessary. As you
points you can think of that you'd like to use in support write your paper, be prepared to make adjustments in
of your thesis statement. Once you’ve decided on those your outline or even to go back and get a few more
points and their order, begin to insert details where research notes to fill in a gap.
they belong under the main points. Keep revising your Following are the first two pages of a research paper
outline until you feel it will be a good guide to writing that Paul Watkins prepared on spanking.

Sample Pages of a Research Paper: MLA Format

Watkins 1 Watkins 2

Paul Watkins First of all, children who are physically punished are

Professor Josephs more likely to participate in various acts of delinquency.

English 101 In the second National Family Violence Survey, social sci-

12 May 1995 entist Murray A. Straus, founder and co-director of the

Corporal Punishment: The Unintended Effects Family Research Lab at the University of New Hampshire,

Natalie Owens was watching Oprah Winfrey and prepar- and colleagues studied the effects of corporal punishment

ing dinner while Lucas, age five, and Doug, three, played on young people. Straus explains the general design and

quietly in the back yard. Suddenly, a blood-curdling scream finding of this study:

jolted her attention. On her flight to the back door, she We focused on children aged eight through seven-
glanced out the window to see Lucas whacking Doug with teen.... The survey contained data that could be
a metal shovel from the sandbox. Outside in seconds, used to control for the overlap of spanking with
Owens responded as she felt any good mother should—she several family characteristics that might be the real
spanked Lucas soundly. And to be sure he got the point, cause of a relationship between spanking and these

she barked, “That will teach you to use force!” (Owens). crimes. These included whether the parents were

Like Owens at that time, most Americans approve of physi- violent to each other, whether there was a drinking
cal discipline (Stark), and most parents use it at least occa- problem, and whether they were otherwise compe-
sionally from the time their children are infants until they tent parents, as well as other family characteristics
are teens (Straus, Beating 21). Yet research shows that that are related to delinquency. We found that,
such punishment has far-reaching negative effects. even after controlling for the overlap between cor-
Children who are hit are more likely, among other poral punishment and other family characteristics,

things!, to commit crimes, to suffer from depression and corporal punishment by itself is related to delin-
thoughts of suicide,and to be violent in their personal lives. quency. (Beating 109).

»
DOCUMENTATION 59 MLA STYLE

36 / An Overview of Documentation Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research

Papers. 4th ed. New York: MLA, 1995.
Research papers as well as many reports and articles American Psychological Association. Publication Manual
require documentation of all facts, opinions, and quota- of the American Psychological Association. 4th ed.
tions taken from other sources. Sources are generally Washington: American Psychological Assn., 1995.
documented in two ways: 1) as citations within the text
and 2) in a list of sources at the end of the text.

36a Citations within the text

37 / MLA Style
Include citations within the text of your paper for all
37a MLA style for citations within the text
quotations as well as for paraphrases and summaries of
facts and opinions obtained from your research. By In-text citations in the MLA style refer readers to a list
acknowledging sources of borrowed information, writ- of sources (titled “Works Cited”) at the end of the paper.
ers give fair credit and avoid plagiarism. For instance, In general, each citation includes at least the author’s
read the comment below on E. E. Cummings’s poetry by last name and a page number. The basic style is illus-
Louis Untermeyer in the book Modern American trated below for a work by one author, followed by
Poetry: A Critical Anthology. examples of other types of in-text citations in the MLA
style.
His preoccupation with typographical design has often
tricked him; much of his work suffers because of his dis- Work by one author. Give the author’s name and the
tortions and that part of it which succeeds is successful in relevant page number. If you do not use the author’s
spite of, and not because of, its form. name in a sentence, put both the last name and the
page number within parentheses with no punctuation
Below are two ways of reporting on the above comment.
between them.
Any successes in Cummings’s poetry come not from the
Several studies have found that parents hit girls less
unusual typographical designs, but despite them.
often than they hit boys (Straus 29).
Untermeyer feels that any successes in Cummings’s If the author’s name is in the sentence, put only the
poetry come not from the unusual typographical page number within the parentheses.
designs, but despite them (567). Straus writes, “It is no more unrealistic to expect parents

The first report above plagiarizes Untermeyer’s work. to never hit a child than to expect that husbands should
The second properly credits Untermeyer for the obser- never hit their wives” (161).
vation. (The number in parentheses is the relevant
page number, in accordance with the MLA style.) No page number is necessary if the source is only
Citation styles vary, but each includes enough detail one page long.
about a reference so that your reader can find it in a If a quotation takes more than four typed lines,
list of sources at the end of the paper. begin it on a new line and indent an inch (or, on a type-
writer, ten spaces), and double-space throughout. If you
quote one paragraph or part of one, do not indent the
36b List of sources
quoted paragraph. If you quote more than one para-
A list at the end of a paper provides key information graph, indent the second one a quarter inch (or three
about all the sources cited within the paper. The typewriter spaces) from the quotation’s margin. In that
Modern Language Association (MLA) calls this list case, indent the first paragraph only if it begins with
“works cited.” The American Psychological Association the first sentence of the paragraph.
(APA) calls the list “references.” Quotations set off in this manner are usually intro-
To cite books, you will usually find the source infor- duced with a colon. After the final punctuation mark of
mation you need on the title page and its reverse side, the quotation, type one space and insert the parentheti-
the copyright page. To cite articles in periodicals (such cal citation.
as journals and newspapers), look at the periodical
cover, its contents page, and the first page of the article. Stark reveals the extent of public support for physical
punishment both at home and in school:
36c Styles of documentation A full 86 percent of adults say it’s all right for
There are various styles of documentation. Use the one
parents to hit, spank or physically discipline chil-
your instructor suggests, and always stick to one style
in a paper. In general, English and humanities papers dren, a 1988 Harris poll found. But fewer than
use the MLA style, and social science papers use the half (44 percent) think teachers have that right.
APA style. These two styles and an alternate MLA
Over half (56 percent) of public school teach-
style for documentation with footnotes or endnotes are
described in the following chapters. If you have any ers, on the other hand, approve of school spank-
questions not answered here, consult one of the follow- ing, according to a 1989 Gallup poll. (10)
ing manuals:
MLA STYLE 60 MLA STYLE

An entire work. To cite an entire work, use only the more than one volume of a multivolume work, indicate
author’s or editor’s name in a sentence (which is prefer- within the parentheses which volume you are referring
able) or within parentheses: to. Follow the volume number by a colon and then the
page number: (Hetherington 4:1).
Straus makes a strong case against all forms of physical
punishment in American families. Literary work. Literary citations must include infor-
mation to help readers refer to a specific edition of a
There have been numerous revealing studies on spank- novel, play or poem. For novels, follow the page number
ing (Straus). with a semicolon and then the part, section, or chapter,
using appropriate abbreviations: (4; ch. 1), (130; pt. 1,
Authors with the same last name. If your sources Chey).
include books by two or more authors with the same For plays and poems, omit page numbers. For a
last name, include the first initial in each citation: (M. play, list act, scene, and line numbers (if any) sepa-
Straus 29). If the initial is also shared, use the entire rated by periods: (2.1.10-12). Use Arabic numerals for
first name: (Murray Straus 34-35). acts and scenes unless your instructor recommends
that you use Roman numerals. For a poem, give the
Work by two or more authors. For works by two or number of the part (if there is more than one) and the
three authors, put all the authors’ last names in a sen- line numbers; separate the two references with a
tence or within parentheses with the page number: period: (3.3-4).
(Kadushin and Martin 20).
For works by four or more authors, you may use all In Hamlet’s response to his mother about the appearance
of the authors’ names or only the name of the first of grief, Shakespeare raises the issue of appearances ver-
author followed by et al., the abbreviation for a Latin sus reality (1.2.76-86).
term meaning “and others”: (Dohrenwend et al. 206).
Follow the form you use in your list of works cited. Emily Dickinson also reveals a religious view of nature
in “Indian Summer”: “Oh, sacrament of summer days /
Two or more works by the same author. If one person
authored two or more of your cited works, include Oh last communion in the haze” (5:1-2).
within the parentheses the full title (if brief) or a short-
Indirect source. It is generally best to use material
ened form of the title before the page number. Book
from its original source. However, at times, only a sec-
titles should be underlined: (Beating 161). (Beating is a
ondhand source is available. When you use a quotation
shortened version of the book title Beating the Devil
that you found in a work written by somebody else, put
Out of Them.) Article titles should be placed within
qtd. in (for “quoted in”) before the name of the work’s
quotation marks: (“Family Patterns” 460). (“Family
author within the parentheses: (qtd. in Straus 69).
Patterns” is a shortened version of the article title
“Family Patterns and Child Abuse in a Nationally MLA optional information notes with parenthetical
Representative American Sample.”) documentation
If the author’s name is not mentioned in your text,
put it within the parentheses with the title or abbrevi- In the MLA style of parenthetical documentation, you
ated title, and separate the two with a comma: (Straus, may also use notes for two types of information:
Beating 161). 1) points that don’t fit in your text but that you feel are
important enough to include, and 2) information relat-
Work by corporate (group) author. When the “author” ing to your sources—lengthy citations that you feel may
of a source is a corporation or other organization, use overly interrupt the flow of your text or comments on
the organization’s name, shortened or in full in the text your sources.
or within parentheses: (National Center on Child MLA information notes can be either endnotes,
Abuse and Neglect 2). which are listed on a separate page or pages just before
the list of works cited, or footnotes, which appear at the
No author given. When the author's name is bottom of the page. The two types of notes are identical
unknown, use the full title (if brief) or a shortened ver- except for their location and spacing—endnotes are
sion of the title: (“Spanking May Foster Aggression” double-spaced, and footnotes are single-spaced. Unless
1995). (The full title of the article is “Spanking May instructed otherwise, use endnotes; they are generally
Foster Aggression Toward Peers in Young Children.”) easier to handle. In either case, insert a superscript
If you use a shortened version, begin with the first (raised) Arabic numeral at each relevant point in the
word of the title (other than a, an, or the) so that your text to correspond to the number of each note. Number
reader can find it in alphabetical order in your list of the notes consecutively throughout the paper.
works cited.
Text
Work in an anthology. Use the name of the author of
Children who are hit are more likely, among other
the work you are citing, not the name of the editor of
the book. things!, to commit crimes, to suffer from depression and
thoughts of suicide, and to be violent in their personal
Multivolume work. If your list of works cited includes
lives.
MLA STYLE 61 MLA STYLE

Endnote with comment Use a shortened version of a publisher’s name, using

1 For a discussion of the points that hitting chil- standard abbreviations where applicable.

dren even increases the likelihocd of their sexuality The basic format is illustrated below with a book by
being associated with imaginary or actual masochistic
one author, followed by examples of other types of book
entries.
activities and reduces their future income, see Beating

the Devil Out of Them 130-136, 137-146.

Book by one author
Morrison, Toni. Beloved. New York: Knopf, 1987.
For endnotes, begin on a separate page, and center
the title Notes an inch from the top. Number all pages Book by two or more authors
of the endnotes consecutively, beginning with the num-
Peters, Tom, and Nancy Austin. A Passion for
‘ber after the last page of the text of your paper, one-
half inch from the top and flush with the margin on the Excellence. New York: Random, 1985.

right. Double-space between the title and the first note. (Note that only the first author’s name is reversed.)
Indent each note a half inch (or five spaces on the type-
For a book with four or more authors, you may use
writer), beginning with the superscript number. After
the above format, or you may use only the first author’s
the number, type one space and begin the reference.
name followed by et al.:
Begin any subsequent lines of a note at the left margin.
Footnotes begin four single spaces below the text. Bracey, Hyler, et al. Managing From the Heart.
They are single-spaced, with double-spacing between New York: Delacorte, 1990.
them.
(Do not confuse these optional notes with notes that Two or more books by the same author
are used as an alternative method of documentation. Kozol, Jonathan. Amazing Grace: The Lives of Children
See 37c, page 64.) and the Conscience of a Nation. New York: Crown,
1995.
37b MLA list of works cited
---. Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools.
Begin the list of citations on a separate sheet of paper
with the title Works Cited centered an inch from the New York: Crown, 1991.
top of the paper. Number each page of Works Cited con- (For the second and subsequent listings by an author or
secutively, beginning with the number immediately editor, type three hyphens in place of the name, and alpha-
after the last page of the text of your paper (or after a betize according to the first word of the title other than a,
page of informational endnotes, if any). Type your last an, or the.)
name and the page number in the upper right-hand
corner flush with the right margin and half an inch Book by corporate (group) author
from the top. Double-space throughout, including Rand McNally & Company. The Magnificent Continent.
between the title and the first citation. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1975.
Begin each citation flush with the left margin. If a
citation exceeds one line, indent the second and subse- Anthology
quent lines one-half inch (or, if using a typewriter, five Allen, Donald M., and Robert Creeley, eds. New American
spaces).
Story. New York: Grove, 1965.
Alphabetize the entries by the last name of th
author or editor (or of the first author or editor). If no Edition of an author’s work prepared by an editor
author or editor is given for a work, use the first word
Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Price Was High: The Last
of the title other than a, an, or the.
A sample “Works Cited” list is on page 64. Following Uncollected Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald. Ed.
are models of various types of citations for an MLA- Matthew J. Bruccoli. New York: Harcourt, 1979.
style documentation list. (if you are citing the editor’s work, begin with the editor’s
name, followed by a comma and the abbreviation ed., and
Books and other nonperiodicals. In general, there are put the author’s name after the title: By F. Scott Fitzgerald.)
three main parts to MLA book citations:
Book with no author or editor given
1. The author’s name as given on the title page (last
name first). Omit titles and degrees before or after a The Inventive Yankee: From Rockets to Roller Skates,

name. 200 Years of Yankee Inventors and Inventions.

2. The title and any subtitle (underlined). Titles of arti- Dublin: Yankee, 1989.
cles should be put within quotation marks.
Translation
3. Publication information: city of publication, pub-
lisher, and date of publication. If the book lists several Raoul Wallenberg. Letters and Dispatches 1924-1944.
cities, use only the first. Add an abbreviation of the Trans. Kjersti Board. New York: Arcade, 1995.
country (or province, for Canada) for cities outside of (If you are citing the translator’s comments, begin with the
the United States that may be unfamiliar to readers. translator’s name, followed by a comma and the abbrevia-
tion trans.)
 62 MLA STYLE
MLA STYLE

Second or later edition Periodicals. In general, there are three main parts to
MLA citations for articles in periodicals:
Kaplan, Harriet, Scott J. Bally, and Carol Garretson.
Speechreading: A Way to Improve Understanding. 1. The author’s name (last name first). If more than
2nd ed. Washington: Gallaudet UP, 1987. one author is listed, the second and subsequent names
are given with the first name first and with no comma
(UP stands for “University Press.”)
between the first and last names.
Multivolume work 2. The title of the article (in quotation marks).
Ganzl, Kurt. The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre. 3. Publication information: the periodical title (under-
Vol. 2. New York: Schirmer, 1994.
lined), volume number (for scholarly journals), date of
publication, and inclusive page numbers (first through
(If you are using more than one volume of a multivolume
last). When the date of publication includes a month
work, cite the total number of volumes: 2 vols.)
(needed for magazines and newspapers), abbreviate the
Work in an anthology month, using the first three letters followed by a period,
except for May, June, and July, which are written out.
Allen, Edward. “River of Toys.” The Best American Short

Stories 1990. Ed. Richard Ford with Shannon Following are models of periodical citations in the
MLA style.
Ravenel. Boston: Houghton, 1990. 1-11.

Article in a journal with continuous pagination

Article in a reference book from issue to issue in an annual volume
Smylie, James H. “Faith Healing.” The Encyclopedia
Weiss, Thomas G. “The United Nations at Fifty: Recent
Americana. 1994 ed.
Lessons.” Current History 94 (1995): 223-28.
(The abbreviation ed. stands for “edition.”)
(The volume number is 94. Also note that in MLA style,
the second page number is written as 28, not 228.)
Introduction, foreword, or afterword
Fromm, Erich. Foreword. Summerhill: A Radical Article in a journal with separate pagination for
Approach to Child Rearing. By A. S. Neill. each issue
New York: Hart, 1960. ix-xvi. Klamer, Keith. “Minority Leader.” Vocational Education
Journal 70.5 (1995): 36+.
Brochure or pamphlet (The citation refers to volume 70, issue 5. The plus sign indi-
Smithsonian Institution. After the Revolution: Everyday cates that the article is not printed on consecutive pages.)
Life in America 1780-1800. Washington:
Article in a magazine
Smithsonian, 1985.
Weekly
Government publication Begley, Sharon. “Gray Matters.” Newsweek 27 Mar.
Department of Justice Immigration and Naturalization
1995: 48-54.
Service. Our Constitution and Government.
Washington: GPO, 1978.
Monthly
(GPO stands for “Government Printing Office,” which pub- Schwartz, D. M. “All Together, Now: Read Aloud to the
lishes most federal publications.) Kids!” Smithsonian Feb. 1995: 82+.
(For magazines, no volume or issue numbers are included
Unpublished dissertation in the citation.)
Gonzalez, Antonio M. “The Hispanic Patient: Clinical
Issues, Ethical Concerns and Implications for Article in a newspaper
Professional Practice in Mental Health.” Diss. Ziegler, Bart. “In Cyberspace the Web Delivers Junk
Mail.” Wall Street Journal 13 June 1995, eastern
Widener U, 1993.
ed.: Bi+.
Published dissertation (B1 tells us that the article is in section B beginning on
Goldstein, Martin E. American Policy Toward Laos. page 1.)
Diss. U of Pennsylvania, 1968. Rutherford:
Unsigned article in a newsletter
Fairleigh Dickinson UP, 1973.
“Gene Therapy: A Bold New Era in Medicine.” The
Dissertation abstract University of Texas-Houston Health Science Center

Stitt, Muriel. “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Lifetime Health Letter June 1995: 4-5.
\
Battered Women.” Diss. Fordham U, 1993.
Unsigned editorial 0
DAI 54 (1993): 2225B.
“False Promise.” Editorial. Philadelphia Inquirer 5 June
(DAI stands for Dissertation Abstracts International.)
1995, South Jersey ed.: A8.
MLA STYLE 63 MLA STYLE

Letter to the editor From a computer service: material available only on-line
Brady, Marion. Letter. Utne Reader Mar.-Apr. 1994: 6-7. National Research Council Committee on Virtual Reality

Review Research and Development. “Technology Gap

Exists Between What Is Virtual and What Is
Jackson, Donald Dale. Rev. of The Story of Webster’s
Reality.” 14 Nov. 1994. NAS Online. On-line.
Third, by Herbert C. Morton. Smithsonian Dec.
America Online. 28 June 1995.
1994: 146-47.
(In a citation for an electronic source that is available only
Other sources. Following are model citations for sev- on-line, provide the author’s name [if given], the title [in
eral other types of sources. Begin your citation with the quotation marks], the date the material was “published”
name or title being cited—if your paper focuses on the on-line [if given], the database title [underlined], the
medium of publication [On-line], the name of the computer
work, put the title first; if your paper cites the director,
service, and the date the material was accessed.)
put that name first; and so on.
From a computer network: electronic journals, newslet-
Television interview
ters, conferences
Diller, Barry. Interview with Ted Koppel. Nightline.
Koehn, Daryl. “The Ethics of Handwriting Analysis in
ABC. 14 June 1995.
Pre-Employment Screening.” The On-Line Journal
Film of Ethics 1 (1995): 34 pars. On-line. Internet.

Huston, John, dir., scriptwriter. The Treasure of the 23 Oct. 1995. Available http://condor.depaul.edu/

Sierra Madre. Warner Bros., 1947. ethics/hand.html

(If you are not citing the work of an individual, begin with (In a citation for an electronic journal, newsletter, or con-
the title, followed by the director, distributor, and year.) ference, provide the author’s name [if given]; the article or
document title [in quotation marks]; the journal, newslet-
Videocassette ter, or conference title [underlined]; the volume, issue, or
A Time for Justice: America’s Civil Rights Movement. other identifying number [if given]; the year or date of pub-
lication [in parentheses]; the number of paragraphs or
Prod. Charles Guggenheim. Videocassette. pages, after a colon [abbreviated par., pars., p. or pp. if
Teaching Tolerance, 1992. given, or use n. pag. for “no pagination”); the medium of
(Instead of videocassette, use the word(s) videodisc, slide publication [On-line]; the name of the computer service;
program, or filmstrip when appropriate.) and the date the material was accessed.
You may also add the electronic address used to access
Sound recording the information. [Some instructors may require it.] That
address should be preceded by the word Available.)
Taylor, James. “Copperline.” New Moon Shine.
Columbia, 1991. Computer software
(The above recording is on a compact disc. If a cited record- “Anger.” The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia.
ing is on any other medium, indicate the medium— Audio- CD-ROM. Danbury: Grolier, 1993.
cassette, Audiotape [reel-to-reel tape], or LP—before the
manufacturer's name. Follow the medium with a period.) . (If the article is signed, begin with the author’s last name,
followed by a comma, and then the first name of the
author, followed by a period.)
Live performance of a play
Bad Girls Upset by the Truth. By Jo Carol Pierce. Dir. Letter or E-mail communication
Ben Levit. Perf. Jo Carol Pierce. Plays and Players Clark, Michael. E-mail to the author. 10 Jan. 1996.
Theatre, Philadelphia. 4 June 1995. (For a letter you have received, use the wording letter to
the author.)
Material from an on-line database
Personal interview
From a computer service: material available also in
Ginsberg, Allen. Telephone interview. 26 Nov. 1995.
print
(For an in-person interview, use personal interview instead
Minsky, Marvin. “Will Robots Inherit the Earth?”
of telephone interview.)
Scientific American 2'71.4 (1994): 108-13.
Scientific American Online. On-line. America
Online. 28 June 1995.
(In a citation for an electronic source also available in
print, provide the author’s name if available, the same
publication information that you would include if the entry
were for only the printed source [including the title and
print date], the database title [underlined], the medium of
publication [On-line], the name of the computer service,
and the date the material was accessed.)
 64 MLA STYLE
MLA STYLE

Sample Works Cited List: MLA Format To prepare a page of endnotes, begin on a new page.
Number the pages consecutively, beginning with the -
Watkins 11 number that follows the last page of the paper’s text.
Works Cited Center the word Notes one inch from the top, double-
Agnew, Robert. “Physical Punishment and Delinquency.” space, and begin the first note. Indent each note one-
Youth & Society 15 (1983): 225-36. half inch (or five typewriter spaces). Type the note
Harris, Judith Rich, and Robert Liebert. The Child: number as a superscript (raised), type a space, and
Development Through Birth to Adolescence. 2d ed. then type the reference. Begin any second and subse-
New York: Prentice Hall, 1987. quent lines flush with the left margin. List the notes
Owens, Natalie. Personal interview. 1 Apr. 1995. consecutively, and double-space throughout.
Samalin, Nancy. “What’s Wrong with Spanking?” Parents
Magazine July 1992: 56-59. Magazine Database Plus. MLA-style note form. The first note for a source pro-
On-line. CompuServe. 13 Apr. 1995. vides more or less the same information as an entry in
“Spanking May Foster Aggression Toward Peers in Young
a list of sources. The differences are explained and
Children.” The Menninger Letter Mar. 1995: 1-2.
illustrated below.
Stark, Elizabeth. “Spare the Rod in Schools, But Not at Home.”
A documentation note has four main parts:
Psychology Today Dec. 1989: 10.
1. The author’s name (first name first).
Straus, Murray A. Beating the Devil Out of Them: Corporal
2. The title (in quotation marks or underlined, as
Punishment in American Families. New York:
appropriate).
Macmillan, 1994.
“Children as Witness to Marital Violence: A Risk Factor for 3. Publication information (in parentheses). (For infor-
Life-Long Problems Among a Nationally Representative
mation on the wording of locations and publishers, see
Sample of American Men and Women.” Children and the explanations for the MLA list of works cited in 37b
Violence: Report of the Twenty-Third Ross Roundtable on
on pages 61 and 62.)
Critical Approaches to Common Pediatric Problems. Ed. D. F. 4, The number or numbers of the pages of the specific
Schwartz. Columbus: Ross Laboratories, 1992. 98-109. portion of the work that you refer to, if applicable.
“Sociological Research and Social Policy: The Case of
Commas, not periods, are used between the elements of
Family Violence.” Sociological Forum 7 (1992): 211-37.
the note. The only period comes at the end of the docu-
mentation note.
Shown below are models for a book anda periodical.
37c MLA documentation style using endnotes or 1 Toni Morrison, Beloved (New York: Knopf, 1987)
footnotes
3-19.
An alternate documentation style that your instructor
2 Sharon Begley, “Gray Matters,” Newsweek 27
may prefer is the MLA style for endnotes or footnotes.
This style is used by some scholars in history, religion, Mar. 1995: 48-54.
theology, and the arts. Both types of notes are identical Subsequent references. Once a source has been
except for their location. Endnotes are listed together documented fully in a footnote or endnote, subsequent
at the end of a paper. Footnotes are placed at the bot- references should include only as much information as
tom of the page that contains the information being is needed to identify the source. Generally, the author’s
documented. They begin four single-spaced lines below last name and a page number are sufficient. When the
the text and should be single-spaced, with double- author is unknown, use a shortened version of the title.
spaces between them. Unless instructed to use foot-
notes, use endnotes, which are easier to handle. 5 Wallenberg 52.
For either, a superscript (raised) Arabic numeral is
10 The Inventive Yankee 75.
placed after the point in the text being documented. For
smooth reading, place the number at the end of a If you cite two or more works by one author, include
phrase, clause, or sentence. The same number is placed a shortened version of the title in the citation, either
before the corresponding endnote or footnote, followed underlining it or placing it within quotation marks as
by a space. Number the notes consecutively throughout appropriate.
the paper.
8 Kozol, Savage Inequalities 20-25.
Text
List of sources. Since the endnotes or footnotes fully
According to the Vanderbilt University study, if one par- document your sources, you may not be asked to
ent is hostile and the other is not, the effect of the include an alphabetized list of your sources. However, if
aggressive parent is counterbalanced by that of the your instructor asks you to include suchalist, title the
list Works Cited. Alternately, your instructor may ask
nonaggressive parent.’
you to include in your list all the sources you consulted
Endnote
in working on your paper, even those not cited in the
text. In that case, title the list Bibliography. In either 0
7 “Spanking May Foster Aggression Toward Peers case, use the entry formats shown in 37b, pages 61-63.
in Young Children,” The Menninger Letter Mar. 1995: 2.
 APA STYLE 65 APA STYLE

38 / APA Style For the second and subsequent references to a work

within a paragraph, you may exclude the date if the
e@ a APA style for citations within the text work won’t be confused with another cited in the paper.
In-text citations in the APA style refer readers to a list Authors with the same last name. If your sources
of sources (titled “References”) at the end of the paper. include books by two or more authors with the same
In general, each citation includes at least the author’s last name, include in each citation the author’s initials,
last name and the date of publication. The basic style is even if the dates differ: (M. Straus, 1993).
illustrated below for a work by one author, followed by
examples of other types of in-text citations in the APA Work by two or more authors. For works by two
style. authors, put the authors’ names in a sentence or within
the parentheses with the page number. Within paren-
Work by one author. For a paraphrase or summary of theses (but not in a sentence), use “&” between the
a point, as well as for a reference to an entire work, the names: (Kadushin & Martin, 1981).
citation should include only the author’s last name and For works by three to five authors, name all of the
the date. If the name does not appear in a sentence, put authors in your first reference: (Vissing, Straus, Gelles
it and the date within parentheses, separated by a & Harrop, 1991). In subsequent references, both in the
comma. text and within parentheses, use only the last name of
Several studies have found that parents hit girls less the first author followed by et al. (meaning “and oth-
ers”): (Vissing et al., 1991).
often than they hit boys (Straus, 1994).
For works by six or more authors, use only the last
If the author’s name is mentioned in the sentence, fol- name of the first author and et al. for even the first
low it immediately with the date within parentheses. citation: (Baher et al., 1967).
Stark (1989) reports that while men are somewhat more Work by corporate (group) author. When the “author”
likely to have been physically punished when young, of a source is a corporation or other organization, use
women are more likely to do the spanking. the organization’s full name in a sentence or within the
parentheses: (National Center on Child Abuse and
For a quotation, the citation must also include the Neglect, 1992).
page number. Insert the number within parentheses at However, if the organization has a long name and a
ta
the end of the quotation, even in mid-sentence. Use the familiar abbreviation, you may use the abbreviation
abbreviations p. for page and pp. for pages. after the first citation. To do so, show the abbreviation
X
Straus (1994) writes, “It is no more unrealistic to expect
in the first citation in brackets after the full name:
(National Institutes of Health [NIH], 1995). Then in
parents to never hit a child than to expect that husbands
subsequent citations, use only the abbreviation: (NIH,
should never hit their wives” (p. 161). 1995).
In the APA style, a quotation of more than forty No author given. When the author’s name is
words should begin on a separate line, be indented five unknown, use the first few words of the title. If the title
to seven spaces (or as much as an indent for a new is of a book or periodical, underline it. If it is of an arti-
paragraph), and be double-spaced. Do not use quotation cle, put it within quotation marks.
marks. Do not indent the first line of the quotation for
the beginning of a paragraph. If the quotation runs to The article “Spanking may foster aggression” (1995)
two or more paragraphs, indent the first line of the sec- states that parental anger when spanking is key.
ond and subsequent paragraphs five to seven spaces
from the quotation’s margin. Follow the final punctua- An article in The Menninger Letter states that parental
tion of the quotation with one space, and then put the anger when spanking is key (“Spanking may foster
citation within parentheses. aggression,” 1995).
Hyman (1990) explains that physical punishment in (The full title of the article is “Spanking May Foster
school can lead to family stress: Aggression Toward Peers in Young Children.” Note
When angry parents confront the school authorities,
that in APA style, the only words capitalized in the title
are the first word, the first word of any subtitle [a sec-
the bureaucrats almost always support the action of ondary title that follows a colon], and proper nouns.)
the person who administered the punishment. They
may institute a mild penalty such as a written
Personal communication. Conversations, letters,
memos, E-mail and other personal unpublished commu-
reprimand, but in most cases the disciplinary nications should be cited within parentheses by name
practices are considered appropriate. The school and date as follows: (M. Clark, personal communica-
authorities then begin to question the motives tion, January 10, 1996). If the person’s name is included
in the sentence, then only the words personal communi-
behind the parents’ complaints. The parents,
cation and the date need to be within the parentheses.
especially the mothers, tend to become fearful, In the APA system, personal communications are cited
depressed, and anxious for their children. (pp. 75-76) only within the text, not in the list of references.
 66 APA STYLE
APA STYLE

38b APA list of references Book by one author

Gleick, J. (1993). Genius: The life and science of Richard
Begin the list of citations on a separate sheet of paper
with the title References centered at the top. Number Feynman. New York: Vintage Books.
each page in Arabic numerals, consecutively from the
last page of text of your paper, at least one inch from Book by two or more authors
the paper’s right edge, between the top of the paper and Peters, T., & Austin, N. (1985). A passion for excellence.
the first line of the text. Include the first two or three New York: Random House.
words of your paper’s title above each page number or
five spaces before it. Double-space throughout, includ- Book with corporate (group) author
ing between the title and the first citation.
Rand McNally & Company. (1975). The magnificent
Give all authors’ names for all entries; do not use et
al. For all authors of a given work, list the last name continent. Chicago: Author.
first followed by the initials. (The word author indicates that the author is also the pub-
Put the date of publication in parentheses immedi- lisher.)
ately after the author’s name. If an author has written
more than one work in the list, repeat the full name, and Book with no author or editor given
list the titles by the date of publication. If two or more The inventive Yankee: From rockets to roller skates, 200
titles by the same author have the same date of publica- years of Yankee inventors and inventions. (1989).
tion, assign a lower-case letter to each (a, b, and so on).
Dublin, NH: Yankee Books.
Write the letter immediately after the date: (1993a).
Alphabetize the entries by the last name of the Anthology
author or editor (or first author or editor). If no author
Schilpp, P. A. (Ed.). (1959). Albert Einstein: Philosopher-
or editor is given for a work or if two or more titles by
the same author have the same date of publication, scientist. New York: Harper.
alphabetize according to the first word of the title other
Edition of an author’s work prepared by an editor
than a, an, or the.
For each entry, use a format called a hanging Franklin, B. (1931). The ingenious Dr. Franklin: Selected
indent, in which every line in a paragraph except for scientific letters of Benjamin Franklin (N. Gc
the first one is indented. (For manuscripts intended for
Goodman, Ed.). Philadelphia: University of
publication, each citation should begin with a paragraph
indent, with subsequent lines flush with the left margin. Pennsylvania Press.
This format will be typeset as a hanging indent.)
Translation
Double-space throughout.
A sample “References” list is on page 68. Following Wallenberg, R. (1995). Letters and dispatches 1924-1944
are models of various types of citations for an APA- (K. Board, Trans.). New York: Arcade.
style list of references.
Second or subsequent edition
Books and other nonperiodicals. In general, there are Kaplan, H., Bally, J. B., & Garretson, C. (1987).
four main parts to APA book citations:
Speechreading: A way to improve understanding
1. The author’s or editor’s name (last name first, first (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University
and middle initials only).
Press.
2. The copyright date or, for an unpublished work, the
year the work was produced (in parentheses). Multivolume work
3. The work’s title and any subtitle (underlined). Ganzl, K. (1994). The encyclopedia of the musical theatre
Capitalize only the first word in the title, the first word
(Vol. 1). New York: Schirmer Books.
of a subtitle (a secondary title that follows a colon), and
(If you are using more than one volume of a multivolume
proper nouns.
work, cite the volumes used: Vols. 1-6.)
4. Place of publication and publisher. If the place of
publication is a city well known for publishing and will Work in an anthology
not be confused with another place, use only the city Heller, J. (1982). TV news for teens. In M. Schwarz (Ed.),
name. Otherwise add.a U.S. Postal Service abbrevia-
tion of the state or the full name of the country. If sev- TV & teens (pp. 31-34). Reading, MA:
eral cities are listed, give the one where the home office Addison-Wesley.
is located, if indicated, or the first city listed. Use the (Note that for a work in an anthology, page numbers are
full name of the publisher, but you may omit such given and that the abbreviations p. and pp. are used for
terms as Co., Inc., and Publishers. However, do not page and pages.)
omit the words Books and Press.
This basic format is illustrated below with a book by
one author, followed by examples of other types of book
entries.
APA STYLE 67 APA STYLE

Article in a reference book Article in a journal with separate pagination for

Smylie, J. H. (1994). Faith healing. In Encyclopedia each issue
Americana (Vol. 10, pp. 849-850). Danbury, CT: Klamer, K. (1995). Minority leader. Vocational Education

Grolier. Journal, '70 (5), 36-37, 46.

(The issue number is in parentheses.)
Brochure or pamphlet
Smithsonian Institution. (1985). After the revolution: Article in a magazine
Everyday life in America 1780-1800 [Brochure]. Weekly
Washington, DC: Author. Begley, S. (1995, March 27). Gray matters. Newsweek,
125, 48-54.
Dissertation abstract
Stitt, M. (1993). Post-traumatic stress disorder and Monthly
battered women (Doctoral dissertation, Fordham Rock, M. (1995, March). Human ‘moms’ teach chimps it’s

University, 1993). Dissertation Abstracts all in the family. Smithsonian, 25, 70-75.

International, 54, 2225B.

Article in a newspaper
(When the source is on microfilm or CD-ROM, the medium
Goleman, D. (1993, June 13). Provoking a patient’s worst
and the access number are included.)
fears to determine the brain’s role. The New York
Unpublished doctoral dissertation Times, pp. C1, C10.
Gonzalez, A. M. (1993). The Hispanic patient: Clinical
issues, ethical concerns and implications for
Editorial
False promise. (1995, June 5). [Editorial.] Philadelphia
professional practice in mental health. Unpublished
Inquirer, p. A8.
doctoral dissertation, Widener University, Chester,
(For a letter to the editor, replace Editorial with Letter to
PA.
the Editor.)
Periodicals. In general, there are four main parts to
Review
APA citations for articles in periodicals:
Jackson, D. D. (1994). [Review of the book The Story of
1. The author’s name (last name first, first and middle
Webster’s Third]. Smithsonian, 25, 146-147.
initials only).
2. The date of publication (in parentheses). For maga- Other sources. Following are models for citations for
zines, newspapers, and newsletters, include the month. several other types of sources.
Spell out every month fully; do not abbreviate.
3. The title of the article (without quotation marks or Videocassette
underlining). Capitalize only the first word in the title, Guggenheim, C. (Producer). (1992). A time for justice:
the first word of a subtitle, and proper nouns. America’s civil rights movement [Videocassette].
4. Publication information: the periodical title (under- Montgomery, AL: Teaching Tolerance.
lined; capitalized according to the usual rules for
capitalizing proper nouns), the volume number (under- Sound recording
lined) of journals and magazines, and the pages. Put Taylor, J. (1991). Copperline. On New moon shine [CD].
commas between the elements in this section. Use the
New York: Columbia Records.
abbreviations p. (for page) and pp. (for pages) only
before the page numbers of articles in newspapers. (Put within parentheses whatever format is appropriate,
If there is no volume number, include the year fol- such as CD, cassette, or LP.)
lowed by a comma, a space, and the month or season
On-line sources
after the author’s name.
Minsky, M. (1994). Will robots inherit the Earth? [4 pp.].
Following are models of types of periodical citations
Scientific American [On-line serial], 2'71 (4).
in the APA style.
Available: America Online: Scientific American
Article in a journal with continuous pagination Online.
from issue to issue in an annual volume
National Research Council Committee on Virtual Reality
Weiss, T. G. (1995). The United Nations at fifty: Recent
Research and Development. (1995). Technology gap
lessons. Current History, 94, 223-228.
exists between what is virtual and what is reality
(Use the full page numbers—for example, 223-228, not
223-28.) [On-line]. Available: America Online: NAS Online.
APA STYLE 68 APA STYLE

Koehn, D. (1995, July). The ethics of handwriting Sample References List: APA Format
analysis in pre-employment screening Corporal Punishment 14

[34 paragraphs]. The On-Line Journal of Ethics

References
[On-line serial], 1. Available: Internet: Agnew, R. (1983). Physical punishment and delinquency.
http://condor.depaul.edu/ethics/hand
html Youth & Society, 15, 225-236.

(The APA prefers that material available in both print and Harris, J. R., & Liebert, R. (1987). The child: Development
electronic forms be cited in print form. While the 1995 edi- through birth to adolescence (2d ed.). New York:
tion of the Publication Manual of the American Prentice Hall.
Psychological Association provides some model citations of Samalin, N. (1992, July). What’s wrong with spanking? Parents
electronically accessed material, it states, “At the time of Magazine [On-line serial], 67. Available: CompuServe,
writing this edition, a standard had not yet emerged for Magazine Database Plus, Reference #A16886244.
referencing on-line information.” The manual goes on to
Spanking may foster aggression toward peers in young
point out that citations of electronic sources, like others,
children. (1995, March). The Menninger Letter, 3, 1-2.
should have two basic goals: credit to the author and suffi-
cient information for the reader to find the cited material. Stark, E. (1989, December). Spare the rod in schools, but not at

In general, for APA-style citations for on-line sources, home. Psychology Today, 3, 10.
include the author, date, and title as you would for a print Straus, M. A. (1994). Beating the devil out of them: Corporal
citation. In place of the publication information given for punishment in American families. New York: Macmillan.
books, add an availability statement that includes the Straus, M. A. (1992a). Children as witness to marital violence:
information necessary to access the material. [The APA’s A risk factor for life-long problems among a nationally
recommendations for on-line sources are based on the 1993
representative sample of American men and women. In
book Electronic Style: A Guide to Citing Electronic
D. F. Schwartz (Ed.), Children and violence: Report of
Information, by Li and Crane.])
the twenty-third Ross roundtable on critical approaches

Computer software to common pediatric problems (pp. 98-109). Columbus,

OH: Ross Laboratories.
Anger [CD-ROM]. (1993). The new Grolier multimedia
Straus, M. A. (1992b). Sociological research and social policy:
encyclopedia. Danbury, CT: Grolier Electronic
The case of family violence. Sociological Forum, 7,
Publishing. 211-237.

(If the article is signed, begin with the author’s name fol-
lowed by the date, writing both in the usual APA style.)

0
INDEX 69 INDEX

Abbreviation(s), 38-39 Capital letters, 35-36 Conjunctions, 3-4

capitalization of, 36 in abbreviations, 36 coordinating, 3, 19, 20
plurals of, with apostrophes, 30 after a colon, 35 correlative, 3, 20
Absolute phrases, 6, 27 for the first word in a sentence or subordinating, 4, 19
commas with, 27 direct quotation, 35 Consistent mood, of verb, 10
Action verbs, 1 in opening and closing of a letter, 36 Consistent tense, of verb, 9
Active voice, 10 for proper nouns and adjectives, 36 Contractions:
Addresses: in titles, 35 use of apostrophe in, 30
numerals in, 37 for the word J, 35 versus possessive pronouns, 30
within a sentence, with commas, 28 Case, of pronoun (See Pronoun case) Coordinating conjunctions, 3, 19, 20, 21
Adjective clauses, 6 Clauses: Coordination, 21—22
Adjectives, 3, 16-17 nonessential and essential, 6, 27 Correlative conjunctions, 3, 20
ESL pointers on, 51 with that and which, 47 Count nouns, 1
irregular, 17 types of: ESL pointers on, 48
pairing, 23 dependent, 6, 28-29
proper, capitalization of, 36 independent, 6, 29 Dangling modifiers, 20
Adverb clauses, 6 Clichés, 24 Dash(es), 32-33
Adverbs, 3, 16-17, 23 Clustering, 53 to introduce a final dramatic
irregular, 17 Collective nouns, 1, 12 element, 33
Agreement: Colloquial usage, 41 to set off parenthetical material, 33
pronoun-antecedent, 15 Colon(s), 29-30 to signal the end of a list, 33
subject-verb, 11-13 with capital letter following, 35 Dates:
Amounts and measurements, with to direct attention to what follows, 29 abbreviations in, 38
singular or plural verbs, 13 misuses of, 29 commas in, 28
Antecedent, 15 with quotation marks, 32 numerals in, 37
agreement with pronoun, 15-16 to separate parts of conventional Definitions, quotation marks in, 31
clear pronoun reference to, 16 material, 29 Demonstrative pronouns, 1
APA style, 65-68 Comma(s), 26-28 Dependent clauses, 6
citations within the text, 65 with absolute phrases, 27 who and whom in, 14
list of references, 66-68 in addresses, 28 Dictionary, use of, 39
books and other nonperiodicals, between adjectives, 27 Direct objects, 5
66-67 before coordinating conjunctions, 26 with transitive verbs, 2
other sources, 67-68 in dates, 28 Direct quotations, 31
periodicals, 67 with direct quotations, 28, 32 Documentation (See also APA style;
manual, 59 with expressions of contrast, 28 MLA style):
sample page of paper, 35 with interjections, 28 APA style, 65-68
sample references list, 68 after introductory material, 26 citations within the text, 59
Apostrophe(s), 30 between items in a series, 26-27 list of sources, 59
in contractions, 30 in letters, 28 MLA style, 59-64
misuses of, 30 misuses of, 28 Double negatives, avoiding, 17
for plurals of letters, abbreviations, with nonessential material, 27 Drafts, in writing, 54, 58
words referred to as words, and with numerals, 38
numerals, 30 with parenthetical expressions, 27 Ellipsis, 33
for possession, 30 with tag questions, 27-28 Emphasis, italicizing (underlining)
Appositives, 23-24, 27 in titles, 28 for, 37
after a colon, 29 with words of direct address, 27 English as a Second Language (ESL),
nonessential, 24 with yes and no, 28 pointers for, 48-51
pronoun, 14 Comma splices, 19 adjectives, 50
Articles (a, an, the), ESL pointers on, Common nouns, 1 articles with count and noncount
48-49 not capitalizing, 36 nouns, 48-49
Comparisons: prepositions for time and place, 51
Bad and badly, 17 adjectives and adverbs in, 17 subjects and verbs, 49-50
Biblical chapter and verse references, pronouns in, 14 ESL (See English as a Second Language
with colon, 29 using as or like in, 41-42 [ESL], pointers for)
Bibliography: using than or as in, 21 Essay, 54-55
cards for, 56-57 Complements: difference between paragraph and, 54
sample MLA-style cards, 57 subject, 1, 5 parts of, 55
entries, with colon, 29 object, 5 sample, 54-55
working, 56—57 Complex sentences, 7, 22 thesis statement in, 54
Brackets, 33 Compound-complex sentences, 7 writing of, 54-55
around a clarifying word or phrase in Compound sentences, 7, 21—22 Essential (restrictive) vs. nonessential
a direct quotation, 33 Compound subjects, 4 (nonrestrictive) elements, 24, 27
around a parenthetical item within Compound verbs, 5, 23 Exclamation point, 26, 28
parentheses, 33 Compound words, hyphens in, 32 with quotation marks, 32
around sic, 33 Concluding paragraph, of an essay, 55 Expressions of contrast, commas with, 28
 70 INDEX
INDEX

Fragments, sentence: Linking verbs, 1-2, 12 Paragraph, 52-54

for emphasis and dialogue, 18 ESL pointer on, 49 main idea in, 52
types of, 18 List making, 53 sample, 52
steps in writing of, 52-54
Freewriting, 53
Fused sentences, 19 Main idea, in paragraph, 52 support in, 52
support for, 52 topic sentence in, 52, 54
Gender agreement, pronoun, 15 Main verbs, 2 Parallelism, 20-21
Gerund, 15, 23 Manuscript format, 34-35 effects of, 21
ESL pointers on, 50 Misplaced modifiers, 19-20 uses of, 20-21
pronoun before, 15 one-word limiting, 19 Parentheses, 33
Gerund phrases, 6 phrases or clauses, 20 around interrupting material, 33
Glossary of usage, 41-47 split infinitives, 20 around numerals or letters, 33
Good and well, 17 squinting, 19-20 Participial phrase, 5
MLA style, 59-64 Participle, 23
Helping verbs, 2 alternate endnotes or footnotes ESL pointer on, 51
Hours and minutes, separated by citation style, 64 Particles, 2
colon, 29 citations within the text, 59-61 Parts of speech, 1—4
Hyphen(s), 32 handbook, 59 Passive voice, 10
in compound words, 32 list of works cited, 61-64 ESL pointer on, 50
to divide a word, 32 books and other nonperiodicals, Perfect tenses, 8
to join two or more words that act 61-62 Period, 26
as a single modifier before a other sources, 63 with quotation marks, 32
noun, 32 periodicals, 62-63 Personal pronouns, 1
in numbers, 32 optional endnotes or footnotes, 60-61 Phrasal verbs, 2
with the prefixes all-, self-, ex- and sample heading of paper, 35 Phrases:
the suffix -elect, 32 sample list of works cited, 64 nonessential and essential, 27
Hyphenated words, use of apostrophe to sample pages of research paper, 58 types of:
show possession in, 30 Modifiers: absolute, 6, 27
dangling, 20 prepositional, 3, 5, 11
Imperative mood, 10 misplaced, 19-20 verbal, 5-6
Indefinite pronouns, 1, 12, 15 Mood, of verbs, 10 Plagiarism, avoiding, 57
Independent clauses, 6 Plural nouns, 1
colon with, 29 Names: that do not end in s, apostrophe
semicolon with, 28-29 capitalization of, 36 with, 30
Indicative mood, 10 with titles, abbreviations of, 38 that end in s, apostrophe with, 30
Indirect objects, 5 with titles, commas in, 28 Possessive case, 13
Indirect quotations, 31 Preparing a scratch outline, 53
Infinitive, 23 Noncount nouns, 1 Prepositional phrases, 3, 5, 11, 23
ESL pointers on, 50 ESL pointers on, 48—49 Prepositions, 2—3
split, 20 Nonessential (nonrestrictive) ESL pointers on, 51
Infinitive phrases, 5 elements, 24, 27 Prewriting, 53
pronouns in, 14 Nonstandard usage, 41 Principal parts of verbs, 7-8
Intensive pronouns, 1 Note cards, research, 57-58 Progressive tenses, 9
Interjections, 4 Nouns, 1 ESL pointers on, 49-50
mild, with commas, 28 collective, 1, 12 Pronoun case, 13-15
Interrogative pronouns, 1 common, 1 objective, 13
Intransitive verbs, 2 count, 1, 48 possessive, 13
ESL pointer on, 50 noncount, 1, 48-49 subjective, 13
Introductory paragraph, of an essay, 55 plural, 1, 30 usage with, 14-15
Irregular verbs, 10-11 proper, 1, 36, 49 Pronoun-antecedent agreement, 15-16
Italics (underlining), 37 singular, 1 Pronoun reference, clear, 16
Noun clauses, 6 Pronouns (See Pronoun-antecedent
Jargon, 24 Numbers: agreement; Pronoun case;
Joint possession, use of apostrophe referred to as such, italicizing of, 37 Pronoun reference, clear;
with, 30 spelling out, 37-38 Pronouns, types of)
use of hyphen in, 32 Pronouns, types of:
Latin abbreviations, 38 Numerals: demonstrative, 1
Letters: commas in, 38 indefinite, 1, 12, 15
business, with colon, 29 plurals of, with apostrophes, 30 intensive, 1
informal, with commas, 28 interrogative, 1
opening and closing, capitalization Object complements, 5 personal, 1
of, 36 Objective case, 13 reciprocal, 1 \
Letters of alphabet: Objects: reflexive, 1 o
italicizing of, 37 direct, 2,5 relative, 1, 12-13, 22
plurals of, with apostrophes, 30 indirect, 5 Proofreading, 35, 54, 58
INDEX 71 INDEX

Proper adjectives, capitalization of, 36 Sentence, 4-6 (See also Sentence types) Transitions, in effective writing, 52
Proper nouns, 1 comma splice, 19 Transitive verbs, 2
capitalization of, 36 compound elements in, 23 ESL pointer on, 50
ESL pointer on, 49 fragment, 18
Punctuation, 26-33 fused, 19 Underlining (italics), 37
variety and style, 21-24 Us or we followed by a noun, 14
Question mark, 26 Sentence types, 7 Usage, glossary of, 41-47
with quotation marks, 32 complex, 7, 22
Questioning, 53 compound, 7, 21-22 Verbal phrases, 5-6
Quotation marks, 31-32 compound-complex, 7 Verbals, 23
in definitions, 31 simple, 7 ESL pointers on, 50
for direct quotations, 31 using a variety of, 22-23 Verbs (See also Verbs, types of):
misuses of, 31, 32 Sexist language, 25 agreement with subjects, 11-13
with other punctuation, 31-32 Showy language, 25 before the subject, 11-12
for titles of short works, 31 Simple sentences, 7 compound, 5, 23
for words used in a special sense, 31 Simple tenses, 8 consistent tense, 9
Quotations: Slang, 24 ESL pointers on, 49-50
direct, 31 familiar, without quotation marks, 31 finding, 2
indirect, 31 Slash, 33 in sentences, 4—5
punctuation with, 28, 29, 31-32 for alternatives, 33 irregular, 10-11
within quotations, punctuation in lines of poetry, 33 mood of, 10
of, 31 Spelling, 39-40 principal parts of, 7-8
commonly misspelled words, 40 tenses, types of, 7-9
Reciprocal pronouns, 1 Split infinitives, 20 voice of, 10
Reflexive pronouns, 1 Subject complements, 1, 5 Verbs, types of:
Research paper, 56-68 Subjective case, 13 action, 1
documentation in, 59-68 Subjects, 4 helping, 2
APA style, 65-68 agreement with verbs, 11-13 intransitive, 2, 50
MLA style, 59-64 compound, 4, 12 linking, 1—2, 12, 49
writing of, 56-58 ESL pointers on, 49 main, 2
drafting, revising and proofreading indefinite pronoun, 12 phrasal, 2
of, 58 relative pronoun, 12 transitive, 2, 50
finding a topic for, 56 singular with plural form, 13 Voice, of verbs, 10
outlining for, 58 special singular and plural, 12-13
researching for, 56—57 Subjunctive mood, 10 We or us followed by a noun, 14
taking notes for, 57-58 Subordinating conjunctions, 4, 19, 22 Well and good, 17
Relative pronouns, 1 Subordination, 22 Who and whom:
in clauses, 22 Supporting paragraphs, of an essay, 55 in dependent clauses, 14
as subjects, 12-13 in questions, 14
who vs. whom, 14 Tag questions, with commas, 28 Wordiness, 24—25
Researching a topic, 56-58 Tenses, verb, 7-9 Words of direct address, with commas,
building a working bibliography, consistency in, 9 27
56-57 Thesis statement: Words used as words:
searching, 56, 57 of an essay, 54 italicizing (underlining) of, 37
taking notes, 57-58 of a research paper, 58 plurals of, with apostrophes, 30
Research note cards, 57-58 Title(s): as singular subjects, 13
Revising, 54, 58 capitalization of, 35 Words used in a special sense,
Run-on sentences (See Comma splices, with colon and subtitle, 29 quotation marks with, 31
Fused sentences) italicizing (underlining) of, 37 Writing:
Scratch outline, preparing, 53 of persons, abbreviations of, 38 effective, steps to:
Semicolon, 19, 28-29 of persons, capitalization of, 38 preparing a scratch outline, 53
between items in a series when the of short works, quotation marks for, 31 prewriting, 53
items contain commas, 29 as singular subject, 13 proofreading, 54
misuses of, 29 Topic, finding and narrowing, 56 revising, 54
with quotation marks, 32 Topic sentence, 52, 54 writing first draft, 54
with a transitional word or phrase, Transitional expressions, 19, 22, 27, elements of, 52, 55
22, 28-29 28-29
with two independent clauses, 22, 28 commas with, 27 Yes and no, with commas, 28
NOTES
 DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS

GRAMMAR 13 Sentence Variety d Definitions ESL POINTERS

1 Parts of Speech 1 and Style 21 e With other punctua-
a Coordination and 29 Articles with Count and
Nouns tion
Pronouns subordination Noncount Nouns 48
f Misuses
Verbs b Sentence types and a Aoran with non-
Prepositions elements 21 Other Punctuation specific count nouns
Marks 32 b The with specific
Adjectives 14 Word Choice 24 a The hyphen nouns
Adverbs
Slang b The dash ce Omitting articles
Conjunctions Jargon Parentheses d The with proper
Interjections
Clichés Brackets nouns
hoaoop
“Sr
Words as more than Wordiness The ellipsis
one part of speech 30 Subjects and Verbs 49
Showy language QO The slash
>O
Sentence Basics 4 ~OAOOD
Sexist language a Avoiding repeated
subjects
a Subjects and their MECHANICS b Pronoun subjects
modifiers PUNCTUATION
b Verbs and their 22 Manuscript Format 34 and linking verbs
15 End Marks 26 a
Materials and gen- c There and here at
modifiers, comple- a_ The period eral methods beginning of clauses
ments, and objects b The question mark b Text layout d Not using the pro-
Phrases 5 c The exclamation ce Proofreading and gressive tense of
a Prepositional point correcting certain verbs
b Verbal 16 e Transitive verbs for
The Comma. 26 23 Capital Letters 35
c Absolute passive voice
a Independent clauses aFirst word in a sen- f Gerunds and infini-
Clauses 6 with a coordinating tence or direct quo- tives after verbs
a Independent conjunction tation
b Dependent b Introductory mate- b First word of an 31 Adjectives 50
rial independent clause a Adjective order
Sentence Types 7 Items in a series b Present and past
that follows a colon
a Based on purpose ao Coordinate participles
The word I
b Based on structure adjectives Titles
e Parenthetical 32 Prepositions Used for
Verbs 7 Opening and closing
oad
expressions and of a letter
Time and Place 51
a Tenses
b Mood and voice absolute phrases f Abbreviations
ce Irregular verbs f Nonessential g Proper nouns and EFFECTIVE WRITING
d Subject-verb agree- clauses and phrases adjectives 33 Writing a Paragraph 52
ment
g Direct address, yes a Two elements of
and no, mild inter- 24 Italics (Underlining) 37 effective writing
Pronouns 13 jections, expressions a Titles; names; for-
b Steps to effective
a Case of contrast, and tag eign words; words, writing
b Usage questions letters, and numbers
c Agreement h_ Direct quotations referred to as such 34 Writing an Essay 54
d Clear reference mle Dates, addresses, b For emphasis a Asample essay
letters, and titles c Misuses b The parts of an essay
Adjectives and j_ Preventing misread-
Adverbs 16 25 Numbers 37 35 Writing a Research
ing
a In comparisons a Words versus Paper 56
k Misuses
b Good and well; bad numerals a Finding a topic to
and badly 17 The Semicolon 28 b A number beginning research
c Avoiding double a Independent clauses a sentence b Researching
negatives with no coordinating c Conventional uses c Taking notes
conjunction of numerals d Outlining
b Independent clauses d Commas to indicate e Drafting, revising,
EFFECTIVE SENTENCES
with a transitional thousands and proofreading
9 Fragments 18 word or phrase
a Dependent-clause 26 Abbreviations 38
c Items ina series DOCUMENTATION
b Without a subject a Appropriate uses in
when the items con-
c Without a subject formal writing 36 An Overview of
tain commas
and a verb b Inappropriate uses Documentation 59
d Misuses
d For emphasis and in formal writing a Citations within the
dialogue 18 The Colon 29 text
a To direct attention
Ld, Spelling b List of sources
10 Fused Sentences and Improvement 39
b Conventional uses ce Styles of documen-
Comma Splices 19 c Misuses
a The dictionary
tation
a Fused sentences b Electronic spelling
b Comma splices 19 The Apostrophe 30 checker MLA Style 59
ce Correction methods a Possession c Personal spelling list a Citations within the
b Contractions d Commonly confused text
11 Misplaced and c Certain plurals words b List of works cited
Dangling Modifiers 19 d Misuses e Spelling rules c Endnotes or foot-
a Misplaced modifiers f Commonly mis- notes
b Dangling modifiers 20 Quotation Marks 31 spelled words
a _ Direct quotations 38 APA Style 65
12 Parallelism 20 b Titles of short works a Citations within the
a Uses c Words used in a spe- USAGE
text
b Effects cial sense 28 Glossary of Usage 41 b List of references
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