Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)

Course Earth Science
Sem/AY First Semester/2020-2021
Module No. 1
Lesson Title The Study of Earth Science and All about Minerals
Week
2-5
Duration
Date October 11- November 5, 2021
This lesson will the scientific method in relation to the study of Earth Science and the
Description classification , physical and chemical properties ,process of mining and impact to the
of the environment of minerals . This lesson will also provide activities and exercises that will
Lesson assess students understanding about the topic.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Students should be able to meet the following intended learning outcomes:
Learning  Describe the scientific method as applied in the earth sciences and its relation
Outcomes to the study of Earth Science
 Demonstrate understanding of mineral formation, identification, and
classification.
Targets/ At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Objectives  Describe the historical development of theories that explain the origin of the
Universe
 Explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose boundaries
matter and energy flow
 Describe the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to support life
 Identify the common minerals using their physical and chemical properties
 Described how mineral are found , mined and processed for human use.
 Cite some ways to prevent or lessen the environmental impact that result from
exploitation, extraction and use of mineral resources

Student Learning Strategies

Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

(Synchronous/

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Asynchronous) You will be directed to attend in a Four-Hour class discussion on the

nature and types of educational technologies. To have access to the
Online Discussion, refer to this link: ____________________.

The online discussion will happen on October 11 , 2021, from 7:00-

9:00AM.

(For further instructions, refer to your Google Classroom and see the
schedule of activities for this module)

B. Learning Guide Questions:

1. What are the five major areas of specialization in Earth Science?
2. Why is the big bang theory most accepted theory on the origin of the
universe?
3. How do Earth’s subsystems affect each other?
4. What are minerals?
5. How minerals different from one another?
6. What process are involved in extracting mineral resources?
7. How do these processes affect the environment?

Note: The insight that you will post on online discussion forum using Learning Management
System (LMS) will receive additional scores in class participation.

Lecture Guide

Today we live in a time when the Earth and its inhabitants face many challenges. Our
climate is changing, and that change is being caused by human activity. Earth scientists
recognized this problem and will play a key role in efforts to resolve it. We are also
challenged to: develop new sources of energy that will have minimal impact on climate;
locate new sources of metals and other mineral resources as known sources are
Offline Activities depleted; and, determine how Earth's increasing population can live and avoid serious
(e-Learning/Self- threats such as volcanic activity, earthquakes, landslides, floods and more. These are
Paced) just a few of the problems where solutions depend upon a deep understanding of Earth
science.

The Study of Earth Science

A science that study of Earth and of the universe around it and like other sciences,
assumes that natural events, or phenomena, can be explained through careful
observation and experimentation.
Branches of Earth Science

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
a. Geology
The study of the origin, history, processes, and structure of the solid Earth is called
geology. Geology includes many specialized areas of study. Some geologists
explore Earth’s crust for deposits of coal, oil, gas, and other resources. They study
the forces within Earth to predict earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Some
geologists study fossils to learn more about Earth’s past and new knowledge forms
new areas of study.
b. Oceanography
Oceans cover nearly three-fourths of Earth’s surface. The study of Earth’s oceans is
called oceanography. Some oceanographers work on research ships that are
equipped with special instruments for studying the sea. They study waves, tides,
and ocean currents. Some oceanographers explore the ocean floor to obtain clues
to Earth’s history or to locate mineral deposits.
c. Meteorology
The study of Earth’s atmosphere is called meteorology. Using satellites, radar, and
other technologies, meteorologists study the atmospheric conditions that produce
weather. Many meteorologists work as weather observers and measure factors
such as wind speed, temperature, and rainfall. This weather information is then
used to prepare detailed weather maps. They use weather maps, satellite images,
and computer models to make weather forecasts. Some meteorologists study
climate, the patterns of weather that occur over long periods of time.
d. Astronomy
The study of the universe beyond Earth is called astronomy. Astronomy is one of
the oldest branches of Earth science. In fact, the ancient Babylonians charted the
positions of planets and stars nearly 4,000 years ago. Modern astronomers use
Earth-based and space-based telescopes as well as other instruments to study the
sun, the moon, the planets, and the universe. Technologies such as rovers and space
probes have also provided astronomers with new information about the universe.

The Importance of Earth Science

Natural forces not only shape Earth but also affect life on Earth. For example, a volcanic
eruption may bury a town under ash. And an earthquake may produce huge ocean
waves that destroy shorelines. By understanding how natural forces shape our
environment. The study of Earth Science
a. It can better predict potential disasters and help save lives and property.
b. It helps us understand our place in the universe.
c. It studies the distant galaxies have come up with new ideas about the origins of
our universe.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
d. Studying rock layers have found clues to Earth’s past environments and to the
evolution of life on this planet.
e. Earth provides the resources that make life as we know it possible and also
provides the materials to enrich the quality of people’s lives.
The study of Earth science can help people gain access to Earth’s resources, but Earth
scientists also strive to help people use those resources wisely.

1.2 Science as a Process

The goal of science is to explain natural phenomena. Scientists ask questions about
natural events and then work to answer those questions through experiments and
examination. Scientific understanding moves forward through the work of many
scientists, who build on the research of the generations of scientists before them.
Scientific Methods
Over time, the scientific community has developed organized and logical approaches
to scientific research. These approaches are known as scientific methods. Scientific
methods are not a set of sequential steps that scientists always follow. Rather, these
methods are guidelines to scientific problem solving.

Basic Flowchart of Scientific Methods

a. Ask a Question
Observation is the process of using the senses of sight, touch, taste, hearing, and
smell to gather information about the world. When you see thunderclouds form
in the summer sky, you are making an observation. And when you feel cool,
smooth, polished marble or hear the roar of river rapids, you are making
observations.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
Observations can often lead to questions. What causes tornadoes to form? Why
is oil discovered only in certain locations? What causes a river to change its
course? What causes some plants to grow faster than others? Simple questions
such as these have fueled years of scientific research and have been investigated
through scientific methods.
b. Form a Hypothesis
Once a question has been asked and basic information has been gathered, a
scientist may propose a tentative answer, which is also known as a hypothesis.
A hypothesis (plural, hypotheses) is a possible explanation or solution to a
problem. Hypotheses can be developed through close and careful observation.
Most hypotheses are based on known facts about similar events. One example
of a hypothesis is that plants that are given a large amount of sunlight will grow
faster than plants given a smaller amount of sunlight. This hypothesis could be
made from observing how and where other plants grow.
c. Test the Hypothesis
After a hypothesis is proposed, it is often tested by performing experiments. An
experiment is a procedure that is carried out according to certain guidelines.
Factors that can be changed in an experiment are variables.

1. Independent variables are factors that are changed by the person

performing the experiment.
2. Dependent variables are variables that change as a result of a change in
independent variables. In most experiments, only one independent
variable is tested.
3. A control group is a group that serves as a standard of comparison with
another group to which the control group is identical except for one factor.
d. Draw Conclusions
After many experiments and observations, a scientist may reach conclusions
about his or her hypothesis. If the hypothesis fits the known facts, it may be
accepted as true. If the experimental results differ from what was expected, the
hypothesis may be changed or discarded. Expected and unexpected results lead
to new questions and further study. The results of scientific inquiry may also
lead to new knowledge and new methods of inquiry that further scientific aims
1.3 Origin and Structure of the Earth
Theories on the Origin of the Universe
To make sense of the universe, human use religion, traditions, philosophy and
science to describe its origin and structure. Humankind’s most recent understanding

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
of the universe is built upon previous knowledge and enhanced by integrating data
required from latest technologies.

 The narrative from Genesis, one of the books of the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old
Testament, describe how god separated light from darkness, and created the sky,
land, sea , moon, star and every living creature in a span of six days.
 The Hindu text Rigveda describes the universe as an oscillating universe in which a
“cosmic egg” or Brahmanda containing the whole universe including the sun, moon,
planet and space expanded out of a single concentrated point called Bindu, and will
eventually collapse again.
 5th century BCE , the Greek philosophers would present their own description of the
universe. Anaxagoras believed in a primordial universe and explained their original
state of the cosmos was a primordial mixture of all its ingredients which existed in
infinitesimally small fragments of themselves. The mixture was not entirely uniform,
some were present in higher concentration, ingredients varies from place to place.
A whirling motion sifted and separate the ingredients producing the cosmos of
separated material objects with different properties that can be seen today.
 Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus believed in an atomic universe. They
held that the universe was composed of very small, indivisible and indestructible
atoms. All of reality and all objects in the universe are composed of different

combination and shapes. The Stoic philosophers also believed that the universe is
like a giant living body, with the sun and the stars as the important parts to which
everything else was interconnected.
 The Greek philosophers Aristotle and Ptolemy proposed a geocentric universe where
Earth stayed motionless in the heavens and everything was revolving around it.
 In 1543, an astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus with his Theory of Heliocentrism. He
demonstrated the motion of celestial objects can be explained without putting Earth
in the center of the Universe.
 In 1584 Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno suggest that even the Solar System is not
the center of the Universe, it is merely just another star system among an infinite
multitude of others.
 In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton described the universe as a static, steady-state, infinite
universe. His description of the universe, matter on a large scale is uniformly
distributed and the universe is gravitationally balanced but essentially unstable.
 French philosopher Rene Descartes outlined a Cartesian vortex model of the
universe with many of the characteristics of Newton’s static, infinite universe.
According to him, the vacuum of space was not empty at all but filled with matter
that swirled around in large and small vortices. Thus model involved a system of
huge swirling whirlpools of fine matter, producing what would later be called
gravitational effects.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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 A model of the universe assumed by Albert Einstein was static and dynamically
stable universe, which was neither expanding or contracting. He added a
cosmological constant to his general theory of relativity equations to counteract the
dynamic effects of gravity, which would have caused the universe to collapse.
 1929, American astronomer Edwin Hubble showed that the universe was not static.
Modern Theories on the Origin of the Universe

The invention of new types of telescopes and sensors, which extended

humankind’s ability to observe the farther regions of the universe, were vital in the
development of these modern theories.

Big Bang Theory

The Big Bang theory describes the universe as expanding, having originated from an
infinitely tiny dense point around 14 billion years ago. According to the theory,
matter wat not present at the beginning of time; there was only pure energy
compressed in a single point called singularity.
In 1927, the fundamental statement of the Big Bang theory is attributed to Belgian
Roman catholic priest Georges Lemaitre. It was an expansion which caused the
inflation of the universe. At that moment, the universe was extremely hot that matter
could not yet exist. Four fundamental forces were formed, a) gravity
(attraction between bodies), b) electromagnetic force (binds atoms into molecules), c)
strong nuclear force ( binds proton and neutron together in the nucleus) and d) weak
nuclear force ( break down an atom’s nucleus and produces radioactive decay).
After about three minutes, with the universe continuously expanding, it began to cool
down, allowing the proton and neutrons to fuse and form the nucleus of hydrogen
and helium atoms. About 300,000 years later, temperatures became cool enough for
hydrogen and helium atoms to completely form. At that point, photons escaped and
light existed for the very first time.
After 300 million years, stars and galaxies began to form as hydrogen and helium
coalesce with the aid of gravity. The overall composition of the universe transitioned
from light elements to heavier elements from the supernova as the temperature cooled
down. This made solid particles in the form of nebula, to exist. These nebulae would
later on form the star systems and planets known today.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

 Oscillating Universe
An oscillating universe was Albert Einstein favored model after rejecting his own
original model. The oscillating universe followed the general theory of relativity
equations of the universe with positive curvature resulted in the expansion of the
universe for a time, and then to its contraction due to the pull of its gravity in a perpetual
cycle of Big Bang.

 Steady State theory

Proposed by astronomers Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold and Hermann Bondi, the
steady state theory predicted a universe that expanded but did not change its
density – matter was inserted into the universe as it expanded in order to
maintain a constant density.

 Inflationary Universe
American physicist Alan Guth proposed a model of the universe based on the big bang
theory. He incorporated a short early period of exponential cosmic inflation in order to
solve the uncertainties of the standard big bang model, such as horizon and flatness
problems known as Inflationary Model.

 Multiverse
Russia –American physicist Andrei Linde developed the concept of inflationary
universe from chaotic inflation theory in 1983. This theory sees the universe as of many
“bubbles” that grew as a part of the multiverse.

The Origin of the Solar System

The universe may have began with the Big Bang which occurred around 13.8 Ga. , but
it was only after one billion years that galaxies began to form. The age of the Solar

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
System and that of the planet Earth is approximately 4.54 billion years old. This is based
on the age of meteorites which are believed to have been formed the same time as the
rest of the solar system.

 Encounter Hypothesis
A rogue star passed close to sun and stripped materials (hot gases) from both the sun
and star. The hot gases continued to spin in the same direction as the sun and coalesced
into smaller lumps which formed the planets. It was able to explain why all the planets
revolve in the same direction and why the inner planets are denser than the outer ones
.

 Nebular Hypothesis
States that the entire solar system started as a large cloud of gas that contracted due to
self-gravity. Conservation of the angular momentum requires that a rotating disk forms
with a large concentration at the center, which would start as the protosun, while
planets would begin forming within the risk.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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 Protoplanet Hypothesis

The present working model on the formation of the solar system is called
protoplanet hypothesis. It is built on the main concepts of the nebular hypothesis
and concepts based on new knowledge on fluids and states of matter.
According to this hypothesis, the Solar system began with a fragment from an
interstellar cloud composed mainly of hydrogen, helium and trace amounts of
light elements. The fragments of the interstellar cloud then formed the dense
central region of the solar nebula contracted, it rotated more rapidly, conserving
its angular momentum. It also grew by accretion as materials continued to fall
inward from its surroundings. The solar nebula eventually evolved into the sun.

Gravitational inabilities ruptured the thin disk into eddies, each containing
many small particles which built up and accreted. As the accretion continued,
larger asteroid-sized aggregates called planetesimals were formed, which
orbited the center of the solar nebula. The planetesimals further grew in size due
to the gravitational attraction they exerted on to one another, forming moon-
sized bodies that would later become planets.

The planetesimals differed in chemical composition, depending primarily on

their initial distance from the sun as they were formed. The terrestrial planets
formed near the central portion of the solar nebula, where the temperatures
were high enough to vaporize all compounds in the dust except the high-
temperature metallic and silicate minerals in the inner portion of the disk. The

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gas giants formed in the outer disk which remained relatively cooler, allowing
them to be rich in volatile, icy and gaseous materials.

4 Life on Earth

Everything that happened since the beginning of time is essential to the

existence of life on Earth. The expansion and cooling of the universe, the creation
of heavier elements from supernovas or the smallest and seemingly
inconsequential processes on Earth are significant to the existence of life. Some
important requirements that are necessary in supporting life on Earth include
the presence of liquid, water, available heat source and the existence of an
atmosphere.

 Liquid Water

Life would not have began without water. The presence of water allowed the
first photosynthetic organisms to thrive. Organisms such as cyanobacteria used
sunlight, carbon dioxide and water to produce biomass and oxygen – an essential
component of the atmosphere. The single-celled organisms would then evolve
into the organisms which are present today.

The water on Earth came from two possible sources:(1) water released through
volcanism and (2) water that came from the icy meteors of the outer regions of
the Solar system that bombarded Earth.

The Earth is situated within the habitable zone- the distance from a star where
liquid water can exist in its liquid form. Water would have existed either as ice
crystals or as part of a thick atmosphere.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

 Heat Source
The heat that drives the different systems necessary to support life on Earth
comes from two sources: (1) internal heating of Earth and (2) external heating
from the sun.
Heat coming from Earth(internal) is caused by radiogenic heat from radioactive
decay of materials in the core and mantle and extruded via active tectonic
activities, such as volcanism and plate movement.
Heat provided by the sun is in the form of radiation which enters Earth. As
sunlight strikes Earth, some of the heat is trapped by a layer of gases called
atmosphere. The atmosphere is responsible for the occurrence of greenhouse
phenomenon, a natural process which maintains heat.

 Atmosphere
The atmosphere is avital part of photosynthesis that ensures the adequate
amount and flow of gases on Earth-gases which are used by most organisms on
the planet.
The existence of an atmosphere on the planet is mainly due to its gravity which
pulls the atmosphere from being carried away by solar radiation, and volcanism
on Earth which replenish the amount of gases lost to outer space.

1.5. Earth as a System

Compositional Zones of Earth’s Interior

 Crust. The thin, solid, outermost zone of Earth. It makes up only 1% of Earth’s
mass.
a. Oceanic Crust – a crust beneath the oceans and only 5 to 10 km thick.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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b . Continental Crust -the part of the crust that makes up the continents and it
varies in thickness and is generally between 15 and 80 km thick. Continental
crust is thickest beneath high mountain ranges. The lower boundary of the
crust, which was named for its discoverer, is called the Mohoroviˇci´c (moh
hoh ROH vuh chich) discontinuity, or Moho.

 Mantle. The layer that underlies the crust, is denser than the crust and
is nearly 2,900 km thick and makes up almost two-thirds of Earth’s
mass.
 Sphere . The center of Earth whose radius is about 3,500 km. Scientists
think that this center sphere, called the core, is composed mainly of iron
and nickel.

Earth’s Subsystems

Earth is composed of four basic systems (1) geosphere , (2) hydrosphere, (3)
atmosphere , (4)biosphere

 Geosphere
It refer to the solid Earth. Composed of naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals,
organic material or natural glass called rocks, and loose particles of rocks that blanket

the surface of Earth called regolith. It also include geologic landforms such as
mountains and hills.

 Hydrosphere
The totality of Earth’s water, including permanently frozen parts called cryosphere.
Earth is the only planet in the Solar system that has water in all of its three phases.
The water in the atmosphere is considered separate from that in the hydrosphere
and they are ultimately connected.

 Atmosphere

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The mixture of gases (nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide and water vapor) that
surround the planet. The air in the atmosphere is generally composed of 78%
nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon and remaining 0.10% is made up of different trace
gases.

 Biosphere
All life forms and even organic matter that has not yet decomposed. Most life on
Earth exists within a zone less than 20 km wide, where interactions between the
lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere create a habitable environment.

The four subsystem are closely linked through the biochemical cycles which involves
biological, geological and chemical factors.

Example:

Water from the ground is absorbed by plants through osmosis and then released into
the atmosphere through transpiration. Water vapor in the atmosphere eventually falls
as precipitate where a portion of it is absorbed by the rock and becomes part of the
ground water.

These biochemical cycles are pathways by which chemical substances move through the
biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere) components
of Earth. It allows the circulation of important chemical nutrients that form and support
life- carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and water-through biological and
physical world. It also maintains the balance of substances in the different subsystems
of Earth.

Cycles in the Earth System

A reservoir is a place where matter or energy is stored. A cycle is a group of processes

in which matter repeatedly moves through a series of reservoirs. Many elements on
Earth cycle between reservoirs. These cycles rely on energy sources to drive them. The
length of time that energy or matter spends in a reservoir can vary from a few hours to
several million years.

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 The Nitrogen Cycle

Organisms on Earth use the element nitrogen to build proteins, which are then used to
build cells. Nitrogen gas makes up 78% of the atmosphere, but most organisms cannot
use the atmospheric form of nitrogen. The nitrogen must be altered, or fixed, before
organisms can use it. Nitrogen fixing is an important step in the nitrogen cycle. In the
nitrogen cycle, nitrogen moves from air to soil, from soil to plants and animals, and back
to air again. Nitrogen is removed from air mainly by the action of nitrogen-fixing
bacteria. These bacteria live in soil and on the roots of certain plants. The bacteria
chemically change nitrogen from air into nitrogen compounds, which are vital to the growth of all plants. When
animals eat plants, nitrogen compounds in the plants become part of the animals’ bodies. These
compounds are returned to the soil by the decay of dead animals and in animals’
excretions. After nitrogen compounds enter the soil, chemical processes release
nitrogen back into the atmosphere. Water-dwelling plants and animals take part in a
similar nitrogen cycle.

 The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is an essential substance in the fuels used for life processes. Carbon moves
through all four spheres in a process called the carbon cycle. Part of the carbon cycle is
a short-term cycle , plants convert carbon dioxide, CO2, from the atmosphere into
carbohydrates, such as glucose, C6H12O6. The organisms eat the plants and obtain the
carbon from the carbohydrates. Next, organisms’ bodies break down the carbohydrates
and release some of the carbon back into the air as CO2. Organisms also release carbon
into the air through their organic wastes and by the decay of their remains, which
release carbon into the air as CO2 or as methane, CH4. Part of the carbon cycle is a long-
term cycle in which carbon moves through Earth’s four spheres over a very long time.
Carbon is stored in the geosphere in buried plant or animal remains and in a type of
rock called a carbonate, such as limestone. Carbonate forms from shells and bones of
once-living organisms .

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 The Phosphorus Cycle

The element phosphorus is part of some molecules that organisms need to build cells.
During the phosphorus cycle, phosphorus moves through every sphere except the
atmosphere, because phosphorus is rarely a gas. It enters soil and water when rock
breaks down and when phosphorus dissolves in water. Some organisms excrete their
excess phosphorus in their waste, and this phosphorus may enter soil and water. Plants
absorb this phosphorus through their roots. The plants then incorporate it into their
tissues. Animals absorb the phosphorus when they eat the plants. When the animals die,
the phosphorus returns to the environment through decomposition.

 The Water Cycle

The movement of water from the atmosphere to Earth’s surface and back to the
atmosphere is always taking place. This continuous movement of water is called the
water cycle. In the water cycle, water changes from liquid water to water vapor through
the energy transfers involved in evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation occurs
when energy is absorbed by liquid water and the energy changes the water into water
vapor. Transpiration is the release of moisture from plant leaves. During these

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processes, water absorbs energy and changes state. When the water loses energy, it
condenses to form water droplets, such as those that form clouds. Eventually, water falls
back to Earth’s surface as precipitation, such as rain, snow, or hail.

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Lesson 2

The minerals that we will study represent the most common rock-forming minerals
plus the most important economic minerals. These are a good understanding of the
physical and chemical oceanographic processes that requires a good understanding of
the solid materials that are at the core of these processes.
To understand the relationship between minerals and rocks, imagine a Snickers
candy bar. It is made up of several different materials: chocolate, nuts, caramel, and
nougat. A rock is like a candy bar, an aggregate of distinctive components; the
components are, like minerals, homogeneous substances with properties that
distinguish them from each other.

Earth’s Mineral

What is Mineral?

A mineral is defined as naturally-occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical

composition and an ordered internal structure. Every mineral is unique and exhibit
general characteristics.
1. Naturally-occurring
Mineral exist naturally. Steel and synthetic diamonds are created artificially and
are not minerals.
2. Inorganic
Minerals are limited to substances formed through inorganic processes and
exclude materials derived from living organisms which involved organic processes.
3. Solid
All liquids and gases are naturally formed such as ice formed in the glaciers is
considered mineral.
4. Definite chemical composition
The chemical composition of minerals should express the exact chemical formula
with the elements and compounds in specific ratios. The only exception is the atomic
substitution which is certain minerals.
5. Ordered Internal Structure
The atoms in minerals are organized in a regular, repetitive geometric pattern or
crystal structure. Substance that fulfill all the requirements but do not have an
ordeal internal structure are called mineraloids. Example: amber , obsidian, opal
and pearl.
Four Criteria for Minerals

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Composition of Minerals

Classification of Elements that abundant on the Earth’s crust.

1. Oxides consist of metal cations bonded to oxygen anions, Examples are

Hematitie (Fe2O3) and Magnetite (Fe4O4).

2. Silicates are composed primarily of silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons (SiO4-2).

Silicates are the major rock-forming mineral from cooling magma. including
olivine (Mg, Fe)2 SiO4 and quartz (SiO2).

3. Carbonates are characterized by the presence of carbonic ion (CO3-2) which

bonds elements such as calcium or magnesium to form calcite (CaCO3) or
dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2).

4. Sulfates consist of metal cation bonded to the SO4-2 anionic group. they usually
precipitate out of water near the Earth’s surface. Example of sulfate is gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O).

5. Halides are composed of a halogen ion, such as chlorine or fluorine, which

forms halite or rock salt (NaCl) and fluorite (CaF2).

6. Sulfides consist of meatal cation bonded to sulfides (S-2). they are common ore
minerals along with oxide since metals form a high proportion of the mineral.
Examples of sulfides are pyrite ( FeS2) and galena (PbS).

7. Native metals consists of single metal such as copper (Cu) and gold (Au).

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Crystalline Structure of Minerals

All minerals in Earth’s crust have a crystalline structure. Each type of mineral
crystal is characterized by a specific geometric arrangement of atoms. A crystal
is a solid whose atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in a regular, repeating
pattern. A large mineral crystal displays the characteristic geometry of that
crystal’s internal structure.
One way that scientists study the structure of crystals is by using X rays. X rays
that pass through a crystal and strike a photographic plate produce an image that
shows the geometric arrangement of the atoms that make up the crystal

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Crystal structure is dependent on the chemical composition of the mineral.
Minerals that have similar chemical composition often share the same crystal
structure and generally belong to the same crystal system. There are six crystal
systems used in grouping minerals

Earth scientists called mineralogists examine, analyze, and classify minerals. To

identify minerals, mineralogists study the properties of the minerals. Some properties
are simple to study, while special equipment may be needed to study other
properties.

Physical Properties of Minerals

There are around 4000 minerals , each with a unique set of physical properties , such
as crystal formation, habit, cleavage, fracture, luster, color, streak, hardness, density,
magnetism , taste, feel, and reaction to acid. These physical properties are useful for
identifying minerals using systematic method such as Dana Classification.

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a. Crystal Formation and Habit

Minerals have a definite chemical composition, it forms a definite structure which

crystallizes
into a specific crystal form. The outward appearance of the mineral’s crystal forms
its habit. It can be described as granular, tabular, dendritc, acicular, massive,
reinform, drusy or encrusting.

b. Cleavage and Fracture

The manner in which a mineral breaks is dependent on its molecular bonding and
structure. The tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weakness is known
as cleavage. It can be described both in the number and directions of cleavage
planes and its quality (excellent, good, poor, or absent)

Minerals with excellent cleavage will break into smooth, flat, parallel surfaces. A
good cleavage will result in small, smooth, steplike flat surfaces. Cleavage surfaces
are difficult to identify in minerals with poor cleavage, while minerals that do not
have cleavage will fracture either in an irregular manner or as conchoidal fracture
(smooth, curved surfaces).

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c. Luster

The luster of a mineral describes the appearance of light as it is reflected off its
surface.

a. Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a

polished metal

b. Submetallic : having the look of metal that is dulled by weathering

c. Non-metallic –

Adamantine: having a hard, sparkly look of a diamond

Resinous: having a look of yellow, dark orange, or brown that is slightly
reflective
Vitreous: having the look of glass
Pearly: having the look of a pearl
Greasy: having the look of an oil coated surface
Dull: having a plain looking surface

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Earthy: having the look of soil or clay

Silky: having the look of fine, parallel fibers

Metallic Minerals Non-metallic Minerals

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d. Color and Streak

Color is the most obvious mineral property, it is not a reliable feature for identifying
minerals because it can be altered by chemical impurities within its structure. And
may give the minerals a different color like Quartz is colorless but slight impurities
can produce a variety of colors, such as white (like in milky quartz), yellow (citrine),
purple (amethyst) or black (smoky quartz).

Streak is the color of a mineral in its powdered form. It can be obtained by rubbing
the mineral on an abrasive ceramic tile called streak plate. Streak is a better
diagnostic property as compared to color. Streak is inherent to almost every
mineral.

e. Hardness

The hardness of a mineral is a measurement of the strength of the chemical bonds in

its structure. It can be measured by scratching it with another mineral or a reference
material with known hardness.

A hardness scale designed by German geologist/mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1812

(Mohs Scale of Hardness). The test compares the resistance of a mineral relative to
the 10 reference minerals with known hardness. It is simply determining the
hardness of a mineral by scratching them with common objects of known hardness
(e.g. copper coin -3.0-3.5).

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dness/ (8/30/2015)
What are the pros and cons in using the Mohs scale of hardness?

f. Specific Gravity

Specific Gravity is a measure of the density of a mineral. It is the weight of a

mineral relative to the weight of an equal volume of water. Most common mineral
have a specific gravity of 2.7, while gold has 19.

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g. There are certain unique properties of minerals that actually help in their
identification
1. Magnetism
2. Odor
3. Taste
4. Reaction to acid
5. Feel (talc is greasy)
6. Tenacity

Special Properties of Minerals

All minerals exhibit the properties that were described earlier in this section.
However, a few minerals have some additional, special properties that can help
identify those minerals.

a. Fluorescence and Phosphorescence

The mineral calcite is usually white in ordinary light, but in ultraviolet light, calcite
often appears red. This ability to glow under ultraviolet light is called fluorescence.
Fluorescent minerals absorb ultraviolet light and then produce visible light of
various colors.

When subjected to ultraviolet light, some minerals will continue to glow after the
ultraviolet light is turned off. This property is called phosphorescence. It is useful
in the mining of phosphorescent minerals such as eucryptite, which is an ore of
lithium.

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b. Chatoyancy and Asterism

In reflected light, some minerals display a silky appearance that is called

chatoyancy (shuh TOY uhn see). This effect is also called the cat’s-eye effect. The
word chatoyancy comes from the French word chat, which means “cat,” and from
oeil, which means “eye.” Chatoyancy is the result of closely packed parallel fibers
within the mineral.

A similar effect called asterism is the phenomenon in which a six-sided star shape
appears when a mineral reflects light.

c. Double Refraction

Light rays bend as they pass through transparent minerals. This bending of light
rays as they pass from one substance, such as air, to another, such as a mineral, is
called refraction. Crystals of calcite and some other transparent minerals bend
light in such a way that they produce a double image of any object viewed through
them.

This property is called double refraction. Double refraction takes place because
light rays are split into two parts as they enter the crystal.

d. Magnetism

Magnets may attract small particles of some minerals that contain iron. Those
minerals are also sometimes magnetic. In general, nonsilicate minerals that
contain iron, such as magnetite, are more likely to be magnetic than other
nonsilicate minerals are. Lodestone is a form of magnetite. Like a bar magnet, some
pieces of lodestone have a north pole at one end and a south pole at the other. The
needles of the first magnetic compasses were made of tiny slivers of lodestone.

e. Radioactivity

Some minerals have a property known as radioactivity. The arrangement of

protons and neutrons in the nuclei of some atoms is unstable. Radioactivity results
as unstable nuclei decay over time into stable nuclei by releasing particles and
energy.

A Geiger counter can be used to detect the released particles and, thus, to identify
minerals that are radioactive. Uranium, U, and radium, Ra, are examples of

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radioactive elements. Pitchblende is the most common mineral that contains
uranium. Other uranium-bearing minerals are carnotite and autunite

Common Rock-Forming Elements

About 98% of the Earth’s crust is composed of eight elements and their respective
abundance on Earth.

Most of the common rock-forming minerals are silicate minerals composed primarily
of silicon and oxygen. Several rock-forming minerals include plagioclase, feldspar,
potassium feldspar, quartz, muscovite, biotite, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, calcite,
dolomite, hematite, halite, gypsum, talc and chlorite.

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Ores are naturally occurring materials that can be profitably mined. It can be mineral
or rock or metallic or nonmetallic. A deposit is considered a potential ore body if its
localized abundance is greater than its average abundance or distribution on the
Earth’s crust. A rock or mineral considered an ore based on the following;

1. Overall chemical composition

2. Percentage of extractable resource with respect to its total volume.

3. Market value of the resource

Profitability determines an ore’s value thru the total cost of extraction , location of
the deposit, its concentration , its depth from the surface, its scope and the
technologies that must be used to extract and the process the material.

A mineral or rock body containing high concentration of a specific resource may be

considered a good ore if it too expensive to mine, too far to a market to transport, or
if the additional costs like labor, mine management and environmental protection
the potential profit to be made.

LOCATING ORE

Our bodies are unevenly distributed throughout thr Earth’s Crust. This is the
primary reason why a country will never be self-sufficient in terms of natural
resources and supplies. It eh country meet its own needs for a given material
today , its local resources will run out and that country may eventually
require import.
Potential ore bodies are located by recognizing that a geologic process or
combinations of processes can produce a localized enrichment of one or
more minerals and these process only happen in particular type of
environment.

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Process Definition
1. Hydrothermal fluid circulation The most common type of ore mineral deposition
processes and it form when groundwater or seawater i
heated by magma or when hot, aqueous solutions are
expelled from a cooling plutonic body. This produces
veins that host metals like gold , silver and copper.
2. Metamorphic Processes Lead to alteration and recrystallization of minerals and
aids the formation and localization of economically
important materials like graphite, marble and asbestos
3. Magmatic Process Create ore minerals which are concentrated due to the
premature recrystallization and separation from magm
A basaltic magma sitting in a magma chamber. Chromit
is sometimes the first to crystallize from basaltic magm
But because chromite crystals are solid and denser tha
the surrounding molten magma, the chromite tends to
accumulate at the bottom of the magma chamber.
4. Kimberlite Magma A special type of magma which originates deep within
the mantle and is the source of diamonds, which only
crystallize at depths greater then 150km. It erupted ve
rapidly from depth onto the Earth’s surface. Their
passage through the crust and eventual solidification
leaves behind kimberlite pipes which are highly prized
as diamond ores.
5. Chemical Sedimentary Process It form evaporate deposits from the precipitation of
saltwater minerals (halite, gypsum, limestone) and the
evaporation of lake water (anhydrite).
6. Action Currents In flowing surface water tends to take sediments along
the wave action and the strength is constant, it causes a
selective sifting effect that removes sediments and
leaves behind those that are heavier in what are called
Placer Deposits. Heavy minerals, such as gold, platinum
Zircon, and diamonds are concentrated in this matter.
7. Chemical Weathering Chemical changes in their mineral components that
result in their alteration into other minerals and into th
formation of residual ore deposits. These type of ores a
common in tropical areas where the climate is conduci
to their formation. Many of the altered materials are
economically important such as laterite, which is an
important ore of iron, nickel, or aluminum.

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Essential Minerals

In order to survive, the human body needs some minerals in specific

amounts. These minerals which are critical to health are called Essential
Minerals.
Division of Essential Minerals:
Macrominerals
( sodium chloride, potassium, calcium, phosphorus ,
magnesium, and sulfur)
Microminerals
( iron, zinc, iodine, selenium ,copper , manganese, fluoride,
chromium and molybdenum 0
\ The excess or deficiency of these minerals is detrimental and
could lead to sickness or death.

MINING ORE

Mining refers to a set of processes in which useful resources are withdrawn from a
stock of any nonrenewable resource. Mining refers to the extraction of mineral
resources. It is also a controversial industry because it is usually associated with the
neglectful and irresponsible practices. Given a negative public image.

Mining ores is an intensive and sophisticated process that varies depending on the
mineral and on whether they are excavated, stripped or brought via tunnels and
shafts.

Steps in Mining

Steps Definition
1. Prospecting or Looking for the ore body
exploration A deposit that can yield a large amount of the
required ore mineral.
2. Drilling Extracting a part of the ore to determine the
resulting ore, its quality and the amount of ore
minerals .
3. Modeling Determining the ore’s size, shape, and grade
distribution throughout the deposit to apply

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appropriate mining methods, blast, and dig pattern
designs, safety precautions and efficiency and
processing methods.
4. Identifying and assessing Considering the social and environmental aspects
the potential impacts and finding ways of mitigating any consequences of
the mining operation, with the purpose of bringing
the area back as close to its original state as
possible.
5. Designing and Creating the appropriate mine and operational
constructing the mine design, and proceeding with the construction once
all the necessary permits are required from the
government and local communities.

6. Ore Extraction Separation if high grade ores from the rest of the
deposit.
7. Milling Crushing and concentration of ores, waste material
(tailing) are released.
8. Mine site Closure of the depleted mine; the mine is cleaned
decommissioning up and reclaimed or rehabilitated for other
purposes.

EXTRACTION METHODS

1. Sand and Gravel Extraction

 Very little waste rock is left behind after the milling process as types pf
deposit are not economically viable unless the ore is of high grade.
2. Extraction from Buried Ore Bodies

 Huge quantities of rock often need to be removed and discarded so that a

relatively small amount of ore can be recovered.
Example : A graded copper of 2% produces 20 kg. of pure copper metal
from a tone , leaving 980 kg of waste rock.

LOCAL ORE MINERALS AND THEIR USES

The Philippines is located within a dynamic tectonic setting, where the process of
volcanism and plate convergence have resulted in the deposition of both metallic and
nonmetallic minerals.

5th most mineralized country in the world.

3rd in gold reserves
4th in copper

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5th in nickel
Around nine millions hectares land
 30% of the country’s total land area of 30 million hectares contain
important metallic mineral deposits
 5 million hectares are considered potential sites for nonmetallic
mineral reserves.
Country’s offshore areas
 2.2 million square kilometers contain minerals like gold, magnetite
and chromite-bearing sands, aggregates resources (sand and gravel),
decorative stones and polymetallic sulfide deposits.
Country’s estimated overall mineral reserves are estimated to be about 14.5
billion metric tons metallic minerals and about 6 billion metric tons of
nonmetallic minerals.
Philippine Metallic Minerals Philippine Nonmetallic
Minerals

1. gold 5. cobalt 1. sand 4. marb

2. copper 6. platinum 2. gravel 5. clay
3. iron 7. nickel 3. limestone 6. quarry
materials
4. chromite

Baguio and Mankayan districts of Benguet Province – major producers of

copper and gold
Suriagao- Davao – contribute in production of gold in the country
Palawan and Surigao – major producers of nickel

NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

We can prevent or lessen the environmental impact that results from the use, extraction,
and exploitation of mineral resources is by finding environment-friendly alternatives
for the needed mineral resources. This can be done through recycling and resisting the
urge to acquire new commodities which are not necessary.

Conservation, protection and rehabilitation of ecosystems are also important in

mitigating the harmful effects of mineral resource extraction so that affected
ecosystems may recover and eventually restore itself back to its natural state.

Management of natural resources such a land, water, soil , plants and animals with a
particular focus on how management affects the quality of life for both present and
future generations. It is an interdisciplinary approach that would require all
stakeholders to have an active participation in the process-from the government,

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investors, engineer, scientists, sociologist and businesspersons, among others, to the
local communities that would be affected by the operation.

Before the inventions of matches, people

created fires using flint. A hard , sedimentary
cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz,
categorized as a variety of chert. The hard
edge of the flint rock is struck against either
iron pyrite rocks or high carbon steel. In
prehistoric times, it has also been used to
manufacture cutting tools by sharpening its
edges and forming a blade which can be used
for chopping or slicing. This can be a very good
survival skill to practice which may come in
handy in time

The evolution of mineralogy largely

came about due to the work of German
scientist Georgius Agricola. The “
Father of Mineralogy" and the
founder of “ Geology” as a scientific
discipline.

Uses of Minerals

1. Gems
Known as gemstone is a type of material that is capable of being cut and
polished for use in jewelry or other ornamental applications.
Gems are most commonly made of minerals.

Properties of Gems
 Gems are highly prized minerals because they are rare and beautiful

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 Most gems are special varieties of a particular minerals.
 They are clearer, brighter and colorful .

 Has a crystal structure that allows it to be cut and polished to a higher

quality.

Useful Gems
 They can scratch almost any material- a property that makes them useful as
industrial abrasives and cutting tools.
a. Rubies – which used to produce specific types of laser light
b. Quartz Crystals – used in electronics and timepieces

2. Ores
Iron used in everything from frying pans to ships, is obtained from its ore,
hematite.

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Performance Tasks

PT1 Direction: Write an essay not exceeding 200 words on how man has altered the atmosphere,
biosphere, lithosphere and as a consequence, the Earth as whole.

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PT2

Direction : Complete the following concept map about minerals. Use the following words and
phrases the way a mineral reflects light, ore and beautiful mineral, how easily a mineral
scratched, streak and a useful substance mined for profit.

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PT3
Direction:
1. Using the illustration below, identify how energy and mass is exchanged among the subsystems.
Use different types of lines and boxes to differentiate between matter or materials and energy.
2. Use arrows to indicate the interactions among components.

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Understanding Directed Assess

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Learning Resources

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1. Hesser, D. T. & Leach, S. S. (2012). Focus on Earth Science. Merill Publishing

2. Jarumayan, G.A. & Sadili, M.V. (2003). The Changing Earth. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388 Quezon
Avenue, Quezon City.
3. King, C. (2010). The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences. Retrieved from
https://www.topfreebooks.org/earth-science-books-online/

4. Lianko, A. (2001). Introduction to Earth Science. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388 Quezon Avenue,
Quezon City.
5. Norton, W.H. (2012). The Elements of Geology. Retrieved from
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40404/40404-h/40404-h.htm#Page_233
6. Tarbuck, Lutgens & Tasa. (2012). Earth Science. Pearson Education, Inc.

The Origin of the Universe, Earth, and Life

http://www.nap.edu/read/6024/chapter/3#8

The Beginning of Everything: The Big Bang

http://bit.ly/InANutshellBigBang

Journey to the Edge of The Universe

http://bit.lyNatGeoEdgeoftheUniverse

Philippine shut down mining operations

https://youtu.be/XlrGdKgEbRc

Things to know about mining in the Philippines

https://youtu.be/7mQnm4_H54Y

Is mining important ?
https://youtu.be/JXoQQB0_3SM

Introduction to Minerals
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8a7p1NFn64s

Identifying minerals
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=32NG9aeZ7_c

Extraction of Minerals’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLFd4nnEAY4

Modern Mining
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=62-yS0uXBb0

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Bawal ang Pasaway: The mining industry in the Philippines
youtube video about earth formation and evolution - Yahoo Video Search Results

Epekto ng pagmimina sa Caraga

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WcECH7kNVjE

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LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)

Course Earth Science
Sem/AY First Semester/2021-2022
Module No. 2
Lesson Title The Rocks
Week
6-9
Duration
Date November 8 – December 3, 2021
This lesson will discuss the characteristics of rocks and the properties exhibited
Description by the rock, and master interaction and interdependence in the ecosystem. This lesson
of the will also provide activities and exercises that will assess the students understanding
Lesson about the topic.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Students should be able to meet the following intended learning outcomes:
Learning  Identify common rocks and the process by which they form.
Outcomes  Demonstrate knowledge of the process of weathering and soil formation.
Targets/ At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Objectives  Classify rocks as igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic.
 Identify the different types of rocks.
 Discuss the process in the rock cycle.
 Describe how rocks undergo weathering;
 Identify the agents of erosion;
 Explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and
deposited elsewhere

Student Learning Strategies

Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

(Synchronous/ You will be directed to attend in a Four-Hour class discussion on the
nature and types of educational technologies. To have access to the
Asynchronous) Online Discussion, refer to this link: ____________________.

The online discussion will happen on November 10 from 10:00 – 11:00

AM.

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(For further instructions, refer to your Google Classroom and see the
schedule of activities for this module)

B. Learning Guide Questions:

1. What is rock and how is it formed?
2. What the different types of rocks and how are they identified/
3. What are the process in rock cycle?
4. What is weathering?
5. What are the agents of erosion
Note: The insight that you will post on online discussion forum using Learning Management
System (LMS) will receive additional scores in class participation.

Lecture Guide
Rocks
A rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals. The
aggregate minerals forming the rocks are held together by chemical bonds. Grains can
be different in color, texture, and sizes. Geologists then group rocks into three categories
based on how the rocks form: igneous sedimentary and metamorphic rock. Petrology is
the scientific study of rocks. Petrologists classify rocks based on how they were formed.

the material that makes up the solid parts.

a naturally –occurring, coherent aggregate of minerals or solid materials such
as natural glass or organic matter.
Found in the lithosphere, which derived from Greek word “ lithos” meaning
“stone”. The lithosphere is the rigid, rocky, outermost part of Earth, composed
of the crust and uppermost part of the upper mantle.
Offline Activities
Geologists study the forces and processes that form and change the rocks of
(e-Learning/Self- Earth’s crust.
Paced) The term was coined by Joseph Barrell who studied the motion of lithosphere
over a molten layer

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The Rock Cycle

A model that describes all the processes by which rocks are formed and
reformed.
The processes occur both on the Earth’s surface and underneath.

Processes and Products of the Rock Cycle

Processes Product
Melting Magma
Crystallization Igneous Rocks
Uplift and Exposure
Weathering and Erosion Sediments
Transportation
Deposition
Lithification Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphism Metamorphic Rocks

When magma is exposed to lower temperature, minerals and amorphous solids

crystallize, solidify and form igneous rocks. These rocks may then be brought to
the surface through uplift, where they are exposed to weathering and erosion.
The processes of weathering and erosion break the rocks down into smaller
pieces called sediments. These particles may then undergo transportation via
agents such as wind, water, glaciers, rivers and oceans until they settle in an area
where they will undertake deposition. As more materials settle on top of each
other, temperature and pressure increase and the sediments at the bottom may
undergo lithification. Lithifications transform sediments into sedimentary
rocks. As temperature and pressure increase due to continuous burial and
tectonic activity, the sedimentary rocks undergo the process of metamorphism,
transforming them into metamorphic rocks. If temperature continues to
increase and exceeds the melting point of the rocks, the rocks will eventually
undergo melting, turning into magma.

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Formation of Igneous Rock

Igneous Rock are formed from cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
1. Below the surface, from slowly cooling magma. The results in the formation of crystals
that are visible to the naked eye without the aid of magnifying lens. These types of
igneous rock as are called intrusive or plutonic, since they cool underneath the
surface as plutons. Example: Granite, Diorite and Syenite.

2. On the surface, from rapidly cooling lava. The results in the formation of very small
crystals that may not be visible without the use of magnifying lens. These type of
igneous rocks are called extrusive or volcanic, since they are usually extruded
during volcanic eruptions. Example Basalt, andesite and Rhyolite.

3. On the surface, from the consolidation of particles erupted by explosive volcanic

activity. When volcanoes erupt violently, the lava existing the volcanoes are ripped
apart into smaller pieces by rapidly expanding gases in the lava. Depending on how
much gas is present, the particles may solidify as small as ash or large as basketballs.

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When these particles come together on the surface via lithification, they form
pyroclastic igneous rock example like ignimbrite, tuff and volcanic breccia.

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are the products of the lithification of particles produced by the
weathering of other preexisting rocks. It can have parent material derived from older
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. They may also comprised of mineral
fragments and organic material. These component are called sediments. The term is
derived from Latin “sedentarius” which means “sitting’ as these sediments be deposited
and settle until they are transformed into sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary lithification
occurs at a lower temperature than that of igneous rocks.

1. From the cementation of sediments that have been deposited , buried and compacted
over a long period of time. This process produces sedimentary rocks that are
considered as clastic, which are differentiated based on the size of the sediments or
clasts in the rocks. Example Shale, Sandstone and conglomerate.

2. From the precipitation of minerals from ions in solution. Rocks that are exposed to
water and oxygen can undergo chemical changes such as oxidation( rusting) and
hydrolysis through time. These process break down rocks into their chemical
components, particularly into ions that can be carried by running water in solution.
Once the solution is saturated, the precipitation of the minerals like calcite and
halite can occur, leading to the formation of chemical sedimentary rocks. Example
Limestone, Dolostone and Rock Salt.

3. From the compaction and cementation of plant or animal remains. These types od
sedimentary rocks are called bioclast. Example Coquina and Organic Limestone.

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks form when preexisting or parent rock are altered by heat, pressure
and the chemical activity of fluids. These processes are collectively called
metamorphism meaning “change in form” . It usually occurs underneath the surface.
The two major types of metamorphism depend on which factor causes the alteration
of the parent rock:

1. When the dominant altering factor is pressure, usually due to tectonic activity, the
flat or elongated mineral components of the preexisting rocks react by aligning
perpendicular to the axis of the pressure. This results in a layered appearance in the
rocks called foliation. And type of rock are called foliated metamorphic rocks. The
term comes from Latin “folium” which means “leaf” where the flat leaves are on the
top of each other. This type of metamorphism is called regional metamorphism .

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Example slate, Schist and Gneiss.

2. When the dominant altering factor is heat, usually from direct contact between an
older rock material and an intruding body of magma, the parent rocks may undergo
a fundamental change in texture due to recrystallization. This process is called
contact metamorphism. Example Marble and Quartzite.

Properties of Rocks
All rock has physical and chemical properties that are determined by how and
where the rock formed. The physical characteristics of rock reflect the chemical
composition of the rock as a whole and of the individual minerals that make up
the rock. The rate at which rock weathers and the way that rock breaks apart
are determined by the chemical stability of the minerals in the rock.

1. Chemical Stability of Minerals

 A measure of the tendency of a chemical compound to maintain its original
chemical composition rather than break down to form a different chemical. In
general, the minerals that are most stable are minerals that formed at the lowest
temperatures, under conditions similar to those on Earth’s surface. Minerals that
formed at the highest temperatures, under conditions very different than those
on Earth’s surface, are least stable.
2. Physical Stability of Rocks
 Rocks have natural zones of weakness that are determined by how and where
the rocks form. For example, sedimentary rocks may form as a series of layers of
sediment. These rocks tend to break between layers.

3. Bowen’s Reaction Series

 In the early 1900s, a Canadian geologist named N. L. Bowen began studying how
minerals crystallize from magma. It shows the order and assembly of minerals
as they crystallize when the temperature of magma decreases. It is composed of
felsic mineral (quartz, muscovite, potassium feldspar and plagioclase) and mafic
minerals (biotite, amphibole, pyroxene and olivine).
4. Color
 Can be used as an indicator of the composition of rock or mineral. the color
index can be used to identify the composition of most igneous rocks
a. Light colors (white, light gray, tan and pink) indicate a felsic composition.
Felsic compositions. Felsic composition are rich in silica (SiO2).
b. Dark colors (black and brown) indicate mafic composition or ultramafic
composition.
b.1 Mafic composition are poor in silica but rich in iron and magnesium.
b.2 Intermediate composition have an intermediate color-gray or
consisting of equal parts of dark and light mineral.

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Classification of Rocks
 Rocks can be classified based on the differences in their texture and
composition. Texture refers to the size, shape and arrangement of minerals
grains and other constituents in a rock. A rock texture could provide
information about the environment where the rock was formed.

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
The word “igneous “ is derived from Latin Igneus , which means “fiery” or “on
fire”.
It form at higher temperatures than other types of rocks.
Can be identified as crystalline, or made of crystals when they form from
cooled magma or lava or pyroclastic , when they are made of consolidated
eruption products like volcanic ash.
1. Crystalline textures differ depending on the rate of cooling and where it took
place.

a. Intrusive Igneous Rocks or plutonic rocks that form from slowly-cooled

magma have time to form large mineral crystals that are visible without
the aid of magnifying lens.
The resulting texture is called phaneritic , which derived from the Greek
phaneros meaning “visible”. When minerals crystallize very slowly at
depth, the resulting texture is pematitic, one that is composed of very
large crystals (larger than 2 to 3 cm).

b. Extrusive or volcanic rocks that form rapidly-cooled magma usually

exhibit aphanitic textures. Aphanitic is derived from the Greek aphaneros
which means “invisible”. The mineral crystals of aphanitic rocks cannot
be distinguished without the use of magnifying tools. A special volcanic
texture is displayed by rocks that cool rapidly occur when lava is
expelled underwater. This results in rocks that appear glassy.
Vesicular Texture , which result of gases escaping while the volcanic rock
is being formed.

c. Porphyritic Texture, the volcanic activity extrudes the partially crystallized

magma onto the surface, thereby speeding up the rate of cooling. Such
rocks may show at least two distinct crystal sizes.

2. Pyroclastic is derived from the Greek pyro which means “fire” and klastos
which means “shattered”. This texture is the result of the lithification of
erupted volcanic material.

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Texture of Igneous Definition

Rock
Intrusive igneous rocks commonly have large mineral crystals.
The slow loss of heat allows the minerals in the cooling magma to
form large, well-developed crystals. Igneous rocks that are composed
of large mineral grains are described as having a coarse grained
texture. An example of a coarse-grained igneous rock is granite.
The upper part of the continental crust is made mostly of granite.

Extrusive igneous rocks are composed of small mineral grains that

cannot be seen by the unaided eye. Because these rocks form
when magma cools rapidly, large crystals are unable to form. Igneous
rocks that are composed of small crystals are described as having a
fine-grained texture. Examples of common fine-grained igneous rocks
are basalt and rhyolite

When magma cools slowly at first but then cools more rapidly as
it nears Earth’s surface. This type of cooling produces large crystals
embedded within a mass of smaller ones. Igneous rock that has a
mixture of large and small crystals has a porphyritic texture.

When a highly viscous, or thick, magma cools quickly, few crystals are able to gro
Quickly cooling magma may form a rock that has a glassy texture,
example as obsidian.

When magma contains a large amount of dissolved gases and cools

rapidly, the gases become trapped as bubbles in the rock that forms.
The rapid cooling process produces a rock full of holes called vesicles
example as those in pumice.

Sedimentary Rocks
A clastic when they form from the lithification of rock and mineral fragments
such as quartz, feldspar and clay.
Crystalline when they precipitate out of solution, such as dolomite, calcite,
halite, or gypsum.
Can be bioclastic when they are formed from the accumulation of organic
material or biologic activity.
It may even contain remnants of plants, corals, shell or fossil fragments.
Sedimentary clastic texture may be further refines the shapes of the
individual grains are angular or rounded.

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Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Nonclastic Sedimentary Rocks

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Metamorphic Rocks
May be foliated when the dominant agent metamorphism is pressure or
crystalline when the dominant agent is heat.
1. Platy or elongated minerals align themselves parallel to the axis of pressure,
resulting in a layered appearance or foliation. Minerals differ in foliation based
on their composition.

o Slaty- if the minerals are microscopic , the rock may not appear foliated to
the naked eye. The foliation will manifest itself physically in the rocks’s
tendency to separate along parallel planes.
o Phyllitic- if the minerals are barely visible to the naked eye, their alignment
results but not clearly-defined foliation.
o Schistose- if the mineral are visible to the naked eye, their layering is more
distinct. It is composed of platy minerals like chlorite, graphite, biolite and
muscovite.

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o Gneissic – if the minerals are visible and elongated, the rock exhibits a
coarsely-branded appearance due to the alignment of minerals like
amphibole, feldspar, and quartz.
2.Crystalline textures – result when the parent rock is exposed with enough heat
that it induces recrystallization of the existing minerals

Uses of Rocks
1. Rocks were used by prehistoric men as tools and in hunting animals for food and
against their enemy.
2. Rock contain minerals which can be used for various purposes such as jewelry and
decorations.
3. Rocks may contain fossils which used as specimens in the laboratory to determine
the existence of life millions of years ago.
4. Rocks may also serve as territorial boundaries in certain regions.
5. Rocks can be made into decorations and source of income.
6. Rocks asre used for building bridges and infrastructure.

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Lesson 2

Weathering and Soil Formation

Most rocks deep within Earth’s crust formed under conditions of high
temperature and pressure. When these rocks are uplifted to the surface, they are
exposed to much lower temperature and pressure. Uplifted rock is also exposed to the
gases and water in Earth’s atmosphere. Because of these environmental factors, surface
rocks undergo changes in their appearance and composition.

What is Weathering ?

The physical breakdown or chemical decomposition of rock materials exposed

at Earth’s surface .
the natural process by which atmospheric and environmental agents, such as
wind, rain, and temperature changes, disintegrate and decompose rocks

Types of Weathering
 Mechanical Weathering
 Chemical Weathering

Mechanical Weathering
 The process by which rock is broken down into smaller pieces by physical
means.
 Strictly a physical process and does not change the composition of the rock.
 Common agents of mechanical weathering are ice, plants and animals, gravity,
running water, and wind. ( Agent is a substance or living organism that has an
impact on an ecological process).

Causes of Mechanical Weathering

1. Biological Activity

 Plants grow in soil. In order to grow, they need to push their roots deep below
the soil surface. While doing so, these roots come across rocks lying underneath.
The roots, in their quest to acquire purchase for the growing tree, bore into the
cracks and pores of the rocks and lead to fragmentation of the rocks.
 .

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Plants (tree inside the rock) Animal (rock as shelter) Humans (mining operation)

2. Abrasion

 Abrasion is the process where rocks grind or abrade together. This happens
when rocks are broken down into smaller fragments and are carried away with
wind and water. These rocks rub and collide with other rocks. Smaller rocks in
a stream of water are pushed against each other as well as those present at the
bottom and along the banks causing chipping and scrapping.

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3. Frost Shattering (Ice Wedging)

 Regions that are very cold and where the temperatures can reach below freezing
point, frost shattering leads to mechanical weathering of the rocks. During
winter or at night, the water from surrounding areas begins to fill up the cracks
or joints in the rocks. This water repeatedly thaws and freezes causing the
cracks and joints to undergo expansion and leading to more stress. Eventually,
the cracks or joints break off in angular pieces.

Chemical Weathering ( Decomposition)

 The process by which rock is broken down because of chemical interactions
with the environment.
 Water, acids, and air are all agents of chemical weathering. They react with the
chemicals in the rock. The reactions can break the bonds in the minerals that
make up the rock. When the bonds in the minerals are broken, the rock can be
worn away.

a. WATER (Hydrolysis)
 water can dissolve some of the chemicals that make up rocks. Even very
hard rocks, such as granite, can be broken down by water. However, this
process may take thousands of years or more.

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 Minerals that are affected by hydrolysis often dissolve in water. Water can
then carry the dissolved minerals to lower layers of rock in a process called
leaching.

b. ACID PRECIPITATION
 Rain, sleet, or snow that contains more acid than normal is called acid
precipitation.
 Acid precipitation forms when small amounts of certain gases mix with
water in the atmosphere. When fossil fuels, especially coal, are burned,
nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxides are released into the air. These
compounds combine with water in the atmosphere to produce nitric acid,
nitrous acid, or sulfuric acid. The acids in the atmosphere fall back to the
ground in rain and snow.

This stone lion sits outside Lee

Town Hall in England. It was dam
by acid precipitation.


1. ACIDS IN GROUNDWATER
 Water flows through rock underground is called groundwater, may
contain weak acids. When the groundwater touches some kinds of
rock, a chemical reaction happens. The chemical reaction dissolves
the rock. Over a long period of time, huge caves can form where rock
has been dissolved.

c. Air
 The oxygen in the air can react with many metals. These reactions are
a kind of chemical weathering called oxidation. Rocks can rust if they
have a lot of iron in them.

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Rates of Weathering
 The processes of mechanical and chemical weathering generally work very
slowly.
 The rate at which rock weathers depends on a number of factors, including
a. rock composition
b. climate
c. topography

Differential Weathering
 The composition of rock greatly affects the rate at which rock weathers. The
process by which softer, less weather-resistant rock wears away and leaves
harder, more resistant rock behind.

Factors to Rate Rock Weathers

1. Rock Composition
 The rates at which these rocks weather depend mostly on the material that
holds the sediment grains together.
 For example:
a. shales and sandstones that are not firmly cemented gradually break up
to become clay and sand particles.
b. conglomerates and sandstones that are strongly cemented by silicates
resist weathering longer than some igneous rocks do.

Different rates of weathering formed these

limestone pinnacles at Nambung National
Park in Australia over millions of years.

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Amount of Exposure
 The more exposure to weathering agents that a rock receives, the
faster the rock will weather. The amount of time that the rock is
exposed and the amount of the rock’s surface area that is available for
weathering .

1. Surface Area- The part of a rock that is exposed to air, water, and
other agents of weathering is called the rock’s surface area. As a rock
breaks into smaller pieces, the surface area that is exposed increases.

2. Fractures and Joints - These fractures and joints are natural zones
of weakness within the rock. They increase the surface area of a rock
and allow weathering to take place more rapidly. They also form
natural channels through which water flows. Water may penetrate the
rock through these channels and break the rock by ice wedging. As
water moves through these channels, it chemically weathers the rock
that is exposed in the fracture or joint. The chemical weathering
removes rock material and makes the jointed or fractured area weaker.
2. Climate

 In general, climates that have alternating periods of hot and cold

weather allow the fastest rates of weathering.
a. Freezing and thawing can cause the mechanical breakdown of rock
by ice wedging.
b. Chemical weathering can then act quickly on the fractured rock.

 In warm, humid climates, chemical weathering is also fairly rapid. The

constant moisture is highly destructive to exposed surfaces.
 The slowest rates of weathering occur in hot, dry climates. The lack of water
limits many weathering processes, such as carbonation and ice wedging.

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 Weathering is also slow in very cold climates

The photo on the left shows Cleopatra’s Needle before it

was moved to New York City. The photograph on the right
shows the 3,000-yearold carvings after only one century in
New York City.

3. Topography and Elevation

 Topography, or the elevation and slope of the land surface, also influences the
rate of weathering. Because temperatures are generally cold at high elevations,
ice wedging is more common at high elevations than at low elevations.
 On steep slopes, such as mountainsides, weathered rock fragments are pulled
downhill by gravity and washed out by heavy rains. As the rock fragments slide
down the mountain or are carried away by mountain streams, they smash
against each other and break apart. As a result of the removal of these surface
rocks, new surfaces of the mountain are continually exposed to weathering.

a. Human Activities
 Rock can be chemically and mechanically broken down by the action of
humans.
 1. Mining and construction often expose rock surfaces to agents of
weathering. Mining also exposes rock to strong acids and other chemical
compounds that are used in mining processes.
 2. Construction often removes soil and exposes previously unexposed
rock surfaces.
 3. Recreational activities, such as hiking and riding all-terrain vehicles.
b. Plant and Animal Activities

 The roots of plants and trees often break apart rock.

a. Burrowing animals dig holes, exposing new rock surfaces. Some
biological wastes of animals can cause chemical weathering.
b. Caves that have large populations of bats also have large amounts of
bat guano on the cave floors. Bat guano attracts insects, such as

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millipedes and beetles. The presence of these insects speeds up
mechanical weathering, and the presence of the guano increases the
rate of certain chemical weathering processes

What is Soil ?
 a complex mixture of minerals, water, gases, and the remains of dead
organisms.
 a loose mixture of rock fragments and organic material that can support the
growth of vegetation
Soil Characteristics
1. Soil’s Parent Rock - The characteristics of soil depend largely on the rock from
which the soil was weathered.

2. Residual Soil - Soil that forms and stays directly over its parent rock.

3. Transported Soil - the weathered mineral grains within soil may be carried
away from the location of the parent rock by water, wind,
or glaciers. Soil that results from the deposition of this
material.

Soil Composition

 refers to the materials of which it is made.

 The color of soil is related to the composition of the soil.
a. Black soils are commonly rich in organic material
b. Red soils may form from iron-rich parent rock.
 Parent rock that is rich in feldspar or other minerals that contain
aluminum weathers to form soils that contain large amounts of clay.
 Parent rock that contains large amounts of quartz, such as granite,
weathers to form sandy soils.
Soil Texture

 Rock material in soil can be grouped into three main sizes:

a. Clay particles have a diameter of less than 0.002 mm.
b. Silt particles have diameters from 0.002 to 0.05 mm. These are too
small to be seen easily, but they make soil feel gritty.
c. Sand particles have diameters from 0.05 to 2 mm.

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Soil Profile
 A soil profile soil profile is a cross section of the soil and its bedrock.
 The different layers of soil are called horizons.

Three Main Horizons

1. The A horizon, or topsoil
is a mixture of organic materials and small rock particles. Almost all
organisms that live in soil inhabit the A horizon.
As organisms die, their remains decay and produce humus, a dark,
organic material.
The A horizon is also the layer from which surface water leaches
minerals.

2. The B horizon, or subsoil

contains the minerals leached from the topsoil, clay, and sometimes
humus.
In dry climates, the B horizon also may contain minerals that accumulate
as water in the soil evaporates.

3. The C horizon
consists of partially weathered bedrock.
The first stages of mechanical and chemical change happen in this bottom
layer

Soil Horizons of Residual Soils

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Soil and Climate

Climate
Climate is one of the most important factors that influence soil formation.
It determines the weathering processes that occur in a region.

These weathering processes, help to determine the composition of soil.

Types of Soils

1. Tropical Soils
In humid tropical climates, where much rain falls and where temperatures are
high, chemical weathering causes thick soils to develop rapidly. These thick,
tropical soils, called laterites (LAT uhr iets), contain iron and aluminum
minerals that do not dissolve easily in water.
Leached minerals from the A horizon sometimes collect in the B horizon.
Heavy rains, which are common in tropical climates, cause a lot of leaching of
the topsoil, and thus keep the A horizon thin. But because of the dense
vegetation in humid, warm climates, organic material is continuously added to
the soil. As a result, a thin layer of humus usually covers the B horizon.

2. Temperate Soils
In temperate climates, where temperatures range between cool and warm, and
where rainfall is not excessive, both mechanical and chemical weathering
occur.
Temperate soils have the thickest A horizon

Types of Temperate Soils

a. Pedalfer
 In areas that receive more than 65 cm of rain per year.
 Soil contains clay, quartz, and iron compounds.
b. Pedocal
 In areas that receive less than 65 cm of rain per year
 Soil contains large amounts of calcium carbonate, which makes it very
fertile and less acidic.

3. Desert and Arctic Soils

Rainfall is minimal and chemical weathering occurs slowly.
The soil is thin and consists mostly of regolith—evidence that the soil in these
areas forms mainly by mechanical weathering.
It often too warm or too cold to sustain life, so their soils have little humus.

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Tropical climates produce

thick, infertile soils.

Temperate climates
produce thick, fertile soils.

Desert and arctic

climates produce thin
soils.

Soil and Topography

The shape of the land, or topography, also affects soil formation.
Because rainwater runs down a slope, much of the topsoil of the slope
washes away.

Soil is thick at the top and

bottom of a slope.

Soil is thin along the slope.

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Lesson 3
Erosion

When rock weathers, the resulting rock particles do not always stay near the parent
rock. Various forces may move weathered fragments of rock away from where the
weathering occurred.

What is EROSION?
a process in which the materials of Earth’s surface are loosened, dissolved, or
worn away and transported from one place to another by a natural agent, such
as wind, water, ice, or gravity.

Soil Erosion
 The erosion of soil occurs worldwide and is normally a slow process.
Ordinarily, new soil forms about as fast as existing soil erodes. However, some
forms of land use and unusual climatic conditions can upset this natural
balance. Once the balance is upset, soil erosion often accelerates.
 Soil erosion is considered by some scientists to be the greatest environmental
problem that faces the world today.

Types of Soil Erosion

Gullying and Sheet Erosion

Gullying
 One farming technique that can accelerate soil erosion is the improper
plowing of furrows, or long, narrow rows. Furrows that are plowed up
and down slopes allow water to run swiftly over soil. As soil is washed
away with each rainfall, the furrows become larger and form small
gullies.

Sheet Erosion
 It may occur where continuous rainfall washes away layers of the
topsoil.
 Wind also can cause sheet erosion during unusually dry periods. The
soil, which is made dry and loose by a lack of moisture, is carried away
by the wind as clouds of dust and drifting sand. These wind-borne
particles may produce large dust storms.

Results of Soil Erosion

Constant erosion reduces the fertility of the soil by removing the A horizon,
which contains the fertile humus.
The B horizon, which does not contain much organic matter, is difficult to farm
because it is much less fertile than the A horizon. Without plants, the B horizon
has nothing to protect it from further erosion.
Within a few years, all the soil layers could be removed by continuous erosion.

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Soil Conservation

Erosion rates are affected not only by natural factors but also by human
activities. Certain farming and grazing techniques and construction projects
can also increase the rate of erosion.
Destructive soil erosion can be prevented by soil conservation methods.
a. People, including city planners and some land developers, have begun to
recognize the environmental impact of land development and are
beginning to implement soil conservation measures.
b. Farmers are also looking for new ways to minimize soil erosion and thus
preserve fertile topsoil.
1. Contour Plowing - soil is plowed in curved bands that follow the
contour, or shape, of the land and prevents water
from flowing directly down slopes, so it prevents
gullying.
2. Strip-Cropping - crops are planted in alternating bands. The cover crop
protects the soil by slowing the runoff of rainwater.
The combination of these two methods can reduce
soil erosion by 75%.
3. Terracing- The construction of steplike ridges that follow the contours
of a sloped field. To prevent or slow the downslope
movement of water and thus prevent rapid erosion.
4. Crop Rotation - farmers plant one type of crop one year and a different
type of crop the next. It helps to slow runoff and hold the
soil in place. The main purpose of other types of crop
rotation is to help maintain soil fertility

Gravity and Erosion

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Gravity causes rock fragments to move down a slope. This movement of fragments
down a slope is called mass movement. mass movement. Some mass movements occur
rapidly, and others occur very slowly.

1. Rockfalls and Landslides

Rockfalls
 is the fastest kind of mass movement. Rocks in rock falls often range in size
from tiny fragments to giant boulders.
Landslides
 When masses of loose rock combined with soil suddenly fall down a slope.
 Heavy rainfall, spring thaws, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes can trigger
landslides.

2. Mudflows and Slumps

Mudflows
 The rapid movement of a large amount of mud creates
 Occur in mountainous regions during sudden, heavy rainfall or as a result of
volcanic eruptions
Slumps
 The block of soil and rock then slides along the curved slope of the surface.
 Occurs along very steep slopes. Saturation by water and loss of friction with
underlying rock causes loose soil and rock to slip downhill over the solid rock.
3. Solifluction
 is the process by which water-saturated soil slips over hard or frozen layers.
 Occurs in arctic and mountainous climates, where the subsoil is permanently
frozen.

4. Creep
 The extremely slow downhill movement of weathered rock material.
 Factors contribute to soil creep
a. Water separates rock particles, which allows them to move freely.
b. Growing plants produce a wedgelike pressure that separates rock particles
and loosens the soil.
c. The burrowing of animals and repeated freezing and thawing loosen rock
particles and allow gravity to slowly pull the particles downhill.

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An earthquake in El Salvador caused Heavy rains in the Philippines

this dramatic landslide caused this destructive mudflow

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Performance Tasks

PT1
Direction : Fill in the Venn Diagram to determine the similarities and differences of the three types
of rocks

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PT2

Direction : Fill in the missing word/term to complete the rock cycle. You may refer to the box below.

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PT3

Direction : Reflect upon: Rocks are all around us. It is used for building materials, cars, roads, and
appliances. As a college student, how can you promote the sustainable development in
utilizing these resources? Give some suggestions.

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PT4

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PT5

Soil is an essential component of the earth’s crust. It enabled life to exist and provides the
services necessary for human survival.
a. What is the effect of soil erosion?
b. What will you do to protect the community?

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PT6
Rock Cycle Project

Objective: Create a project that illustrates knowledge of the rock cycle and the three types of rocks.
Required Components of the Project: 5 students in a group

A. Detailed illustration of the rock cycle including all the steps and rocks with labels.
 These words should be used in your project: weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction,
cementation, metamorphism, heat, pressure, melting, cooling, solidification, sediment, rock,
metamorphic rock, magma, and igneous rock.
 Give one example of each type of rock (sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous).
 Tell how each type of rock is formed.
 The project must be neat, colorful, creative, and show full knowledge of the rock cycle and the
three types of rocks.
B. Types of Projects Allowed:
 Poster board
 Tri-fold board
 3D model
 Shadowbox
 PowerPoint presentation

C. Creative Ideas:
 Instead of drawing everything, cut pictures out of magazines.
 Use pictures from the Internet.
 Bring in real rocks to use as examples of each type of rock.
 Make 3D models or have pieces on your board stick out.
 Glue real rocks on your board.
 Show the rock cycle in a way you haven’t seen it before.
 If doing a PowerPoint presentation, add in links to interesting websites or games about rocks.

D. Submission of Project: Before Midterm Dec. 7, 2021

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Understanding Directed Assess

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Rubric PT6
25 20 18 15 Points
Concept The student The student The student The student
Understanding demonstrates a demonstrates an demonstrates demonstrates a
mastery of the adequate some confusion weak
concepts related understanding of about the understanding of
to the major the concepts concepts related the concepts
groups of rocks, related to the to the major related to the
how they form major groups of groups of rocks, major groups of
and how they fit rocks, how they how they form, rocks, how they
into the rock form and how and how they fit form and how
cycle. they fit into the into the rock they fit into the
rock cycle. cycle. rock cycle.
Neatness Project is very Project is Project is Project lacks
/Grammar neat. No moderately neat moderately neat, neatness with
misspellings or and has no more but has three or sloppy
grammatical than two more misspelling handwriting or
errors. misspelling and and/or artwork.
/or grammatical grammatical
errors. errors.
Creativity Project is Project shows Project shows Poorly
excellent . good effort and average effort drawn/created
Obvious , high quality and quality showing obvious
quality effort is signs of rushing
shown. or lack of effort.
Delivery Student used a Student’s voice is Student Student
clear voice and clear . Student incorrectly incorrectly
correct, precise pronounces most pronounces pronounces
pronunciation of words correctly terms or terms, and speaks
terms. audience too quietly for
members have students in the
difficulty hearing back of the class
the presentation. to hear.
TOTAL :

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Learning Resources

1. Hesser, D. T. & Leach, S. S. (2012). Focus on Earth Science. Merill Publishing

2. Jarumayan, G.A. & Sadili, M.V. (2003). The Changing Earth. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388
Quezon Avenue, Quezon City.

3. King, C. (2010). The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences. Retrieved from
https://www.topfreebooks.org/earth-science-books-online/

4. Lianko, A. (2001). Introduction to Earth Science. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388 Quezon
Avenue, Quezon City.

5. Norton, W.H. (2012). The Elements of Geology. Retrieved from

http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40404/40404-h/40404-h.htm#Page_233

6. Tarbuck, Lutgens & Tasa. (2012). Earth Science. Pearson Education, Inc.

Rock Cycle
https://youtu.be/gY75XbwMM4o
https://youtu.be/2rqCGcOffsQ

Rock and Rock Cycle

https://youtu.be/s3du0C_fuoE

Weathering and Erosion

https://youtu.be/R-Iak3Wvh9c

Layers of Soil
https://youtu.be/bgqea0E2eAY

Types of Rocks
https://youtu.be/17l2LrjZi9o

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
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LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)

Course Earth Science
Sem/AY First Semester/2021-2022
Module No. 3
Lesson Title Earthquake and Volcanoes
Week
11-14
Duration
Date December 13, 2021 – January 21, 2022
This lesson will discuss about the earthquakes causes and effect in planet Earth and
Description volcanic formation and activity . This lesson will also provide activities and exercises
of the that will assess students understanding about the topic.
Lesson

Learning Outcomes
Intended Students should be able to meet the following intended learning outcomes:
Learning  Explain the causes and effects of earthquakes and diagram the Earth’s interior
Outcomes structure
 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the nature of volcanic formation
and activity including its prediction and hazards mitigation
Targets/ At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Objectives  Explain why earthquakes generally occur at plate boundaries.
 Describe the causes and effect of earthquakes
 Explain the instruments used to determine the incoming earthquakes
 Describe the three conditions under which magma can form.
 Explain what volcanism is.
 Identify three tectonic settings where volcanoes form.
 Describe how magma can form plutons

Student Learning Strategies

Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

(Synchronous/ You will be directed to attend in a Four-Hour class discussion on the
nature and types of educational technologies. To have access to the
Asynchronous) Online Discussion, refer to this link: ____________________.

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The online discussion will happen on December 13 , 2021, from 7:00-
9:00AM.

(For further instructions, refer to your Google Classroom and see the
schedule of activities for this module)

B. Learning Guide Questions:

1. Why do earthquakes occur?
2. What are the instruments used by geologist to determine the
incoming earthquakes?
Note: The insight that you will post on online discussion forum using Learning Management
System (LMS) will receive additional scores in class participation.

Lecture Guide

Lesson 1
EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are one of the most destructive natural disasters. A single
earthquake can kill many thousands of people and cause billions of dollars in
damage.

What is Earthquakes?

Defined as movements of the ground that are caused by a sudden

release of energy when rocks along a fault move. Usually occur when
Offline Activities rocks under stress suddenly shift along a fault.
(e-Learning/Self- What is a Fault?
Paced) A fault is a break in a body of rock along which one block slides relative
to another.
Why Earthquakes Happen?

The rocks along both sides of a fault are commonly pressed together
tightly. Although the rocks may be under stress, friction prevents them
from moving past each other. In this immobile state, a fault is said to be
locked. Parts of a fault remain locked until the stress becomes so great
that the rocks suddenly slip past each other. This slippage causes the
trembling and vibrations of an earthquake.
Elastic Rebound

Earthquakes are a result of elastic rebound. Elastic rebound is the sudden

return of elastically deformed rock to its undeformed shape.

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The epicenter of an earthquake is the point on the surface directly above the focus.

Anatomy of an Earthquake

Focus (plural, foci) the location within Earth along a fault at which the
first motion of an earthquake occurs

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Epicenter the point on Earth’s surface directly above an earthquake’s
starting point, or focus.
Although the focus depths of earthquakes vary, about 90% of continental
earthquakes have shallow foci take place within 70 km of Earth’s surface.
By the time the vibrations from an earthquake that has an intermediate
or deep focus reach the surface, much of their energy has dissipated. For
this reason, the earthquakes that cause the most damage usually have
shallow foci.

Seismic Waves

 As rocks along a fault slip into new positions, the rocks release energy in
the form of vibrations called seismic waves. These waves travel outward
in all directions from the focus through the surrounding rock. This wave
action is similar to what happens when you drop a stone into a pool of
still water and circular waves ripple outward from the center.

Earthquakes generally produce two main types of waves.

 Body waves are waves that travel through the body of a medium.

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 Surface waves travel along the surface of a body rather than through
the middle.
Each type of wave travels at a different speed and causes different
movements in Earth’s crust.

Body Waves

Main Categories of Body Wave

a. P wave a primary wave, or compression wave

- a seismic wave that causes particles of rock to move in a back-and-forth

direction parallel to the direction in which the wave is traveling

P waves can move through solids,

liquids, and gases. The more rigid the
material is, the faster the P waves
travel through it.

b. S wave a secondary wave, or shear wave

- a seismic wave that causes particles of rock to move in a side-to-side

direction perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is traveling.

S waves can only travel

through solid material.

Surface Waves

 Surface waves form from motion along a shallow fault or from the
conversion of energy when P waves and S waves reach Earth’s
surface. Although surface waves are the slowest-moving waves,
they may cause the greatest damage during an earthquake.

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Types of Surface Waves

a. Love waves cause rock to move side to side and perpendicular to the
direction in which the waves are traveling.

b. Rayleigh waves cause the ground to move with an elliptical, rolling motion.

Seismic Waves and Earth’s Interior

Seismic waves are useful to scientists who are exploring Earth’s interior.
The composition of the material through which P waves and S waves travel
affects the speed and direction of the waves.
For example,
P waves travel fastest through materials that are very rigid and are not
easily compressed. By studying the speed and direction of seismic waves,
scientists can learn more about the makeup and structure of Earth’s interior.

Earth’s Internal Layers

Main Layers of Earth Mechanical Layers of Earth
a. crust a. Lithosphere
b. mantle b. Asthenosphere
c. core c. Mesosphere
d. Outer Core
e. Inner Core

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Trivia:

In 1909, Andrija Mohoroviˇci´c (moh hoh

ROH vuh chich), a Croatian scientist,
discovered that the speed of seismic waves
increases abruptly at about a 30-km depth
beneath the surface of continents. The
location at which the speed of the waves
increases marks the boundary between the
crust and the mantle. The depth of this
boundary varies from about 10 km below
the oceans to about 30 km below
continents. This increase in speed takes
place because the mantle is denser than
the crust. By studying the speed of seismic
waves, scientists have been able to locate
boundaries between other internal layers
of Earth 9 to locate boundaries between
other internal layers of Earth.

Shadow Zones
 Recordings of seismic waves around the world reveal shadow
zones. Shadow zones are locations on Earth’s surface where no
body waves from a particular earthquake can be detected.
 Shadow zones exist because the materials that make up Earth’s
interior are not uniform in rigidity. When seismic waves travel
through materials of differing rigidities, the speed of the waves
changes. The waves also bend and change direction as they pass
through different materials.

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
A large S-wave shadow zone covers the side of Earth that is
opposite an earthquake. S waves do not reach the S-wave
shadow zone because they cannot pass through the liquid outer
core.
 Although P waves can travel through all of the layers, the speed
Earthquakesand direction
and Plate of the waves change as the waves pass through each
Tectonics
of Earth’s layers. The waves bend in such a way that P-wave
Earthquakesshadow
are thezones
resultform
of stresses in Earth’s lithosphere. Most earthquakes
occur in three main tectonic environments.

a. Convergent Oceanic Environments

 At convergent plate boundaries, plates move toward each other and

collide. The plate that is denser subducts, or sinks into the asthenosphere
below the other plate. As the plates move, the overriding plate scrapes

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across the top of the subducting plate, and earthquakes occur.
Convergent oceanic boundaries can occur between two oceanic plates or
between one oceanic plate and one continental plate.
b. Divergent Oceanic Environments

 At the divergent plate boundaries that make up the mid-ocean ridges,

plates are moving away from each other. Earthquakes occur along mid-
ocean ridges because oceanic lithosphere is pulling away from both sides
of each ridge. This spreading motion causes earthquakes along the ocean
ridges.
c. Continental Oceanic Environments

 Earthquakes also occur at locations where two continental plates

converge, diverge, or move horizontally in opposite directions. As the
continental plates interact, the rock surrounding the boundary
experiences stress. The stress may cause mountains to form and also
causes frequent earthquakes.

Fault Zones

 At some plate boundaries, there are regions of numerous, closely spaced

faults called fault zones and form at plate boundaries because of the
intense stress that results when the plates separate, collide, subduct, or
slide past each other.


 Fault zones which extends almost the entire length of the country of
Turkey. Where the edge of the Arabian plate pushes against the Eurasian
plate, the small Turkish microplate is squeezed westward. When enough
stress builds up, movement occurs along one or more of the individual
faults in the fault zone and sometimes causes major earthquakes.

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Studying Earthquakes

The study of earthquakes and seismic waves is called seismology. Many

scientists study earthquakes because earthquakes are the best tool available for
investigating Earth’s internal structure and dynamics. These scientists have
developed special sensing equipment to record, locate, and measure
earthquakes.

A. Recording Earthquakes

 Vibrations in the ground can be detected and recorded by using an

instrument called a seismograph.

A modern three-component seismograph consists of three

sensing devices. 1. One device records the vertical motion of
the ground.
2. The other two devices record horizontal motion—
a. one for east-west motion
b. one for north-south motion.
Seismographs record motion by tracing wave-shaped lines on
paper or by translating the motion into electronic signals. The
electronic signals can be recorded on magnetic tape or can be
loaded directly into a computer that analyzes seismic waves.
 Seismogram a tracing of earthquake motion that is recorded by a
seismograph.


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P waves are the fastest-moving

seismic waves, they are the first
waves to be recorded by a
seismograph. S waves travel much
slower than P waves. Therefore, S
waves are the second waves to be
recorded by a seismograph. Surface
waves are the slowest moving
waves and are the last waves to be
recorded by a seismograph.

B. Locating an Earthquake
To determine the distance to an epicenter, scientists analyze the
arrival times of the P waves and the S waves. The longer the lag time
between the arrival of the P waves and the arrival of the S waves is, the
farther away the earthquake occurred.
Scientists use computers to calculate how far an earthquake is from a
given seismograph station. Before computers were widely available,
scientists consulted a lag-time graph. This graph translates the
difference in arrival times of the P waves and S waves into distance
from the epicenter to each station. The start time of the earthquake can
also be determined by using this graph.
To locate the epicenter of an earthquake, scientists use computers
to perform complex triangulations based on information from several
seismograph stations. An earlier technique was simpler but less
precise. On a map, scientists drew circles around at least three
seismograph stations that recorded vibrations from the earthquake.
The radius of each circle represented the distance from that station to
the earthquake’s epicenter. The point at which all of the circles
intersected indicated the location of the epicenter of the earthquake.
C. Earthquake Measurement

Scientists who study earthquakes are interested in the amount of energy

released by an earthquake. Scientists also study the amount of damage done by
the earthquake. These properties are studied by measuring magnitude and
intensity.

Magnitude

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The measure of the strength of an earthquake is called
magnitude.
 Magnitude is determined by measuring the amount of ground
motion caused by an earthquake
 Seismologists express magnitude by using a magnitude scale,
such as the Richter scale or the Moment Magnitude Scale.
Richter Scale

 The Richter scale measures the ground motion from an

earthquake to find the earthquake’s strength. It was widely used
for most of the 20th century.
 It provide similar values for small earthquakes.

Moment Magnitude Scale

 a measurement of earthquake strength based on the amount of energy

released by calculating size of the fault, amount of movement and type of
rock.
 the moment magnitude scale is more accurate for large earthquakes

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 The moment magnitude of an earthquake is expressed by a number.

 The larger the number, the stronger the earthquake.
 The largest earthquake that has been recorded (in Chile) registered a
moment magnitude of 9.5.
 The earthquake in China in 2008 had a moment magnitude of 7.9 and
devastated the country just before it hosted the Olympic Games that
year.
 Earthquakes that have moment magnitudes of less than 2.5 usually
are not felt by people.

Intensity
 measure of the effects of an earthquake is the earthquake’s intensity
 The modified Mercalli Scale, expresses intensity in Roman
numerals from I to XII and provides a description of the effects of
each earthquake intensity. The highest-intensity earthquake is
designated by Roman numeral XII and is described as total
destruction. The intensity of an earthquake depends on the
earthquake’s magnitude, the distance between the epicenter and the
affected area, the local geology, the earthquake’s duration, and
human infrastructure.

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Mercalli Scale

Earthquakes and Society

Movement of the ground during an earthquake seldom directly causes many

deaths or injuries. Instead, most injuries result from the collapse of buildings and
other structures or from falling objects and flying glass. Other dangers include
landslides, fires, explosions caused by broken electric and gas lines, and
floodwaters released from collapsing dams.

Tsunamis

 An earthquake whose epicenter is on the ocean floor may cause a giant

ocean wave called a tsunami which may cause serious destruction if it
crashes into land.
 A tsunami may begin to form when a sudden drop or rise in the ocean
floor occurs because of faulting associated with undersea earthquakes.
The drop or rise of the ocean floor causes a large mass of sea water to also
drop or rise suddenly. This movement sets into motion a series of long,
low waves that increase in height as they near the shore. These waves are
tsunamis.

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Earthquake Safety

People who live near active faults should be ready to follow a few simple
earthquake safety rules. These safety rules may help prevent death, injury, and
property damage.

a. Before an Earthquake

Before an earthquake occurs, be prepared. Keep on hand a supply of

canned food, bottled water, flashlights, batteries, and a portable radio.
Plan what you will do if an earthquake strikes while you are at home, at
school, or in a car. Discuss these plans with your family. Learn how to
turn off the gas, water, and electricity in your home.
b. During an Earthquake

When an earthquake occurs, stay calm. During the few seconds between
tremors, you can move to a safer position. If you are indoors, protect
yourself from falling debris by standing in a doorway or crouching under
a desk or table. Stay away from windows, heavy furniture, and other
objects that might topple over. If you are in school, follow the
instructions given by your teacher or principal. If you are in a car, stop
in a place that is away from tall buildings, tunnels, power lines, or
bridges. Then, remain in the car until the tremors cease.

c. After an Earthquake

After an earthquake, be cautious. Check for fire and other hazards.

Always wear shoes when walking near broken glass, and avoid
downed power lines and objects touched by downed wires.

Earthquake Warnings and Forecasts

Humans have long sought methods by which to predict earthquakes. Accurate

earthquake predictions could help prevent injuries and deaths that result from
earthquakes.

Today, scientists study past earthquakes to predict where future earthquakes

are most likely to occur. Using records of past earthquakes, scientists can make
approximate forecasts of future earthquake risks. However, there is currently no
reliable way of predicting exactly when or where an earthquake will occur. Even
the best forecasts may be off by several years.

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To make forecasts that are more accurate, scientists are trying to detect changes
in Earth’s crust that can signal an earthquake. Faults near many population
centers have been located and mapped. Instruments placed along these faults
measure small changes in rock movement around the faults and can detect an
increase in stress. Currently, however, these methods cannot provide reliable or
accurate predictions of earthquakes.

a. Seismic Gaps

A seismic gap seismic gap is an area along a fault where relatively few
earthquakes have occurred recently but where strong earthquakes
occurred in the past. Some scientists think that seismic gaps are likely
locations of future earthquakes.
b. Foreshocks

Some earthquakes are preceded by little earthquakes called foreshocks.

Foreshocks can precede an earthquake by a few seconds or a few weeks.
c. Changes in Rocks

Scientists use a variety of sensors to detect slight tilting of the ground

and to identify the strain and cracks in rocks caused by the stress that
builds up in fault zones.
When cracks in rocks are filled with water, the magnetic and
electrical properties of the rocks may change. Scientists also monitor
natural gas seepage from rocks that are strained or fractured from
seismic activity. Scientists hope that they will one day be able to use
these signals to predict earthquakes.

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Lesson 2

VOLCANOES
What is a Volcano?
A mountain that extends down to a pool of magma between the crust and
mantle. It’s basically a hole in the Earth from which magma can erupt.
The word volcano is derived from the name “Vulcano”, a volcanic island in
the Aeolian islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the “God of
Fire” in Roman mythology.
Types of Volcanoes
1. Active Volcano- a volcano that has had at least one eruption during the
past 10,000 years . It might be erupting or dormant.
2. Erupting Volcano – an active volcano that is having an eruption.
3. Dormant Volcano – an active volcano that is not erupting , but supposed to
erupt again.
4. Extinct Volcano - has not had an eruption for at least 10,000 years and is
not expected to erupt again in a comparable time scale
of the future.

How are volcanoes formed?

Volcanoes are formed when magma from within the Earth’s upper mantle
works its way to the surface. Magma can rise pieces of Earth’s crust called
tectonic plate slowly move away from each other. It also rises when these
tectonic plates move toward each other. A final way that magma rises is over
hot spots that exactly what they sound like hot areas inside of Earth.

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Volcanic eruptions can cause some of the most dramatic changes to Earth’s
surface. Some eruptions can be more powerful than the explosion of an atomic
bomb. The cause of many of these eruptions is the movement of tectonic plates.
The movement of tectonic plates is driven by Earth’s internal heat.

Formation of Magma

 Despite the high temperature in the mantle, most of this zone remains
solid because of the large amount of pressure from the surrounding
rock. Sometimes, however, solid mantle and crust melt to form magma,
or liquid rock that forms under Earth’s surface.
 Magma can form under Three Conditions.
a. 1st, If the temperature of rock rises above the melting point of the
minerals the rock is composed of, the rock will melt.
b. 2nd , If enough pressure is removed from the rock, the melting point
will decrease and the rock will melt.
c. 3rd , The addition of fluids, such as water, may decrease the melting
point of some minerals in the rock and cause the rock to melt.

Volcanism
 The movement of magma onto Earth’s surface is called volcanism. Magma
rises upward through the crust because the magma is less dense than the
surrounding rock. As bodies of magma rise toward the surface, they can
become larger in two ways.
1. Because they are so hot, they can melt some of the surrounding
rock.
2. As the magma rises, it is forced into cracks in the surrounding
rock.
This process causes large blocks of overlying rock to break off and melt.
Both of these processes add material to the magma body.

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 When magma erupts onto Earth’s surface, the magma is then called lava.
As lava flows from an opening, or vent, it might build up as a cone of
material that eventually forms a mountain. The vent in Earth’s surface
through which magma and gases are expelled is called a volcano.

Major Volcanic Zones

1. Subduction Zones
Many volcanoes are located along subduction zones, where one tectonic plate
moves under another. When a plate that consists of oceanic lithosphere meets a
plate that consists of continental lithosphere, the denser oceanic lithosphere
moves beneath the continental lithosphere. A deep trench forms on the ocean
floor along the edge of the continent where the plate is subducted. The plate
that consists of continental lithosphere buckles and folds to form a line of
mountains along the edge of the continent.
As the oceanic plate sinks into the asthenosphere, fluids such as water from the
subducting plate combine with crust and mantle material. These fluids decrease
the melting point of the rock and cause the rock to melt and form magma.
When the magma rises through the lithosphere and erupts on Earth’s surface,
lines of volcanic mountains form along the edge of the tectonic plate. If two plates
that have oceanic lithosphere at their boundaries collide, one plate subducts,
and a deep trench forms. As when oceanic lithosphere collides with continental
lithosphere, magma forms as fluids are introduced into the mantle. Some of the
magma breaks through the overriding plate to Earth’s surface. Over time, a string
of volcanic islands, called an island arc, forms on the overriding plate.

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2. Mid-Ocean Ridges
The largest amount of magma comes to the surface where plates are moving
apart at mid-ocean ridges. Thus, the interconnected mid-ocean ridges that circle
Earth form a major zone of volcanic activity. As plates pull apart, magma flows
upward along the rift zone. The upwelling magma adds material to the mid-
ocean ridge and creates new lithosphere along the rift. This magma erupts to
form underwater volcanoes. Most volcanic eruptions that happen along mid-
ocean ridges are unnoticed by humans because the eruptions take place deep in
the ocean.

Pillow lava is named for its pillow

shape, which is caused by the water
that rapidly cools the outer surface of
the lava. When water rapidly cools hot
lava, a hard, pillow shaped crust forms.
As the crust cools, it contracts and
cracks. Hot lava flows through the
cracks in the crust and then cools
quickly to form another pillow-shaped
structure.
3. Hot Spots
Not all volcanoes develop along plate boundaries. Areas of volcanism within the
interiors of lithospheric plates are called hot spots. Hot Spot a volcanically active
area of Earth’s surface, commonly far from a tectonic plate boundary. Most hot
spots form where columns of solid, hot material from the deep mantle, called
mantle plumes, rise and reach the lithosphere. When a mantle plume reaches
the lithosphere, the plume spreads out. As magma rises to the surface, it breaks
through the overlying crust. Volcanoes can then form in the interior of a tectonic
plate.
Mantle plumes appear to remain nearly stationary. However, the lithospheric
plate above a mantle plume continues to drift slowly. So, the volcano on the
surface is eventually carried away from the mantle plume. The activity of the
volcano stops because it has moved away from the hot spot that supplied it with
magma. A new volcano forms, however, at the point on the plate’s surface that is
now over the mantle plume. Some mantle plumes are long and linear. As magma
generated by these plumes rises through cracks in Earth’s crust, a line of hotspot
volcanoes forms. Unlike volcanoes that form individually as a plate moves over

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a mantle plume, hot-spot volcanoes that form in lines over a long plume do not
have any particular age relationship to each another.

Intrusive Activity
Through the crust toward the surface. As the magma moves upward, it pushes
into, or intrudes, the overlying rock. Because of magma’s high temperature,
magma affects surrounding rock in a variety of ways. Magma ____
1. May melt surrounding rock
2. It may change the rock.
3. May fracture surrounding rock and cause fissures to form
4. May cause the surrounding rock to break apart and fall into the magma.

Rock that falls into the magma may eventually melt, or the rock may be included
as foreign pieces within the new igneous rock, which is rock that forms when the
magma cools. When magma does not reach Earth’s surface, the magma may cool
and solidify inside the crust. This process results in large formations of igneous
rock called plutons.
Plutons can vary greatly in size and shape.
a. Dikes are small plutons that tabular in shape and may be only a few
centimeters wide. b. Batholiths are large plutons that cover an area of at
least 100 km2 when they are exposed on Earth’s surface.

Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanoes can be thought of as windows into Earth’s interior. Lava that erupts
from them provides an opportunity for scientists to study the nature of Earth’s
crust and mantle. By analyzing the composition of volcanic rocks, geologists
have concluded that there are two general types of magma.
a. Mafic (MAF ik) describes magma or rock that is rich in magnesium and
iron and is commonly dark in color. It commonly makes up the oceanic
crust.
b. Felsic (FEL sik) describes magma or rock that is rich in light-colored
silicate materials. It is more common than mafic rock in continental
crust.

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Types of Eruptions
The viscosity, or resistance to flow, of magma affects the force with which
a particular volcano will erupt. The viscosity of magma is determined by the
magma’s composition. Because mafic magmas produce runny lava that has a low
viscosity, they typically cause quiet eruptions. Because felsic magmas produce
sticky lava that has a high viscosity, they typically cause explosive eruptions.
Magma that contains large amounts of trapped, dissolved gases is more likely to
produce explosive eruptions than is magma that contains small amounts of
dissolved gases.

1. Quiet Eruptions
Oceanic volcanoes commonly form from mafic magma. Because of mafic
magma’s low viscosity, gases can easily escape from mafic magma.
Types of Mafic Lava Flows

Lava Flows

 When mafic lava cools rapidly, a crust forms on the surface of the flow. If
the lava continues to flow after the crust forms, the crust wrinkles to
form a volcanic rock called pahoehoe. Pahoehoe forms from hot, fluid
lava. As it cools, it forms a smooth, ropy texture. Pahoehoe actually
means “ropy” in Hawaiian.
 If the crusted-over surface of the lava deforms rapidly or grows too
thick to form wrinkles, the surface breaks into jagged chunks to form aa
(AH AH). Aa forms from lava that has the same composition as

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pahoehoe lava. Aa lava’s texture results from differences in gas content
and in the rate and slope of the lava flow.
 Blocky lava has a higher silica content than aa lava does, which makes
blocky lava more viscous than aa lava. The high viscosity causes the
cooled lava at the surface to break into large chunks, while the hot lava
underneath continues to flow. This process gives the lava flow a blocky
appearance.
2. Explosive Eruptions
Unlike the fluid lavas produced by oceanic volcanoes, the felsic lavas of
continental volcanoes, tend to be cooler and stickier. Felsic lavas also contain
large amounts of trapped gases, such as water vapor and carbon dioxide. When a
volcano erupts, the dissolved gases within the lava escape and send molten and
solid particles shooting into the air. So, felsic lava tends to explode and throw
pyroclastic material into the air. Pyroclastic material consists of fragments of
rock that form during a volcanic eruption.

Types of Pyroclastic Material

Some pyroclastic materials form when magma breaks into fragments during an
eruption because of the rapidly expanding gases in the magma. Other pyroclastic
materials form when fragments of erupting lava cool and solidify as they fly
through the air.
Classification of Pyroclastic Materials (according to the sizes of the particles
)
a. Volcanic Ash that are less than 2 mm in diameter. It settles on the land
surrounding the volcano.
b. Volcanic Dust that is less than 0.25 mm in diameter . Some of the smallest
dust particles may travel around Earth in the upper atmosphere.
c. Lapili it is large pyroclastic particles that are less than 64 mm in diameter
are called which is from a Latin word that means “little stones.” It
generally fall near the vent.
d. Volcanic Bomb , Large clots of lava may be thrown out of an erupting
volcano while they are red-hot as they spin through the air, they cool and
develop a round or spindle shape.

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e. Volcanic Blocks , the largest pyroclastic materials, form from solid rock
that is blasted from the vent. Some volcanic blocks are the size of a small
house.

Types of Volcanic Cones

Volcanic activity produces a variety of characteristic features that form during
both quiet and explosive eruptions. The lava and pyroclastic material that are
ejected during volcanic eruptions build up around the vent and form volcanic
cones. There are three main types of volcanic cones.
The funnel-shaped pit at the top of a volcanic vent is known as a crater. The
crater forms when material is blown out of the volcano by explosions. It usually
becomes wider as weathering and erosion break down the walls of the crater
and allow loose materials to collapse into the vent. Sometimes, a small cone
forms within a crater. This formation occurs when subsequent eruptions cause
material to build up around the vent.

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Calderas
When the magma chamber below a volcano empties, the volcanic cone may
collapse and leave a large, basin-shaped depression called a caldera . A large,
circular depression that forms when the magma chamber below a volcano
partially empties and causes the ground above to sink .
Eruptions that discharge large amounts of magma can also cause a caldera to
form. Krakatau, a volcanic island in Indonesia, is an example of this type of
caldera. When the volcanic cone exploded in 1883, a caldera with a diameter of
6 km formed. Calderas may later fill with water to form lakes. Thousands of years

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ago, the cone of Mount Mazama in Oregon collapsed during a massive eruption
and formed a caldera. The caldera eventually filled with water and is now called
Crater Lake.

Volcanoes Give Signs

These signs many include very small earthquakes beneath the volcano, slight
inflation or swelling of the volcano and increased emission of heat and gas from
vents on the volcano.
1. Deformation Monitoring

Tiltmeters are used to measure the deformation of the volcano and measure
changes in slope as small as one part per million. A slope change of one part per
million is equivalent to raising the end of a board one kilometer long only one
millimeter.

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2. Gas Monitoring
 Commonly gas output from a volcano increases or changes composition
before an eruption. As magma rises to the surface it releases much of its
gas content.

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Performance Tasks

PT1

It’s Better to be Locally and Internationally Aware

PT1 Direction :
1. Get a separate sheet of paper.
2. Examine each of the pictures in Column 2. Do you know any of these events?
Name the calamity each picture shows. Write your answers in the fourth column.
Possible answers are earthquakes, landslides, tsunami, and volcanic eruptions.
3. Think of the bad effects of these natural calamities in a certain country or place.
Imagine the effects on the health, livelihood, and emotions of the people living in
those areas. List down your answer to the last column.
4. We know that the Philippines has suffered from many deadly typhoons, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and other natural disasters. How can we attribute these occurrences to
our location in the Pacific Ring of Fire? ____________________
5. How about the countries Nepal and Japan, what could be the cause of the calamities they have
experienced?

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No. Picture Country Calamity Effects

1 Philippines

2 Philippines

3 Nepal

4 Japan

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PT2
Evacuation Plan

1. Draw a floor plan or rough draft of your house. Label each room.
2. Identify where the windows and doors are located. These can be your exit points
during calamities or emergencies. Label them properly. Color the exit points green.
3. Locate possible hazards or hindrances like tall cabinets, fire or electricity sources, glass objects,
or hanging objects that may drop. Draw their exact positions in your house. Label them properly.
Color them red.
4. From your bedrooms or sleeping areas, identify the most common safe exit point for your entire
family. Then draw a blue arrow from these sleeping areas going to the identified safest exit.
5. Identify the specific locations of your medicine/emergency kit, fire extinguisher, Go bags, and
important documents. Draw them also in your plan. Label them properly. Color them yellow.

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PT3

It’s More Fun Near Philippine Volcanoes

Direction : Philippine Volcanoes Worth Seeing : Write the province , active volcano and interesting
facts about the volcano in the table with picture.

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Understanding Directed Assess

PT2

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Learning Resources

1. Hesser, D. T. & Leach, S. S. (2012). Focus on Earth Science. Merill Publishing

2. Jarumayan, G.A. & Sadili, M.V. (2003). The Changing Earth. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388 Quezon
Avenue, Quezon City.
3. King, C. (2010). The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences. Retrieved from
https://www.topfreebooks.org/earth-science-books-online/

4. Lianko, A. (2001). Introduction to Earth Science. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388 Quezon Avenue,
Quezon City.
5. Norton, W.H. (2012). The Elements of Geology. Retrieved from
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40404/40404-h/40404-h.htm#Page_233
6. Tarbuck, Lutgens & Tasa. (2012). Earth Science. Pearson Education, Inc.

How an Earthquake made in Japan

https://youtu.be/8evL6XCw41g

Earthquake
https://youtu.be/MOpMAiGqGR0

How does Richter Scale works

https://youtu.be/NaNw9LHq9dc

What is Mercalli Scale?

https://youtu.be/I83qTltZb2Y

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)

Course Earth Science
Sem/AY First Semester/2021-2022
Module No. 4
Lesson Title The Mass Movement
Week
15 - 17
Duration
Date January 24 – February 11, 2022
This lesson will discuss the types of mass movement including their causes and effects,
Description improper waste disposal with proper treatment, and effect of different waste to
of the human health and the environment. This lesson will also provide activities and
Lesson exercises that will assess students understanding about the topic.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Students should be able to meet the following intended learning outcomes:
Learning  Demonstrate knowledge of the types of mass movement including their causes
Outcomes and effects.
 Describe the improper waste disposal and proper treatment
 Describe the occurrence and formation of earth resources, its conservation and
significant environmental effects caused by their extraction, processing, and use
Targets/ At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Objectives  identify the three types of mass movements from a short excerpt.
 determine the different activities of improper waste disposal.
 describe the wastes produced from different sources and their proper
treatment.
 identify hazardous materials and each impact on humans and the environment.
 explain the effect of different waste on human health and the environment.

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Student Learning Strategies

Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

(Synchronous/ You will be directed to attend in a Four-Hour class discussion on the
nature and types of educational technologies. To have access to the
Asynchronous) Online Discussion, refer to this link: ____________________.

The online discussion will happen on January 26, 2022 from 9:00-
10:00AM.

(For further instructions, refer to your Google Classroom and see the
schedule of activities for this module)

B. Learning Guide Questions:

1. What are the types of mass movements?
2. What are causes of mass movements?
3. How mass movements affects the people?
4. What are the different waste materials
5. What are the classification and sources of waste?
6. What are the method of treatment of wastes?

Note: The insight that you will post on online discussion forum using Learning Management
System (LMS) will receive additional scores in class participation.

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Lecture Guide

Lesson 1

MASS MOVEMENTS

Mass Movement is defined as the down slope movement of rock and

regolith near the Earth's surface mainly due to the force of gravity. Mass
movements are an important part of the erosional process, as it moves material
from higher elevations to lower elevations where transporting agents like
streams and glaciers can then pick up the material and move it to even lower
elevations. Mass movement processes are occurring continuously on all slopes;
some act very slowly, others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results.
Any perceptible down slope movement of rock or regolith is often referred to
in general terms as a landslide. Landslides, however, can be classified in a much
Offline Activities more detailed way that reflects the mechanisms responsible for the movement
(e-Learning/Self- and the velocity at which the movement occurs.
Paced) Knowledge about the relationships between local geology and mass
movement processes can lead to better planning that can reduce vulnerability
to such hazards. Thus, we will look at the various types of mass movement
processes, their underlying causes, factors that affect slope stability, and what
humans can do to reduce vulnerability and risk due to mass movement hazards.

Types of Mass Movement Processes

The down-slope movement of material, whether it be bedrock, regolith, or a

mixture of these, is commonly referred to as a landslide. All of these processes
generally grade into one another, so classification of such processes is somewhat
difficult. We will use a classification that divides mass movement processes into two
broad categories
1. Slope Failures - a sudden failure of the slope resulting in transport of debris
down hill by sliding, rolling, falling, or slumping.

2. Sediment Flows - debris flows down hill mixed with water or air

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Sediment Flows

Sediment flows occur when sufficient force is applied to rocks and regolith that
they begin to flow down slope. A sediment flow is a mixture of rock, and/or regolith
with some water or air. They can be broken into two types depending on the amount
of water present.
1. Slurry Flows- are sediment flows that contain between about 20 and 40%
water. As the water content increases above about 40% slurry flows grade
into streams. Slurry flows are considered water-saturated flows.

2. Granular Flows - are sediment flows that contain between 0 and 20% water.
Note that granular flows are possible with little or no water. Fluid-like
behavior is given these flows by mixing with air. Granular flows are not
saturated with water.

Each of these classes of sediment flows can be further subdivided on the basis of the
velocity at which flowage occurs.

Slurry Flows

 Solifuction – flowage at rates measured on the order of centimeters per year

of regolith containing water. It produces distinctive lobes on hill slopes. These
occur in areas where the soil remains saturated with water for long periods of
time.

 Debris Flow- these occur at higher velocities than solifuction , with velocities
between 1 meter/yr and 100 meters/hr and ofter result from heavy rains
casusing saturation of the soil and regolith with water. They sometimes start
with slumps and then flow down hill forming lobes with an irregular surface
consisting of ridges and furrows.

 Mudflows- these are a highly fluid , high velocity mixture of sediment and
water that has a consistency ranging between soup-like and wet concrete.
They move at velocities greater than 1 km/hr and tend to travel along valley
floors. These usually result from heavy rains in areas where there is an
abundance of unconsolidated sediment that can be picked up by streams. It can
turn into mudflows.

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Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Solifluction Debris Flow Mudflow

Granular Flows

 Creep – the very slow , usually continuous movement of regolith down slope.
Creep occurs on almost all slopes. Evidence seen in bent trees, offsets in roads
and fences and inclined utility poles.

 Earthflows – are usually associated with heavy rains and move at velocities
between several cm/yr and 100s of m/day. They usually remain active for long
periods of time. They generally tend to be narrow tongue-like features that
begin at a scrap or small cliff.

 Grain Flows – usually form in relatively dry material, such as a sand dune on
a steep slope. A small disturbance sends the dry unconsolidated grains moving
rapidly down slope.

 Debris Avalanches – these are high velocity of large volume mixtures of rocks
and regolith that result from complete collapse of a mountainous slope. They
move down slope and then can travel for considerable distances along
relatively gentle slopes. It often triggered by earthquake and volcanic
eruptions.

 Snow Avalanches- It involve snow and much more common. Usually cause
hundreds of deaths worldwide each year.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Province of Laguna
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Creep Earthflow Grain flow

Debris Avalanches Snow Avalanches

Mass Movements in Cold Climates

Mass movements in cold climates is governed by the fact that water is frozen as
ice during long periods of the year . Ice does have the ability to flow , freezing and
thawing cycles can also contribute to movement.

 Rock Glaciers- a lobe of ice-cemented rock debris that slowly moves downhill.

 Frost Heaving – this is large contributor to creep in cold climates. When water
is saturated soils freeze, they expand, pushing rocks and boulder on the surface
upward perpendicular to the slope. When the soil thaws, the boulder move
down vertically resulting in a net down slope movement.

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Rock Glaciers Frost Heaving

Subaqueous Mass Movements

It can occur on steep slopes in the ocean basins. A slope failure can occur due to
over accumulation of sediment on slope or ina submarine canyon, or could occur as a
result of a shock like an earthquake.

Types of Subaqueous Mass Movements

1. Submarine slumps
2. Submarine debris flows
3. Turbidity currents

Submarine Slumps Submarine Debris Turbidity Currents

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Variables that Influence Mass Movements

Several variables influence the mass movements of Earth’s material.

1. Material’s Weight – resulting from gravity which works to pull the material
down a slope.

2. Material’s Resistance – to sliding or flowing.

3. Trigger- such earthquake that works to shake material loose from a slope.

4. Water –too little water can prevent sediment grains from holding together at
all, thereby increasing the material’s potential for movement.

- too much water can make a slope unstable. Saturation by water

greatly increases the weight of soils and sediments. Water fills the tiny
open spaces between grains, it may act as a lubricant between the
grains to reduce the friction between them thus force of gravity is
more likely to pull the saturated material downhill.

Mass Wasting can be classified in a number of ways such as type of material, type of
motion and speed of movement. The types of material include rock and soil. The coarse
soil materials are called debris, while fine material are labeled as earth.

Types of Motion

1. Fall – includes the free fall movement , bouncing and rolling of materials on a slope.

2. A topple – the forward rotation out of the slope of a soil or rock mass. The rotation
axis is usually at the base of the moving mass , below its center of gravity.

3. A slide –the downslope movement of coherent materials along a well-defined

surface of rupture called sliding surface.

4. Spread – the lateral extension and fracturing of a coherent mass due to the plastic
flow of its underlying material. This could occur as silt layers liquefy during
earthquake.

5. Flow – happens when the materials are saturated and move downslope as a viscous
fluid.

6. Complex or combinations of several types of movement could occur.

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The widely accepted classification of mass wasting is produced by Varnes in 1978 and
modified by Cruden and Varnes in 1996.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Mass wasting can also be classified in terms of rate of movement. Cruden and
Varnes classified it into 7 classes from extremely slow to extremely rapid. The rate of
movement for each class and the probable destructive significance.

Mass Movement Affect People

Mass movement are natural processes, human activities often contribute to the
factors that cause mass movements. Activities such as constructing heavy buildings,
roads and other structures can make slope materials unstable. In addition, poor
maintenance of eptic systems, which often leak, can trigger slides.

Dangerous Mudflow

 Human lives are in danger when people live on steep terrain or in the path of
unstable slope materials.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Reducing the Risks

Catastrophic mass movements are most common on slopes greater than 25⁰ that
experience annual rainfall of over 90 cm. the best way to minimize the destruction
caused by mass movements is to avoid building structures on such steep and unstable
slopes.

Preventive Actions

1. A series of trenches can be dug to divert running water around a slope and
control its drainage.

2. To control landslides include covering steep slopes with materials such as

steel nets and constructing protective fences along highways in areas where
rock slides are common.

3. Installation of retaining walls to support the bases of weakened slopes and

prevent them from falling.

4. To reduce the number of disasters is to educate people about the problems of

building on steep slopes.

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Lesson 2
Human Actions and the Earth’s Resources

Environment refers to everything that surrounds a living organism, including

physical factors such as air, water , soil and biological factors such as living organisms.
An ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with each other and with the
abiotic or nonliving components of the environment.

Ecosystem Services

Ecosystem services refer to the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems

to human survival and quality of life.

1. Support Service

Include the cycling of vital nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.

Minerals are important for survival and derived through nitrogen and
phosphorus cycles.
It includes the decomposition of organic matter, cycling of water and
production of primary materials.

2. Provisioning Services

Provide the basic needs for survival- air, water, shelter, food and energy. The
photosynthesis in plants, water cycle , food web, and the presence of different
natural ecosystems such as forest, rivers and seas.
3. Regulating Services

Benefits obtained by regulating the climate, hazards and diseases through

processes such as carbon sequestration- removal of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere and storage in plants

4. Cultural Services

Nonmaterial benefits such as spiritual enrichment , cultural heritage,

recreation , tourism and the aesthetic experience that nature provides for
humans.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Human Activities, Waste and Waste Management

One of the ways human affect the environment is the generation of waste.
If not managed properly , these wastes will pollute and affect the environment.
Solid waste is generally made up of objects or particles that accumulate on the
site where they are produced. Various types of solid waste are produced
through mining, agricultural, industrial and municipal/domestic activities.

Wastes are unwanted or unusable materials and any substance that is

discarded after primary use or is worthless, defective, and of no use. A by-
product by contrast is a joint product of relatively minor economic value. A
waste product may become a byproduct, joint product, or resource through an
invention that raises a waste product's value above zero

1. Municipal Waste

Includes materials that people in the community no longer want

because they are broken , spoiled or no longer useful. This type of
wastes comes from households , commercial, establishment,
institutions and some industrial sources.
2. Agricultural Waste

Waste acquired from farming and poultry. Most agricultural waste is

organic and is used for soil enhancing activities. Too much agricultural
waste in the form of fertilizers is deposited into bodies of water which
can cause eutrophication.
3. Industrial Solid Waste

Comes from industrial sources such as demolition waste, scraps from

manufacturing processes and ash from combustion. If they are classified
as hazardous, their disposal requires special landfills for isolation and
treatment.
4. Mining Waste

a. large amounts of rock and soil are removed to extract the valuable
ores and the waste materials are left outside the mining site.
b. In milling operation, the grinding and sorting of materials produce
solid waste called tailings, which dump and stored in ponds near the
milling site
c. the water dumped out of the mines flows from piles of waste rock or
tailings that contain hazardous materials.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Solid Wastes

Solid waste is defined as any garbage, refuse, sludge from waste

treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility
and other materials, including solid, liquid, semisolid, contained gaseous
resulting from industrials, commercials, mining, and agricultural operations
from community activities.

Types of Waste

A. Biodegradable waste. These are the wastes that come from our kitchen, and
include food remains, garden waste, etc. These are also known as moist
waste. These can be composted to obtain manure. They decompose
themselves over a period depending on the material.

B. Non-biodegradable waste. These are the wastes which include old

newspapers, broken glass pieces, plastics, etc. These are known as dry
waste. Dry wastes can be recycled and can be reused. Non-
biodegradable wastes do not decompose by themselves and hence are
major pollutants.

Classification of Five Types of Waste

1. Liquid Waste - commonly found both in households as well as in

industries. It includes dirty water, organic liquids, wash water, waste
detergents, and rainwater.

2. Solid Rubbish can include a variety of items found in your household

along with commercial and industrial locations.

Solid rubbish is commonly broken down into the following types:

• Plastic waste – This consists of bags, containers, jars, bottles, and
many other products that can be found in your household. Plastic is not
biodegradable, but many types of plastic can be recycled. Plastic should
not be mixed in with your regular waste. It should be sorted and placed
in your recycling bin.

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Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
• Paper/card waste – This includes packaging materials, newspapers,
cardboards, and other products. Paper can easily be recycled and reused
so make sure to place them in your recycling bin or take them to your
closest recycling area near your place.

• Tins and metals – These can be found in various forms throughout your
home. Most metals can be recycled. Consider taking these items to a
scrap yard or to your closest recycling area to dispose of this waste type
properly.

• Ceramics and glass – These items can easily be recycled. Look for
special glass recycling bins and bottle banks to dispose them correctly.

3. Organic Waste is another common household. All food waste, garden

waste, manure, and rotten meat are classified as organic waste. Over time,
organic waste is turned into manure by microorganisms. Organic waste
in landfills causes the production of methane, so it must never be simply
discarded with general waste.

4. Recyclable Rubbish includes all waste items that can be converted into
products that can be used again. Solid items such as paper, metals,
furniture, and organic waste can all be recycled.

5. Hazardous Waste - includes all types of rubbish that are flammable, toxic,
corrosive, and reactive. These items can harm you as well as the
environment and must be disposed of correctly.

Characteristics of Wastes
1. Corrosive: these are wastes that include acids or bases that are capable of
corroding metal containers, e.g., acid, or alkaline solution, rust remover,
battery acid, and caustic hot tank waste.

2. Ignitability: this is waste that can create fires under certain conditions,
e.g., waste oils and solvents.
3. Reactive: these are unstable in nature, they cause explosions, toxic fumes
when heated, e.g., lithium-sulfur batteries and explosives.

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4. Toxicity: waste that is harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed, e.g., the
household products in homes that are improperly disposed of such as old
batteries, pesticides, paint, and car oil.

5. Non-Hazardous waste: is any type of industrial waste which, according to

regulations, cannot be added to a dumpster or sewage line. e.g., refuse,
garbage, sludge, municipal trash.

6. Hazardous waste: The most common examples of hazardous waste found

within the home include paints, batteries, solvents, cleaning agents,
pesticides, heavy metals, and chemical sludges.

7. Radioactive: high and low-level radioactive waste. Low-Level Radioactive

Waste (LLRW) is a regulatory term defined as the broad group or class
that is not included in the following classes of radioactive waste:
a. Spent nuclear fuel.
b. Fuel that has been withdrawn from a nuclear reactor after use.
c. High-level radioactive wastes are the highly radioactive
materials produced as a byproduct of the reactions that occur
inside nuclear reactor
High-level wastes take one of two forms:
i. Spent (used) reactor fuel when it is accepted for disposal.
ii. Waste materials remaining after spent fuel is reprocessed.
8. Mixed waste: Radioactive organic liquids, radioactive heavy metals. Mixed
hazardous waste is waste that falls into two or more different categories of
hazardous materials. Examples include radioactive contaminated
phenol/chloroform, or blood labeled with a radionuclide

Sources of Waste Materials

The source of waste comes from industrial, the typical waste generated
is light and heavy manufacturing, fabrication, construction sites, power, and
chemical plants. The commercial is another source of waste like stores, hotels,
restaurants, markets, office buildings, etc. The institutional source came from
schools, hospitals, prisons, government centers.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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How are waste materials treated?

Hazardous waste can be treated by chemical, thermal, biological, and

physical methods. Chemical methods include ion exchange, precipitation,
oxidation and reduction, and neutralization. Among thermal methods is high
temperature incineration, which can not only detoxify certain organic wastes
but can also destroy them

Solid wastes are generated from residential, commercial, industrial, and

institutional sources. Residential wastes account for more than half (57%) of
the total solid wastes (e.g., kitchen scraps, yard waste, paper and cardboard,
glass bottles, etc.) Wastes from commercial sources, which include commercial
establishments and public/private markets, account for 27%. Wastes from
institutional sources such as government offices, educational and medical
institutions account for about 12% while the remaining four percent (4%) is
waste coming from the industrial or manufacturing sector (NSWMC).

Causes of Increase in Solid Waste

1. Population growth
2. Increase in industrials manufacturing
3. Urbanization
4. Modernization, technological advancement, and an increase in the global
population created rising in demand for food and other essentials. This
has resulted into rising in the amount of waste being generated daily by
each household.

Sources of waste can be broadly classified into four types:

1. Industrial Waste. These are the wastes created in factories and industries.
Most industries dump their wastes in rivers and seas which cause a lot of
pollution. Example: plastic, glass, etc.

2.Commercial Waste. Commercial wastes are produced in schools, colleges,

shops, and offices. Example: plastic, paper, etc.

3. Domestic Waste. The different household wastes which are collected

during household activities like cooking, cleaning, etc. are known as
domestic wastes. Example: leaves, vegetable peels, excreta, etc.

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Province of Laguna
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4. Agricultural Waste. Various wastes produced in the agricultural field are
known as agricultural wastes. Example: cattle waste, weed, husk, etc.

Major Treatments and Disposal Method

A. Thermal Treatment refers to the processes that use heat to treat waste
materials.

Thermal Waste Treatment Techniques:

1. Incineration is one of the most common waste treatments. This

approach involves the combustion of waste material in the presence of
oxygen. It is commonly used as a means of recovering energy for
electricity or heating. The advantages of this approach are it is quickly
reduced waste volume, lessens transportation costs, and decreases
harmful greenhouse gas emissions.

2. Gasification and Pyrolysis are two similar methods, both of which

decompose organic waste materials by exposing waste to low amounts
of oxygen and very high temperature. Pyrolysis uses no oxygen while
gasification allows a very low amount of oxygen in the process.
Gasification is more advantageous as it allows the burning process to
recover energy without causing air pollution.

3. Open Burning is a legacy thermal waste treatment that is

environmentally harmful. The incinerators used in such a process
have no pollution control devices. They release substances such as
hexachlorobenzene, dioxins, carbon monoxide, particulate matter,
volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic compounds, and ash.
This method is still practiced by many local authorities
internationally, as it offers an inexpensive solution to solid waste

B. Dumps and Landfills.

1. Sanitary landfills provide the most used waste disposal solution that is
desired to eliminate or reduce the risk of environmental or public health
hazards due to waste disposal. These sites are situated where land
features work as natural buffers between the environment and the

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landfill. For instance, the landfill area can be comprised of clay soil which
is quite resistant to hazardous wastes or is characterized by an absence
of surface water bodies or a low water table, preventing the risk of water
pollution.

2. Controlled dumps are the same as sanitary landfills. These dumps

comply with many of the requirements for being a sanitary landfill but
may lack one or two. Such dumps may have a well-planned capacity but
no cell planning. There may be no or partial gas management, basic
record-keeping, or regular cover.

3. Bioreactor landfills are the result of recent technological research. These

landfills use superior microbiological processes to speed up waste
decomposition. The controlling feature is the continuous addition of a
liquid to sustain optimal moisture for microbial digestion. The liquid is
added by re-circulating the landfill leachate. When the amount of leachate
is not adequate, liquid waste such as sewage sludge is used.

C. Biological Waste Treatment

1. Composting is another most frequently used waste disposal or treatment

method which is the controlled aerobic decomposition of organic waste
materials by the action of small invertebrates and microorganisms. The
most common composting techniques include static pile composting,
vermin composting, windrow composting, and in-vessel composting.

2. Anaerobic Digestion also uses biological processes to decompose organic

materials. Anaerobic Digestion, however, uses oxygen and a bacteria-
free environment to decompose the waste material where composting
must have air to enable the growth of microbes.

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Some of the main waste disposal methods include

a. Incineration- The burning of waste materials at high temperatures to

transform them into gases or residue.

b. Recycling- The conversion of waste material into new products. It aims

to reduce strain on the environment by minimizing the waste that is
added to the water, air, and land.

c. Open Dumping- A simple and inexpensive method that involves the

deliberate disposal of garbage in an open space.

d. Ocean Dumping- Occurs when sewage, garbage, construction debris,

hazardous chemicals, etc. are intentionally discarded at sea by ships,
aircraft, and other man-made machines. Incineration of trash at sea is
also included in this definition.

Proper waste disposal and management can be done by applying the

3Rs–Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. Reducing means lessening the amount of
trash/garbage produced. Reusing involves the repeated use of items or parts
of items that still have usable aspects. Recycling means the use of waste itself
as a resource.

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Recycling Symbols

Color coding exists to allow you to easily distinguish the different types
of biomedical waste, by sorting them into different categories, each pertaining
to a single color. Your colored bins take different kinds of waste. Green for
biodegradable waste (non-recyclable waste); black for electronic product-
waste; and blue for plastic and metal waste (recyclable waste)
Exposure to hazardous waste can affect human health, with children
being more vulnerable to these pollutants. Waste from agriculture and
industries can also cause serious health risks. Other than this, co-disposal of

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
industrial hazardous waste with municipal waste can expose people to
chemical and radioactive hazards.

Soil, water, and air pollution can be a result of improper waste disposal
and occurs when either of them becomes contaminated with hazardous
materials. Not only does this contribute to the creation of greenhouse gas
effects but also causes significant harm to marine and wildlife. Ignorance of
people about proper waste disposal and laziness can cause improper garbage
disposal. Some people do not follow the rules of proper waste disposal. They
always throw it in what place they want, and they have no care of what will be
its effect.

Disposing of waste has huge environmental impacts and can cause

serious problems. Some waste will eventually rot, but not all, and in the
process, it may smell, or generate methane gas, which is explosive and
contributes to the greenhouse effect. Leachate produced as waste decomposes
may cause pollution.

Sources of Human Exposures

1. Exposures occur through

a. Ingestion of contaminated water or food
b. Contact with disease vectors
c. Inhalation
d. Dermal
2. Points of contact, Soil adsorption, storage, and biodegrading
3. Plant uptake
4. Ventilation
5. Runoff
6. Leaching
7. Insects, birds, rats, flies, and animals
8. Direct dumping of untreated waste in seas, rivers, and lakes results in
the plants and animals that feed on it

Impacts of solid waste on health

1. Chemical poisoning through chemical inhalation

2. Uncollected waste can obstruct the stormwater runoff resulting in a
flood
3. Low birth weight
4. Cancer
5. Congenital malformations
6. Neurological disease

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
7. Nausea and vomiting
8. Increase in the hospitalization of diabetic residents living near
hazardous waste sites.
9. Mercury toxicity from eating fish with high levels of mercury

The Negative Effects of the Improper Removal and Disposal of Waste

1. Soil contamination - It does not only affect plant growth, but it is also
unhealthy to humans and animals feeding on those plants. Take the case of
plastic bottles. When they eventually break down, they release DEHA
(diethyl hydroxylamine), a carcinogen that affects our reproduction
systems, causes liver dysfunction, and weight loss.

2. Air contamination - Waste that releases dioxins are also dangerous and
pose a health risk when they diffuse into the air that we breathe. Landfill
gas produced by the decomposing wastes can be explosive and can harm
nearby communities.

3. Water contamination - Untreated sewages can destroy and suffocate

marine habitats, such as corals. Contaminated water is also dangerous
and harmful to humans who consume fish and other marine life.

4. Bad impact on human health - Improper disposal of waste can greatly affect
the health of the population living nearby the polluted area or landfills.
Exposure to improperly handled wastes can cause skin irritations, blood
infections, respiratory problems, growth problems, and even reproductive
issues.

5. Impact on animals and marine life- The effects of pollution caused by

improperly disposed wastes and rubbish, Styrofoam, and cigarette butts
have been known to cause deaths in marine animals. Animals who
consume grasses near contaminated areas or landfills are also at risk of
poisoning due to the toxins that seep into the soil.

6. Disease-carrying pests- Mosquitoes breed in cans and tires that collect

water and can carry diseases such as malaria and dengue. Rats find food
and shelter in landfills and sewage, and can carry diseases such as
leptospirosis and salmonellosis.

7. Adversely affect the local economy- Landfill facilities that are mismanaged
can cause the local economy to sink, which can then affect the livelihood of
the locals

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Performance Tasks

PT1
Direction: Using the graphic organizer, cite the effects of improper waste disposal in human health
and the environment from the given article.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

PT2
Direction: Group of 5 students. Using the box given below, create a slogan on the conservation of a
wealthy environment. Rubrics will be used to evaluate your output

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Learning Resources

1. Acosta Herma D. et al. Science Learners Material Grade 10,2015

2. Commission on Higher Educvation. Earth and Life Science for Senior High School. C.P. Garcia Ave.,
Diliman, Quezon City Philippines. Commission on Higher Education, 2016
3. Hesser, D. T. & Leach, S. S. (2012). Focus on Earth Science. Merill Publishing

4. Jarumayan, G.A. & Sadili, M.V. (2003). The Changing Earth. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388 Quezon
Avenue, Quezon City.
5. Kasten Lileth P. Secondary Education Curriculum: Integrated Science, 2012
6. King, C. (2010). The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences. Retrieved from
https://www.topfreebooks.org/earth-science-books-online/

7. Lianko, A. (2001). Introduction to Earth Science. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388 Quezon Avenue,
Quezon City.
8. Norton, W.H. (2012). The Elements of Geology. Retrieved from
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40404/40404-h/40404-h.htm#Page_233
9. Tarbuck, Lutgens & Tasa. (2012). Earth Science. Pearson Education, Inc.

Earth Mass Movements

https://youtu.be/dLMBFsUfjWA

The Billionth years Movement

https://youtu.be/hOh-C335NRk

Introduction to Waste
https://youtu.be/_NkqwMitQ8o

Solid Waste Management

https://youtu.be/9STFO5HjuP8

Waste Disposal
https://youtu.be/5KFYRn1ZRXY

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING