INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
SEd 111 | COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY JPLPC-MALVAR
A Learning Module in SEd 111
Inorganic Chemistry
This module was developed as part of the university’s transition to flexible, alternative mode of
teaching and learning.
Course Description
This is a 5-unit course designed for a thorough understanding of the fundamental
concepts and principles in Chemistry which are essential in successful preparation of the students
for the careers in science. It also emphasizes fundamental concepts of chemical kinetics,
chemical equilibrium (including acid-base chemistry and solubility equilibrium),
thermodynamics, and electrochemistry. It also deals with solution chemistry, specifically
reactions in aqueous solutions as well as group properties and reactions of elements as an
introduction to qualitative analysis of cations and anions. Experiments and activities that will
verify the principles and laws in Chemistry are also included in this course. This course offers an
opportunity for students to relate the laws and principles of chemistry in real world and its
implications to environment.
Intended Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course, students will be able to:
ILO 1 Relate and analyze chemistry concepts, principles and theories to scientific phenomena
occurring either in research-based study or basic scientific decisions in their life with developed
level of critical thinking and good scientific attitudes.
ILO 2 Express their knowledge in the subject matter through enhanced student participation,
well- answered problems and exercises and well- reasoned laboratory write-ups.
ILO 3 Show appreciation of chemistry and its interface with social and daily life such as
environmental issues.
ILO 4 Integrate scientific attitude during every laboratory activity.
ILO 5 Commit to accomplish laboratory experiments with well establish findings and systematic
results.
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Brief Description of the Module
This module was developed in response to the call for continuous delivery of instruction,
under the philosophy that learning should continue despite emerging challenges under the “new
normal.” It is based primarily on the approved revised syllabus for Inorganic Chemistry.
It has the following lessons:
Lesson 1 (Week 2) is about the nature of chemistry as a discipline of science,
including the scientific approach in problem solving using the scientific method.
It also discusses the different properties of matter and the methods for separating
mixtures.
Lesson 2 (Week 3) includes the quantitative portion of matter, that is associated
with numbers, the units for scientific measurement in the metric system as well as
uncertainties associated with it. Unit conversion and dimensional analysis are also
incorporated.
Lesson 3 (Weeks 4-5) is about the basic units of matter: atoms, molecules and
ions. It introduces the theory and discovery of the atomic structure and its modern
structure. An overview of the periodic table and atomic weights is also included
that will correlate to the formation of molecules, molecular and ionic compounds.
Lesson 4 (Week 6) is an in-depth study of the Periodic Table which includes its
development, features, elemental types and trends that can be observed across the
table that can be used to predict some variables such as atomic radii, ionization
energy and electron affinity.
Lesson 5 (Week 7) begins with the main types of chemical bonds which includes
covalent, ionic and metallic bond. It also introduces the Lewis structure which
shows bonding patterns.
Lesson 6 (Week 8) is about chemical nomenclature or the system of naming
substance, in particular the names and formulas of inorganic compounds which
includes ionic compounds, acids and binary molecular compounds.
Midterm Exam Week (Week 9)
Lesson 7 (Week 10) is the study of the quantitative relationships between
chemical formulas, chemical reactions and equations known as stoichiometry.
The mole concept is also introduced as it is used to calculate the relative amounts
of reactants and products. Basic description of limiting reactants and yields in a
chemical reaction is also included.
Lesson 8 (Week 11) covers the topic on solutions, its properties, the solution
process and the factors affecting solubility. Some calculations on solution
concentration is also incorporated and an introduction to colloids, mixtures that
are not true solution.
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Lesson 9 (Week 12) is an in-depth study of the different reactions in aqueous
solutions and the energy change the reactions undergo. It also includes discussion
of different reactions such as precipitation, acid-base and redox reactions.
Lesson 10 (Weeks 13-14) is about the chemistry of acids and bases. It begins with
the properties of water and the measure of its acidity. Categories of acids and
bases as to weak or strong electrolytes ionizing in aqueous solution is also
included.
Lesson 11 (Week 15) covers the topics on thermodynamics and electrochemistry.
This includes the basic laws of thermodynamics and the relationship between
electricity and chemical reactions, both spontaneous processes and
nonspontaneous processes.
Lesson 12 (Week 16-17) covers analysis and presentation of a scientific journal
relevant to a scientific issue.
Final Exam Week (Week 18)
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Lesson 1: The Study of Chemistry
Learning Outcomes
1. To identify reasons to the study of chemistry and its branches as a discipline of science;
2. To identify the different parts of the scientific method in problem solving; and
3. To demonstrate the different properties of matter and various separation methods.
The Study of Chemistry
Chemistry is the study of the properties and behavior of matter, its composition, properties,
and the changes it undergoes (Brown et al., 2012). It is a diverse subject comprising different
branches such as:
Analytical Chemistry- concerned with the composition of substances
Inorganic Chemistry- primarily deals with substances without carbon
Organic Chemistry- essentially all substances containing carbon
Biochemistry- known as the chemistry of living things
Physical Chemistry- describes the behavior of chemicals
Nuclear Chemistry - dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, and nuclear properties
So why is the study of chemistry important?
With these branches, chemistry has a great impact in our everyday lives. Chemistry is
involved in different areas such as in the health care, in the natural resources, in the environment,
food, pharmaceutical needs and a lot more. In the field of agriculture, we use fertilizer and
pesticides. In the industry, we have developed plastics and other materials. It is also correlated to
different branches of science such as biology, engineering, geology, and pharmacy. The very
change that happens to all the materials around us can be answered by studying chemistry
(Brown et al., 2012).
Even in the history, chemistry has been important since then. Our ancestors process minerals
to produce metals and to prepare medicine from unknown compounds of plants or flowers. Some
distinguished scientists would include:
1. Aristotle who affirmed the four fundamental substances such as fire, water, earth, and air.
2. Democritus used the term atomos to describe the ultimate particles.
3. Robert Boyle wrote the The Sceptical Chymist book and later contributed to the study of
gas behavior.
4. Antoine Lavoisier wrote a book on Elements of Chemistry (1787) and compiled the first
complete (at that time) list of elements and helped revised and standardized the chemical
nomenclature.
5. John Dalton was the first to propose atoms as building blocks of matter and revived the
atomic theory.
6. Amadeo Avogadro, an Italian chemist authored the theory of molarity and molecular
weight
7. Dimitri Mendeleev created the first version of the periodic table of elements (Murray,
2015).
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The Scientific Method
The scientific method is a systematic approach to research and used by all sciences in solving
problem (Figure 1). It starts with identifying and defining the problem. The next step is gathering
of data/ information by observation and conducting of experiment. The data obtained can be
quantitative or qualitative. After having enough data, the goal is to find pattern or sense of order
in the observation. This will lead to tentative explanation or hypothesis. More experiments are
conducted to test the validity of the hypotheses. In experimentation, we deal with variables or
factors that change. Two types include:
1. Independent variable - is the one that we change
2. Dependent variable - is the one observed or measured during the experiment
Furthermore, a control experimental setup is also designed to test the hypothesis. This is
designed in which the independent variable’s effect is isolated on the experiment and cannot be
used to influence the results.
Brown, 2012
Figure 1. Scientific Method
Those that pass many experimental tests of validity is then called theory, a unifying
principle that explains a body of facts and/or those laws (a concise verbal or mathematical
statement of a relationship between phenomena that is always the same under the same
conditions) that are based on them (Chang et al., 2008). Example is gravity, it is a law but the
theory of relativity explains how gravity works.
Classification of Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass, and chemistry is the study of matter
and the changes it undergoes. All matter, at least in principle, can exist in three states: solid,
liquid,
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and gas. Solids are rigid objects with definite shapes. Liquids are less rigid than solids and are
fluid—they are able to flow and assume the shape of their containers. Like liquids, gases are
fluid, but unlike liquids, they can expand indefinitely (Chang et al., 2008).
At the molecular level, gas molecules are far apart and moving at high speeds, colliding
repeatedly with one another and with the walls of the container. In liquid, molecules are packed
closely together but still move rapidly while in the solid state, molecules are held tightly together
(Brown et al., 2012).
These states can be interconverted into one another without changing its composition
such that of water. Assessment: Kindly describe the changes water undergoes that can show the
different states of matter.
Plasma is often called “the fourth state of matter,” along with solid, liquid and gas. Just as
a liquid will boil, changing into a gas when energy is added, heating a gas will form a plasma – a
soup of positively charged particles (ions) and negatively charged particles (electrons).
A Bose-Einstein condensate is a group of atoms cooled to within a hair of absolute zero.
Have to cool a diffuse gas of atoms—rubidium, in that first successful experiment—to within a
few millionths of a Kelvin above absolute zero. When they reach that temperature the atoms are
hardly moving relative to each other; they have almost no free energy to do so. At that point, the
atoms begin to clump together, and enter the same energy states. They become identical, from a
physical point of view, and the whole group starts behaving as though it were a single atom.
When bosonic atoms are cooled to form a condensate, they can lose their individuality. They
behave like one big collective superatom, analogous to how photons become indistinguishable in
a laser beam (Ornes, 2017).
Properties of Matter
There are different properties of matter that can be observed when they undergo changes.
Physical Property is the property of matter that can be observed or measured without changing
the identity of the matter. This includes:
Density – amount of mass in a given volume
Malleability – ability to be pounded into thin sheets
Ductility - The ability to be drawn or pulled into a wire
Solubility - The ability to dissolve in another substance
Thermal Conductivity - The ability to transfer thermal energy from one area to another
Chemical property is the property of matter that describes a substance based on its ability to
change into a new substance with different properties. Example would include:
Flammability - ability of matter to burn
Reactivity - ability of matter to combine chemically with other substances
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Another property of matter is its measurable property. All measurable properties of matter
fall into two categories:
1. extensive properties = depends on how much matter is being considered. Example:
mass, length, and volume (more matter means more mass).
2. intensive property = does not depend on the amount of matter being considered.
Example: temperature
Separation of Mixtures
A substance is matter that has definite or constant composition and distinct properties
(Chang et al., 2008). This would include water, ethanol, and table salt. It is also called pure
substance. A mixture, on the other hand, is a combination of two or more substances in which
each substance retains its chemical identity. Mixtures can be either homogenous or heterogenous.
Homogenous mixtures are uniform all throughout while heterogenous mixtures do not have the
same composition, properties and appearance. Example of homogenous is air while rocks and
woods are heterogenous.
All substances are either elements or compounds. Elements are those that cannot be
separated into simpler substances by any means. At the molecular level, it only consists of one
kind of atom making atom the smallest unit of the element.
On the other hand, compounds are substances composed of two or more elements, or two
or more kinds of atoms, like water. They are chemically combined in fixed proportions. Example
would be carbon dioxide and sodium chloride. The relationships among these can be seen in
Figure 2.
Brown, 2012
Figure 2. Classification of Matter
Mixtures can be separated by physical means while compounds can only be separated by
chemical means. Since mixtures are held together by physical forces, each item retains its
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properties. Compounds, on the other hand, can be broken down by chemical means like heating
or applying electric current.
The following are the physical methods to separate mixtures:
1) Mechanical separation (often by hand) takes advantage of physical properties such as
color and shape.
2) Magnetic separation takes advantage of the physical property of magnetism.
3) Filtration is a used to separate the components of a mixture containing an undissolved
solid in a liquid.
4) Evaporation is used to separate components of a mixture with a dissolved solid in a
liquid. The liquid is evaporated or converted from liquid to gaseous state. This is
accompanied with heat. Once the liquid is completely evaporated, the solid is all that is
left behind.
5) Distillation is a separation technique used to separate components of a liquid mixture by a
process of heating and cooling, which uses the differences in the volatility of each of the
components.
6) Decantation separates a liquid from insoluble solid sediment by carefully pouring the
liquid from the solid without disturbing the solid.
7) Centrifugation is the process of separating a suspended solid from a liquid by spinning
the mixture at high speed.
8) Chromatography is a separation technique based on how the different components in a
mixture have different affinity for the stationary and mobile phase. It harnesses the
varying abilities of the substances to adhere to the surfaces of the stationary phase.
Chang, 2009
Fig 3. Magnetic Separation. Fig 4. Filtration.
Fig 5. Evaporation.
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Brown, 2012
Fig 6. Distillation.
Brown, 2012
Fig 7. Chromatography.
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Laboratory Worksheet 1
Name:
Objectives: 1. To differentiate the properties of matter; and
2. To apply methods of separation and design simple diagram of procedures.
Instruction: Answer the following completely.
1. Which of these describe physical and which describe chemical properties? 5pts
(a) Iron has a tendency to rust.
(b) Rainwater in industrialized regions tends to be acidic.
(c) Hemoglobin molecules have a red color.
(d) When a glass of water is left out in the sun, the water gradually disappears.
(e) Carbon dioxide in air is converted to more complex molecules by plants
during photosynthesis.
2. Give the most effective method of separation on each of the following: 5pts
Vinegar (acetic acid in water):
Pebbles in water:
salt water:
Iron fillings in sand:
Different pigments present in a leaf:
3. Propose a simple method on how to separate the given mixtures. Use schematic diagram.
Mixture of sand, salt, water. 5pts
Mixture of marbles, sugar, and small silver ores. 5pts
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Lesson 2: Measurement
1. To calculate measurements in chemistry using the metric system with emphasis on
the SI units;
2. To understand the principle of uncertainty of measurement, scientific notation,
significant figures and precision and accuracy; and
3. To apply dimensional analysis approach in problem solving.
Units of Measurement
Studying chemistry relies on quantitative analysis, primarily associated with number and
units of that specific quantity. Several measuring devices/ instruments is used to quantify
substances as seen in the figures below.
Chang, 2009
Fig 1. Common measuring glassware.
The units used for scientific measurements is the metric system. It is developed in France
during the late 18th century and is widely used in most countries. An international agreement was
then made promoting a particular choice of metric units for scientific measurements. These
preferred units are called SI units, after the French Système International d’Unités (Brown,
2012). Table 1 shows the SI base units.
Table 1. SI base units.
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Chang, 2009
Mass and Weight
Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object. It is different from weight such
that in scientific terms, weight is the force that gravity exerts on an object. Example would be an
apple that falls from a tree is pulled downward by Earth’s gravity. The mass of the apple is
constant and does not depend on its location, but its weight does. This is also the reason why
astronauts were able to float freely on the moon’s surface although wearing their heavy suits
because of the smaller mass of the moon. The mass of an object can be determined readily with a
balance. The SI base unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), but in chemistry the smaller gram (g) is
more convenient.
Volume
Volume is length (m) cubed, so its SI-derived unit is the cubic meter (m 3). Generally,
however, much smaller volumes are used at the laboratory, such as the cubic centimeter (cm 3).
Another common, non-SI unit of volume is the liter (L). A liter is the volume occupied by one
cubic decimeter. One liter is equal to 1000 milliliters (mL) or 1000 cubic centimeters. One
milliliter is equal to one cubic centimeter.
1 L = 1000 mL 1 mL = 1 cm3
= 1000 cm3
= 1 dm3
Density
Density is the mass of an object divided by its volume:
The SI-derived unit for density is the kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3). However, when dealing
with smaller values, grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm 3) and its equivalent, grams per milliliter
(g/mL), are most conveniently used.
Temperature
Three temperature scales are used namely ºF (degrees Fahrenheit), ºC (degrees Celsius),
and K (kelvin). The Fahrenheit scale is the normal freezing and boiling points of water to be at
32ºF and 212ºF, respectively. The Celsius scale is between the freezing point (0ºC) and boiling
point (100ºC) of water. The kelvin is the SI base unit of temperature and the absolute
temperature scale. Absolute would mean that the zero on the Kelvin scale, denoted by 0 K, is the
lowest temperature that can be attained theoretically. As seen below are the different conversions
of Fahrenheit to Celsius and vice versa and Celsius to Kelvin.
Chang, 2009
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 2. Conversion of (a) ºF to ºC, (b) ºC to ºF and (c) ºC to K.
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Scientific Notation Review
The scientific notation is used when dealing with very large and very small numbers: N x 10n
where N is a number between 1 and 10 and n, the exponent, is a positive or negative whole
number.
Examples:
(1) Express 568.762 in scientific notation: 568.762 = 5.68762 x 102
(2) Express 0.00000772 in scientific notation: 0.00000772 = 7.72 x 10-6
Uncertainty and Significant Figures
Significant figures are the meaningful digits in a calculated quantity. These take into
consideration the margin of error in a measurement since not all measurements in chemistry is an
exact value of the quantity being investigated (Chang, 2009).
When significant figures are used, the last digit is understood to be uncertain. Example
would be a graduated cylinder with a scale that gives an uncertainty of 1 mL. Thus, if the volume
is 5mL, we represent it as (5±1) mL showing that the actual volume would be between 4 to 6
mL. For a finer division of the same instrument, the volume we measure is now uncertain by
only 0.1 mL, so if our reading is 5 mL , then it is (5±0.1) mL, meaning the actual volume is
somewhere between 4.9 mL and 5.1 mL (Chang, 2009).
Balances are commonly used in many general chemistry laboratories and modern
balances measure the mass of objects to four decimal places. Therefore, the measured mass
typically will have four significant figures (for example, 0.8642 g) or more (for example, 3.9745
g). Keeping track of the number of significant figures in a measurement such as mass ensures
that calculations involving the data will reflect the precision of the measurement (Chang, 2009).
Guidelines for Using Significant Figures (Chang, 2009):
1. Any digit that is not zero is significant.
Example: 845 cm has three significant figures, 1.234 kg has four significant figures
2. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
Example: 606 m has three significant figures, 40,501 kg contains five significant figures
3. Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant.
Example: 0.08 L contains one significant figure, 0.000349 g contains three
4. If a number is greater than 1, then all the zeros written to the right of the decimal point count
as significant figures.
Example: 2.0 mg has two significant figures, 40.062 mL has five significant figures, and
3.040 dm has four significant figures
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If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the end of the number and the
zeros that are between nonzero digits are significant
Example: 0.090 kg has two significant figures, 0.3005 L has four significant figures,
0.00420 min has three significant figures
5. For numbers that do not contain decimal points, the trailing zeros (that is,
zeros after the last nonzero digit) may or may not be significant.
Example: 400 cm may have one significant figure (the digit 4), two significant figures
(40), or three significant figures (400). We cannot know which is correct without more
information. By using scientific notation, however, we avoid this ambiguity.
Example: 400 as 4x102 for one significant figure, 4.0x102 for two significant figures, or
4.00x102 for three significant figures.
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy = tells how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity that was
measured
Precision = how closely two or more measurements of the same quantity agree with one
another
Chang, 2009
Dimensional Analysis in Solving Problems
Measurements in chemistry and the proper use of significant figures and correct calculations will
yield accurate numerical results. But the answers must be expressed in the desired units in order
to be meaningful. Dimensional analysis is the conversion of units in chemistry problems.
Generally, this relationship is used:
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Laboratory Worksheet 2
Name:
Objectives: 1. To apply concepts of scientific notation; and
2. To calculate problems using dimensional analysis.
Instruction: Answer the following completely. Express the final answer in scientific notation with
three significant figures. Show your solution map.
1) The volume of a room is 1.08 x 108 dm3. What is the volume in m3?
2) How many liters of wine can be held in a wine barrel whose capacity is 31 gal?
3) The density of the lightest metal, lithium (Li), is 5.34 x 102 kg/m3.
Convert the density to g/cm3.
4) A bumblebee flies with a ground speed of 15.2 m/s. Calculate its speed in km/h.
5) By using estimation techniques, arrange these items in order from
shortest to longest: a 57-cm length of string, a 14-in.-long shoe,
and a 1.1-m length of pipe.
6) The recommended adult dose of Elixophyllin®, a drug used to treat
asthma, is 6 mg/kg of body mass. Calculate the dose in milligrams
for a 186-lb person.
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