Last edited: 8/31/2021

1. CELL CYCLE: INTERPHASE & MITOSIS

Cell Biology | Cell Cycle: Interphase & Mitosis Medical Editor: Gerard Jude Loyola

OUTLINE

I) CELL CYCLE
II) INTERPHASE
III) MITOSIS
IV) MITOSIS MODELS
V) WRAPPING UP
VI) SUPPLEMENTARY IMAGES
VII) APPENDIX
VIII) REVIEW QUESTIONS

I) CELL CYCLE

Figure 1. Overview of the interphase and mitosis.

Cell cycle Cello
o Interphase and mitosis o Basic unit of all living things
o Series of phases and steps that a cell goes to o Eukaryotic cells (i.e. human cells) are classified by
replicate itself three different things:
 Turning one cell into two 1. Cell membrane
o Also important to control cell growth o Phospholipid bilayer surrounding the
 Cell cycle regulation: proto-oncogenes, tumor structure
suppressor genes, DNA repair enzymes 2. Nucleus
o Phospholipid bilayer surrounding the
structure
3. Cytoplasm

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 II) INTERBASE

Figure 2. Overview of interphase.

Consists of:
o G1 phase
o G1/S checkpoint
o S phase
o G2 phase

(A) G1 PHASE (2) Types of Cells

Also called GAP 1 Most of our cells stay in G1 phase
First phase in the cell cycle
Duration varies for certain types of cells = months or (i) Labile/Proliferative Cells
years in G1 phase depending on the cell Cells that are constantly going through the cell cycle
G1 prepares the cell for replication and produce an Consist of:
identical cell o Epithelial cells of the skin, GIT and urinary tract
o Cell that houses the same amount of genetic material o Hematopoietic stem scells in the red bone marrow
(i.e. chromosomes)  We have to be constantly making RBC, WBC and
Recall: platelets
Diploid (2n)
o Cells containing a total of two sets of
chromosomes
o In humans, cells have a total of 46 chromosomes
 23 paternal chromosomes
 23 maternal chromosomes (ii) Stable Cells
o n = number of chromosomes
Cells that do NOT go through constant replication
Only replicate when there is a strong stimulus (e.g.
growth factors)
Consist of:
o Hepatocytes (liver)
 Can regenerate even though 40% of the liver is
resected
 Through release of growth factors
o Epithelium of the kidney tubules
Figure 3. Replication of diploid cells.
o Alveolar cells of the lungs
(1) Functions
(iii) Permanent Cells
Make more organelles
o Increase number of organelles (e.g. ribosomes, Amitotic cells = cells that do not undergo replication
mitochondria) Consist of:
o Why? Because you need organelles for two cells o Neurons
Synthesize proteins and enzymes o Skeletal muscles
o To aid in DNA replication o Cardiac muscles
Repair thymine dimers
o There are different enzymes that can scan the DNA
for thymine dimers
Thymine dimer
o DNA damage caused by exposure to ultraviolet
light [Rumora et al, 2008]
o Considered to be one of the more ‘bulky and
destabilizing’ lesions for several reasons [Rumora et al,
2008]
 Involves nucleotides locked in a rigid non-
standard shape
 Causes anomalous migration in gels and it
facilitates cyclization by bending DNA
 Blocks replicative DNA and RNA polymerases

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 (B) S PHASE As the cell progresses through G1, it can either delay G1,
enter a quiescent state (G0), or proceed past the
Also called the synthetic phase
restriction point [Alberts et al, 2007]
(1) Function o DNA damage is the main indication for a cell to
“restrict” and not enter the cell cycle [Alberts et al, 2007]
DNA replication
o Takes genetic material and open it up → forming a
replication bubble → making a new duplicate strand
from the single strand in the replication bubble
o Semi-conservative model

Figure 4. DNA replication showing replication bubble (blue).

Semi-conservative replication model
o Two original DNA strands separate during
replication; each strand serves as a template for a
new DNA strand, which means that each newly
synthesized double helix is a combination of one (C) G2 PHASE
original and one new strand [Pray, 2008]
Cell in this phase has 92 chromosomes (4n) with more
organelles
o However, cell did NOT have enough cytoplasm
Duration is about 2 hours
(1) Function
Cell growth
o By increasing the cytoplasm and different
components needed to make it bigger and equal for
replication

Table 1. Summary of interphase.

Interphase Function Duration

Make more
Figure 5. Different DNA replication models [Biology LibreTexts] . organelles
o DNA replication is maintained by DNA polymerase I Synthesize Varies
and III G1 Phase proteins and according to
 Can replicate DNA quickly and faithfully enzymes different cells
o Replicates from 2n to 4n Repair thymine
 From 46 chromosomes to 92 chromosomes dimers
o Constant in duration (~6 hours)
S Phase DNA 6 hours
(2) G1/S Checkpoint replication
Makes sure that the replication has no issues; there is Cell growth
enough proteins and organelles G2 Phase (increase 2 hours
cytoplasm)

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 III) MITOSIS
Also called the M phase
Duration: 1 hour
Consists of four parts:
o Prophase
o Metaphase
o Anaphase
o Telophase
 Cytokinesis

Figure 6. Overview of mitosis.

Mnemonic: PMAT
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

(A) PROPHASE
First phase of mitosis
(1) Functions
Condensation of chromatin
o Since the nucleus has a lot of loose DNA
(euchromatin), chromatin should be condensed in
order to separate the chromosomes
 Chromatin = DNA + histone proteins
Dissolution of the nuclear envelope
o The nuclear envelope needs to be dissolved to
separate the chromosomes into the opposite ends
o Special types of cyclin dependent kinases (CDK) that
phosphorylate different proteins of the nuclear
envelope
 Examples of proteins in the nuclear envelope:
lamins, H3A (histone protein)
o Phosphorylation → activates proteases → break up
the nuclear envelope
Formation of the microtubule organization center
(MTOC)
o Centrioles are markers of MTOC formation [Brinkley, 1985]
 Can gather during differentiation to become
MTOCs

Figure 7. Prophase showing dissolved nuclear envelope,

condensed chromosome and MTOCs.

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 (B) METAPHASE (C) ANAPHASE
(1) Function (1) Function
Prepares the chromosomes for separation Separation of sister chromatids
o MTOCs move towards the opposite poles of the cell o Sister chromatids split away through splitting of the
and connect to chromosomes via the polar cohesin and are transported to the opposite poles
microtubules  Cohesin: protein that glues the sister chromatids
Chromosomes are lined up perfectly in the middle together
(metaphase plate) o Motor proteins can “walk” the chromatids along the
microtubules
(i) Chromosome  Dynein: (-) end-directed protein
 Kinesin: (+)-end directed protein

Figure 10. Anaphase showing the splitting of sister chromatids

Figure 8. Different parts of the chromosome. and are transported to the opposite ends by motor proteins
(green).
Made up of chromatin
Parts of the chromosome: Mnemonics:
o Short arm (top) Metaphase = middle = metaphase plate
Anaphase = away
o Long arm (bottom)
o Telomeres
 Found at the ends of the chromosomes
o Centromere
 Found at the center of the chromosomes
 Determine the number of chromosomes
o Sister chromatids
 Individual components of the chromosomes
o Kinetochore
 “Hook”-like structure where polar microtubules
connect to the chromosome

Figure 9. Metaphase showing a perfectly lined up

chromosomes connected by polar microtubules.

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 (D) TELOPHASE
Goal: Equal distribution of chromatin, cytoplasm, and
organelles into two cells
(1) Functions
Formation of the cleavage furrow
o Actin and myosin
 Contractile proteins
 Start contracting the cells producing a constriction
ring called cleavage furrow
Reformation of the nuclear envelope
o Recall that during the prophase, the nuclear envelope
dissolved
Distribution of chromatin and organelles
o Diploid (2n = 46) chromosomes are distributed in
each cell
 Since a nuclear envelope is reformed, chromatin
starts becoming loose
o Equal amount of organelles (e.g. ribosomes,
mitochondria, etc) is distributed
Cytokinesis
o Equal separation of cytoplasm

Figure 11. Telophase showing equal distribution of chromatin,

cytoplasm, and organelles into two cells.

Table 2. Summary of the M phase.

M Phase Function

Chromatin condenses
Prophase Nuclear envelope dissolves
MTOC forms

Metaphase Chromosomes line up perfectly in

the middle (metaphase plate)

Anaphase Sister chromatids separate into the

opposite poles
Cleavage furrow forms
Nuclear envelope reforms
Telophase Chromatin and organelles are
evenly distributed
Cytokinesis

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 IV) MITOSIS MODELS
The following images are taken from the Ninja Nerd
lecture video:

Figure 12. The cell cycle represented in models.

Figure 17. Telomerase showing the formation of the cleavage

furrow and cytokinesis.

V) WRAPPING UP

(A) FATES OF CELLS AFTER THE CELL CYCLE

Proliferative cells can go through the cell cycle again by
Figure 13. Interphase showing a replicated loose chromatin.
entering G1 phase
Some cells do not go immediately into the cell cycle and
go into the quiescent phase (G0 phase), where cells
remain dormant
o Stable cells go into the quiescent phase and only go
into the cell cycle after a strong stimuli
o Permanent cells do not go again into the cell cycle
and stay in the G0 phase

(B) TELOMERES AND CELL SENESCENCE

Telomeres
o Located at the ends of chromosomes
Aging causes shortening of telomeres
o Cell senescence
Figure 14. Prophase showing a loose chromatin, mitochondrial  Cells are irreversibly out of the cell cycle
tubular organization center and dissolution of nuclear envelope.

Figure 18. Aging causes shortening of telomeres.

(C) CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINTS

G1/S Checkpoint
Figure 15. Metaphase showing the mitotic spindles on the o Makes sure there are enough organelles and proteins
opposite sides, polar microtubules connecting to the
for DNA replication
chromosomes, and the metaphase plate.
G2/M Checkpoint
o Makes sure there are no mistakes in DNA replication
o ATM genes
 Genes that produce proteins which can read the
DNA and check for errors
M Checkpoint
o Checkpoint after metaphase and before anaphase
o Makes sure that the chromosomes are aligned
perfectly in the metaphase plate
o Done by APC proteins, securins

Figure 16. Anaphase showing the separation of sister

chromatids into the opposite ends.

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 VI) SUPPLEMENTARY IMAGES

Figure 19. (A) The cell cycle; (B) Length of cell-cycle phases in cultured cells; (C) Time scale of cell-cycle phases [Pollard et al, 2017].

Figure 20. Cell cycle model [Eisco Labs].

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 VII) APPENDIX
Table 3. Summary of the cell cycle.
Phase Function Remarks
Make more organelles Duration varies according to
INTERPHASE

G1 Phase Synthesize proteins and enzymes different cells (labile, stable or

Repair thymine dimers permanent)
S Phase DNA replication Duration: 6 hours
G2 Phase Cell growth (increase cytoplasm) Duration: 2 hours
Chromatin condenses
Prophase Nuclear envelope dissolves
MTOC forms
Chromosomes line up perfectly in the middle (metaphase plate) Metaphase = middle =
Metaphase Chromosomes are connected to the MTOC via the polar
MITOSIS

metaphase plate
microtubules
Anaphase Sister chromatids separate into the opposite poles Anaphase = away
Cleavage furrow forms
Telophase Nuclear envelope reforms
Chromatin and organelles are evenly distributed
Cytokinesis

VIII) REVIEW QUESTIONS IX) REFERENCES

● Rumora, A., Kolodziejczak, K., Wagner, A., & Núñez, A. (2008).
Which phase does the cell makes more
Thymine Dimer-Induced Structural Changes to the DNA Duplex
mitochondria? Examined with Reactive Probes. Biochemistry, 13026-13035.
a. G1 ● Pray. (2008). Semi-Conservative DNA Replication: Meselson
b. S and Stahl. Nature Education, 98.
● Alberts B, J. A. (2007). Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5th ed.
c. G2 New York: Garland Science.
d. G1 checkpoint ● Brinkley, B. (1985). Microtubule Organizing Centers. Annual
Review of Cell Biology, 145-172.
● Pollard, T., Earnshaw, W., Lippincott-Schwartz, J., & Johnson,
Which of the following statements is TRUE? G. (2017). Cell Biology, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier.
a. The equal distribution of cytoplasm happens during
anaphase.
b. MTOC is composed of centrioles and centrosomes.
c. Stable cells go on continuous cell cycle.
d. Chromosomes contain a long arm usually on the top
and a short arm on the bottom.

Which of the following cells undergo replication

when a strong stimulus is detected?
a. Hematopoietic cells
b. Epithelium of the GIT
c. Epithelium of the skin
d. Epithelium of kidney tubules

How many chromosomes does the G2 phase has?

a. 23
b. 46
c. 92
d. 184

Which of the following statements is FALSE?

a. Telomeres at the ends of the chromosomes shorten
due to aging.
b. The permanent cells undergo indefinite stay in the
G0 phase.
c. The M checkpoint makes sure that the chromosomes
are equally distributed.
d. During the anaphase, the cohesin splits away and is
transported to the opposite side.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

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