CHAPTER 2

Cells
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Cells

• Cells are the building blocks of life.

• They have all the characteristics of life.

• Many chemical reactions occur in the cell.

2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

How can we study the parts of the cell?

• Cells are too small to be seen by the naked eye.
• We use light and electron microscopes to see cells
and their parts.

Cells of tree bark

as observed
under a
microscope
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Microscopes

Cameras can be fitted to the microscope to take

pictures called micrographs.
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Viewing cells from different perspectives

• Longitudinal section: cutting along the long
axis of the cell
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Viewing cells from different perspectives

• Transverse section: cutting at right angles to the
longitudinal plane
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

What does a cell consist of?

• Each living cell consists of living material called

protoplasm.

• Protoplasm of cell is made up of three parts:

– Cell surface membrane cell surface
– Cytoplasm membrane
– Nucleus cytoplasm

nucleus
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Cell surface membrane

• The cell surface membrane is also

known as the plasma membrane.

• It is partially permeable.

• It controls the substances

entering or leaving the cell.
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Cytoplasm

• Most cell activities occur here.

• It contains specialised structures

called organelles.
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Nucleus

• The nucleus consists of

a small round denser
nucleoplasm protoplasm called
chromatin nucleoplasm which is
surrounded by a
nuclear nuclear envelope.
envelope
• It may contain one or
nucleolus
more nucleoli and
chromatin.
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Nucleus
nuclear
envelope

nucleoplasm

nucleolus

chromatin
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Chromatin
• Chromatin is a network of threadlike
structures that controls cell activities like
cell division.

• It is made up of deoxyribonucleic acid or

DNA which carries hereditary information.

• Chromatin threads condense into

chromosomes when the cell is dividing.

chromosomes
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Cell wall

• The cell wall is found in plant

cells but is absent in animal cells.

• Cell wall is made of cellulose.

• It protects the cell from injuries

and gives the cell a regular cell wall
shape.

• It is fully permeable.
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

What are the parts of the cytoplasm?

free ribosome
smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
nucleus
centriole
rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi apparatus attached ribosome
vesicle
vacuole
mitochondrion

Animal cell as seen under an electron microscope

2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Endoplasmic reticulum or ER

There are two types of ER:

• rough ER (RER)
RER
• smooth ER (SER)

SER

Three dimensional diagram

of endoplasmic reticulum
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

• RER appears rough
because small particles
called ribosomes are
attached to its outer
surface.
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum • Ribosomes are required
to make proteins.
ribosome

• The RER transports

proteins to the Golgi
apparatus for secretion
out of the cell.
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

SER

• SER is more tubular and does not

have ribosomes.
• It synthesises substances such as fats
and steroids.
• It is involved in detoxification.
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth ER

RER
SER

ribosome

Three dimensional diagram of

endoplasmic reticulum
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Golgi apparatus

• Golgi apparatus consists of flattened

spaces surrounded by membranes.

• It modifies substances made by the ER.

• The Golgi apparatus packages the

substances in vesicles for secretion
out of the cell.

Golgi apparatus
 2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Golgi apparatus
1 Vesicles containing substances
RER made in the ER pinch off from the
ER.
vesicle 2 Vesicles fuse with the
Golgi apparatus.
vesicle fusing with
Golgi apparatus 3 The substances in the vesicles
are released into the Golgi
Golgi apparatus apparatus and are modified.

4 Secretory vesicles containing

the modified substances pinch 5 Secretory vesicles
off from Golgi apparatus and secretory fuse with cell surface
move towards the cell surface vesicle membrane and
membrane. release contents
secretory vesicle fusing into exterior of cell.
with cell surface membrane
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Mitochondria

• Mitochondria perform aerobic

respiration.

• They oxidise food to release energy.

mitochondrion
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Chloroplasts

• Oval structures containing chlorophyll

which is required for photosynthesis to
occur

chloroplast
stacks of
discs
containing
chlorophyll
2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Vacuoles
• Vacuoles store substances within the cell.
• Animal cells have many vacuoles containing water and food
substances.
• Plant cells have a large central vacuole containing cell sap.

vacuoles large
central
vacuole

Animal cell Plant cell

2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

Differences between a plant cell and

an animal cell
Plant cell Animal cell

Cell wall present Cell wall absent

Chloroplasts present Chloroplasts absent

Centrioles absent Centrioles present

A large central vacuole Numerous small vacuoles

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2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

2.2 Specialised Cells, Tissues, Organs and
Systems
 Specialised Cells, Tissues,
2.2 Organs and Systems

Learning Outcomes
After this section, you should be able to:
• relate the cell structure to cell function for
- red blood cells
- xylem vessels
- root hair cells; and
• differentiate between cell, tissue, organ and organ
system
 Specialised Cells, Tissues,
2.2 Organs and Systems

Differentiation

• Differentiation is the process by which a cell

becomes specialised for a specific function.
• Examples of specialised cells are red blood cells
and root hair cells.

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 Specialised Cells, Tissues,
2.2 Organs and Systems

Red blood cell

• Haemoglobin in the cytoplasm of red blood cells

transports oxygen from lungs to all parts of the
body.
• A red blood cell has no nucleus, thus enabling it to
carry more oxygen.

cytoplasm
contains
haemoglobin
 Specialised Cells, Tissues,
2.2 Organs and Systems
Red blood cell
• A red blood cell has a biconcave shape (thinner
central portion), increasing the surface area to
volume ratio.
• This increases the rate of diffusion of oxygen into
and out of the cell.

thinner central
portions
 Specialised Cells, Tissues,
2.2 Organs and Systems
Xylem vessel
lumen
lignified • Xylem vessels are long
wall hollow tubes.
• They do not have cross
walls to obstruct water flow
through the lumen.

pits T.S. • Their walls are thickened

with lignin to prevent the
vessel from collapsing.
Xylem vessel
 Specialised Cells, Tissues,
2.2 Organs and Systems

Root hair cell

• A root hair cell is long and

narrow.
• This increases the surface
area to volume ratio for the
root cell to absorb water and
mineral salts at a faster rate.
long and narrow
root hair cell
 Specialised Cells, Tissues,
2.2 Organs and Systems
How do cells work together in a
multicellular organism?

Cells Specialised for a particular

function

A group of similar cells which

Tissue work together to perform a
specific function

Organ Different tissues working together

to carry out a specific function

Several related organs working

Organ system together to carry out a particular
function
 Specialised Cells, Tissues,
2.2 Organs and Systems

Tissues

• Simple tissues are made up of only one type of

cells.
• Examples include muscle tissue.

Muscle tissue
 Specialised Cells, Tissues,
2.2 Organs and Systems

Tissues

• Complex tissues are made up of several types of

cells.
• Examples include blood, nerve tissue and phloem
tissue.
 Specialised Cells, Tissues,
2.2 Organs and Systems
Organs
• The tissues in an organ carry out different functions,
enabling the organ to work properly.
• Examples of organs in human beings are the brain,
heart and kidneys.

Brain Heart Kidney

 Specialised Cells, Tissues,
2.2 Organs and Systems
Organs

• Examples of organs in plants are the leaves

and flowers.
 Specialised Cells, Tissues,
2.2 Organs and Systems
Organ systems
• The digestive system is made up of organs such
as the stomach and intestine.
• The respiratory system is made up of organs such
as the trachea and lungs.
trachea
stomach digestive respiratory
system system

intestine
lungs
 Specialised Cells, Tissues,
2.2 Organs and Systems
Organ systems

• There are two main organ systems in plants: shoot

system and root system.
• The shoot system consists of leaves, stems, flowers
and fruits.
• The root system consists of roots.