Introduction

Logic is the study of the principles and techniques of reasoning. Logic comes from the Greek word “logos”
which means speech and reasoning.
The ancient Greeks were the first people to systematically analyze the way humans think and arrive at
conclusions. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) is the father of logic who organized the study of logic for the first time in a
work called Organon. The logic from this period, called Aristotelian logic, has been taught and studied for more
than 2000 years.
Challenge!
Which one is declarative sentence?
1. Ten more than a number is seventeen.
2. The measure of an interior angle
3. Give me a sign!
4. Either seven is an odd number or its is even.
5. 3x-5 > 7
6. Who is younger between Ana and Fe?
7. There is no more water in the dam.
8. Wonderful!

Proposition
A proposition is a declarative statement which is true or false, but not both. Consider, for example, the
following sentences:

1. Ice floats in water.

2. 3+5=8
3. London is in North America.
4. Wash the dishes.
5. 10-7=4

There is only one which is not a proposition, the fourth sentence. It is an imperative sentence and
therefore not a proposition. For the propositions, numbers 1 and 2 are true, but 3 and 5 are false.

Simple and Compound Propositions

A prime or simple proposition is a simple statement expressing a single complete thought. A compound
proposition is a proposition formed by connecting two or more propositions or by negating a single
proposition. The words and phrases (or symbols) used to form compound propositions are called connectives.
We use the lowercase letters p, q, r, and so on to denote simple propositions.

Illustrative Example:
Determine the simple and compound propositions below.
1. Six is lower than ten.
2. Roses are red and violets are blue.
3. Joe is an artist and a musician.
4. Bea is smart or she studies every night.
5. 6+8=14

Answer:
1. Simple proposition
 2. Compound proposition
3. Compound proposition
4. Compound proposition
5. Simple proposition

Symbolizing Proposition
Propositions can be expressed in symbol. The words that are used to combine propositions are logical
connectives.

Formal Name Symbol Read Symbolic form

Negation or ~ “not” or ~p

Conjunction “and”

Disjunction “or”

Conditional “if-then”

Biconditional “if and only if”

Truth Value of a Proposition

Truth value of a proposition is the truthfulness or falsity of the proposition denoted by T(true) and
F(false). The truth value of a compound proposition for all possible cases can be shown using the Truth table. It is
a device used to determine when a compound statement is true or false.

Operations on Propositions
A. Negation
The or ~p is true if p is false and vice versa.
Example: Truth Table
Form the negation of the propositions:
~p
a. : Euler is German
T F
~p:Euler is not a German.
F T

Special caution is used when negating statements containing the words all, none (or no), and some. These
are words referred to as quantifiers. The negation of quantified statements is summarized as follows:
 Form of Statement Form of Negation
All are Some are not
None are Some are
Some are None are
Some are not All are
This diagram may help you to remember the statements and their negations:

All are None are

Some are Some are not

The quantifiers diagonally opposite each other are the negations of each other.
Examples:
Write the negation of each statement.
1. Some telephones can take photographs.
2. All houses have two stories.
3. The price of Manila Stock Exchange Composite Index rose today.

Answers:
1. No telephones can take photographs.
2. Some houses do not have two stories. Or
Not all houses have two stories. Or
At least one house does not have two stories.
3. The price of the Manila Stock Exchange Composite Index did not rise today.

B. Conjunction
The conjunction is true if both p and q are true; it is false otherwise. The conjunction is generally
expressed as “and”. Words such as “but”, “however”, and “nevertheless”, are generally used as
conjunctions.
Truth Table
Examples:
1. The propositions: p q
p: Toronto is the capital of Ontario.
q: Toronto is the largest city in Canada. T T T
Toronto is the capital of Ontario
and is the largest city in Canada. T F F
2. Write symbolically, letting h=”It is hot.” And s=”It is sunny.”
F T F
a. It is hot but it is sunny
F F F
b. It is neither hot nor sunny.

C. Disjunction

Disjunction is false if both statements are false; It is true in all other cases. There are two types of disjunction.
An inclusive disjunction of which a proposition of the form when both p and q are true, as well as when only
one of p and q is true. An exclusive disjunction is true if either p or q is true.
Examples:
1. Consider the propositions
p: Lance will go to Luneta Park.
q: Lance will go to Mall of Asia. p q
James will go to Lunetapark
or to Mall of Asia.
T T T

T F T
2. p: The base price of each condominium
unit includes a private deck. F T T
p q
q: The base price of each condominium
unit includes a private patio. F F F
The exclusive disjunction is T T F

The base price of each condominium unit T F T includes either a private deck or a
patio, but not both.
F T T

Truth Values of a Compound Proposition F F F

To determine the truth values of the given compound propositions, first write the simple statements in
symbolic form by using nonnegated statements.

Examples:
Construct a truth table for the following statements.
1. Jo is not an artist and not a musician.
Let: p: Jo is an artist.
q: Jo is a musician.
Thus, the compound statement may be written . Now construct a truth table with four cases.

p q

T T F F F

T F F T F

F T T F F

F F T T T
From the truth table, the compound statement will be true only in case 4 when both simple
statements, p and q, are false.

2. Jericho is home and he is not at his desk, or he is sleeping.

Let: p: Jericho is home.
q: Jericho is at his desk.
r: Jericho is sleeping.
 Thus, the statement may be written .

Truth Table

p q r

T T T F F T

T T F F F F

T F T T T T

T F F T T T

F T T F F T

F T F F F F

F F T T F T

F F F T F F

Forms of Conditional Propositions

A conditional proposition is a proposition of the form “if p, then q” and is represented symbolically by
. The connective “if - then “ is called the conditional connectives. The proposition p is called the antecedent or
hypothesis or premise; and the proposition q is called the consequent or conclusion.
A conditional statement is false if the hypothesis is true and the conclusion is false. It is true in all other
cases. These are some ways to read an implication or proposition.

“ifp, q” “q if p”
“if p, then q” “q when p”
“p only if q” “q unless p”
“p implies q” “q follows from p”
“p is sufficient for q” “q whenever p”
“a necessary condition for p is q” “q is necessary for p”
“a sufficient condition for q is p”

From a given conditional, “ If p, then q” we can form the following:

Converse: “If q, then p.” In symbol:

Inverse: “If not p, then not q.” in symbol:
Contrapositive: “If not q, then not p.” In symbol:
Biconditional: “p if and only if q.” in symbol:

Examples:
Change the following conditional statements into converse, inverse, contrapositive and biconditional.

1. “If a polygon is pentagon, then it has five sides.”

 Converse: “If a polygon has five sides, then it is a pentagon.”
Inverse: “If a polygon is not pentagon, then it does not have five sides.”
Contrapositive: “ If a polygon does not have five sides, then is not a pentagon.”
Biconditional: “A polygon is pentagon if and only if it has five sides.”

2. “If a number is prime, then it has only two factors.”

Converse: “If a number has only two factors, then it is prime.”
Inverse: “If a number is not a prime, then it does not have only two factors.”
Contrapositive: “If a number does not have only two factors, then it is not a prime.”
Biconditional: “A number is prime if and only if it has only two factors.”
Tautology
A statement is a tautology if every entry in its truth table is true. A statement is a contradiction if every entry
in its truth table is false. A statement that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is a contingency statement.
Examples:
Determine if the statement is a tautology, a contradiction or neither.

1.
Truth Table

p q

T T F T F T

T F F T F T

F T T T T T

F F T F F T
Since, all entry in the last column is true, then it is a tautology.

2.
Truth Table

p q

T T T T T

T F F T T

F T T F T

F F t T T
Since all entry in the last column is true, then it is a tautology.

Symbolic Arguments
A symbolic argument is consists of a set of propositions which are called the premises, and a
proposition called the conclusion. An argument is valid if and only if the conclusion is true whenever the
premises are all true. An argument which is not valid is called fallacy.
 Syllogism
A syllogism is a valid argument consisting of two premises, called the major premise and the minor
premise, and one conclusion.

Examples:
1. If Roel saves money, then he can buy a new phone.
Roel saves a money.
Roel can buy a new phone.

Solution:
Let p: Roel saves money
q:Roel can buy a new phone.
Symbolic Form:

Truth Table

Propositions Premises Conclusion

P q

T T T T T
Since the conclusion is true in the row
where the T F F T F premises are also true, we
conclude that the argument is valid.
F T T F T
2. If Rose is stressed, then she is
exhausted. F F T F F
Rose is exhausted
Rose is stressed.

Solution:
Let p: Rose is stressed.
q: Rose is exhausted.

Symbolic Form:

Truth Table:

Propositions Premises Conclusion

P q

T T T T T

T F F F T

F T T T F

F F T F F
 Since as observe in the third row, the premises are true, but the conclusion is false, then the
argument is a fallacy.

3. If I drive a car, then I eat lunch.

If I eat lunch, then I play COC.
If I drive a car, then I play COC.
Solution:
Let p: I drive a car.
q: I eat lunch.
r: I play COC.
Symbolic Form:

Truth Table
Since the conclusion is true in each of the rows that
Propositions Premises Conclusion contain true values for both premises, we conclude that
the argument is valid.
p q r

T T T T T T

T T F T F F

T F T F T T

T F F F T F

F T T T T T

F T F T F T

F F T T T T

F F F T T T
LESSON 3.2 Proof and Disproof
Learning Outcomes
In this lesson, the students are expected to:
1. llustrate the different methods of proof (direct and indirect) and disproof Key words:
(indirect and by counterexample); 1. Contradiction
2. justify mathematical and real-life statements using the different methods 2. Counterexample
of proof and disproof. 3. Contraposition
Introduction
A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a mathematical statement. A proof can use the
hypotheses of the theorem, if any, axioms assumed to be true, and previously proven theorems.

Challenge!
Identify whether the following statements are true or
false.
1. All rational numbers are real.
2. All prime numbers are odd.
3. Every odd number is a multiple of three.
4. A triangle is isosceles if it has at least two
congruent sides.
5. Every composite number is even.

Direct Proofs
Proving of mathematical theorems needed all available ammunition, including a powerful battery of
different proof methods. These methods provide the overall approach and strategy of proofs.
A direct proof of a conditional statement is constructed when the first step is the assumption that
p is true; subsequent steps are constructed using rules of inference. A direct proof shows that a conditional
is true by showing that if p is true, then q must also be true.

Illustrative Example:
1. Prove that “If n is an odd integer, then is odd.”

Proof:
1. n is an odd integer Assumption by hypothesis

2. , k is some integer Definition of an odd number

3. Square both sides

4. is odd Definition of an odd number

QED(quod erat demonstrandum, Latin for “what was to be proven”)

2. Prove that the sum of two odd integers is even.

Proof:
1. Let m and n be odd integers Assumption by hypothesis

2. Definition of odd integers

3. Addition Property of Equality

 4. the sum of two odd integers Definition of even number
is even.
QED

Indirect Proofs
Direct proofs begin with the premises, continue with a sequence of deductions, and end with the
conclusion. However, there are some attempts at direct proofs that often reach dead ends. Unlike direct proofs,
proofs that do not start with the premises and end with the conclusion are called indirect proofs.

Proof by Contraposition
A useful type of indirect proof is proof by contraposition. Proofs by contraposition make use of the fact
that the conditional statement is equivalent to its contrapositive, .
Examples:
1. Prove that if n is an integer and is odd, then n is odd.
Proof:

1. If is odd, then n is odd. Assumption by hypothesis

2. n is even Negation

3. Definition of even number

4. By substitution

5. is even Definition of an even number

6. is odd, then n is odd. By contraposition

QED
2. Prove that if n is an integer and is odd, then n is even.
Proof:

1. If is odd, then n is even. Assumption by hypothesis

2. n is an odd integer Negation

3. Definition of an odd number

4. APE and MPE

 5. is even Definition of an even number

6. If is odd, then n is even. By contraposition

QED

Proof by Contradiction
A proof by contradiction does not prove a result directly. In other words, a proof by contradiction is
another type of indirect proof. To prove by contradiction, we have to assume first the negation of the conclusion.
It is then by using the premises of the theorem and the negation of the conclusion to arrive at a contradiction.
Examples:

1. If is odd, then is odd.

Proof:

1. Let Symbolizing the propositions

2. If is odd, then is even. Assumption

3. Definition of an even number

4. By substitution

5. is even Definition of even number

6. is odd,iff is odd By contradiction

2. If n is an integer, then n is odd if and only if is odd.

Proof:

1. n is odd if and only if is odd Given

2. n is even Negation

3. Definition of even number

 4. By substitution

5. is even Definition of even number

6. is odd, iff is odd By contradiction

Disproof
Have you ever wonder what would happen if you were given a false statement to prove? The answer is
there is no such correct proof that would be possible, for if it were correct, the statement would be true, not
false.
It turns out that there is a very simple and utterly convincing procedure to prove that a statement is false.
The process of carrying out this procedure is called disproof.

Disproof by Counterexample
To disprove P, prove . One of the methods in disproving is by counterexample.
Examples:

1. Conjecture: For every the integer is prime.

Solution: In resolving the truth or falsity of a conjecture, it’s a good idea to gather information about the
conjecture. Let’s make a table for values of for some values of n.

n -3 -1 0 1 3 5 7 9 11

f(n 23 13 11 11 17 31 53 83 121
)

Unfortunately, is not prime. The conjecture is false because is a

counterexample.
Disproof: The statement “For every the integer is “prime”, is false. For a
counterexample, for , the integer is not prime.

2. Show that the statement “Every positive integer is the sum of the squares of two integers” is false.
Solution: To disprove this statement, we look for a counterexample, which is a particular integer that is
not the sum of the squares of two integers. A counterexample is 3 which cannot be written as a sum of two
integers. The only perfect squares not exceeding 3 are 0 and 1. .

Disproof: The statement”Every positive integer is the sum of the squares of two integers” is false by a
counterexample integer 3.

Disproof by Contradiction
 Contradiction is a very useful way to disprove a statement. We know that to disprove P, we must prove
. To prove with contradiction, we assume that is true and deduce a contradiction. But since
, this boils down to assuming P is true and deducing a contradiction.
Example 1. Disprove the conjecture “There is real number for which .
Disproof: Suppose for the sake of contradiction that this conjecture is true. Let be a real number for which
. Then is positive since it is greater than the non-negative number . Dividing all parts of
by the positive number produces . Now subtract 1 from all parts of to obtain
and reason as follows:

Now we have , which is a contradiction because is positive. Thus the conjecture must be false.

Reference:
Rosen, K.H. (2012). Discrete Mathematics and Its Application. Seventh
Edition. McGraw Hill Companies, Inc., New York, USA

Name: Score:
Section: Instructor: Date:

Activity 3.2B
PROOF AND DISPROOF

A. Prove the following statements.

1. If n is a positive integer, then

2. If and is even, then is even.

3. If is a positive integer, then is even if and only if is even.

4. The square of an even number is an even number.

5. If is a perfect square, then is not a perfect square.

B. Disprove the following items by using counterexample or contradiction.

6. The product of two irrational numbers is irrational.

7. For every natural number , the integer is prime.

8. The sum of an irrational number and a rational number is rational.

9. If is positive, then is positive.

10. Every odd integer is the difference of two squares.