Social Psychology of Identities

Introduction
Identity is a significant focus of social psychological research and theorizing in contemporary
society. While identity was largely assigned in the past, the current overwhelming pace of
change in social contexts demands a sense of who one is. Social cognition and symbolic
interaction provide the theoretical foundation for traditional understandings of identity, but the
concept has been taken up broadly in various disciplines. Current social psychological work
on identity focuses on themes such as social inequalities based on race, ethnicity, gender,
and sexuality, how multiple identities intersect, identities based on location, stability of
identities, and politicisation of identities.

Social Cognition
Social cognition is a theory that explains how we store and process information. This theory
is closely tied to psychology and relies heavily on experimental laboratory methods. Social
cognitive theories of identity are built on the central assumptions that human cognitive
abilities are limited and we process information in an efficient manner to manage the
demands of daily interactions. As such, we categorise information about people, objects, and
situations before engaging in memory or inferential processes.

Cognitive Structures
Cognitive schemas are organized packages of information that are the cognitive equivalent
of identities. Self-schemas are organized knowledge about oneself, including characteristics,
preferences, goals, and behavior patterns associated with oneself. Group schemas, similar
to stereotypes, contain organized information about social positions and stratification
statuses, such as gender, race, age, or class. These schemas play a significant role in
identification processes because the social positions we occupy have immediate
consequences for our sense of self. Categorization systems, while advantageous in
summarizing and reducing information, can lead to losing potentially valuable information
and may include evaluations of categories as better or worse. Schemas are not just
perceptual phenomena, but they can also serve as explanatory devices and justifications of
social relationships. As such, social identities are shaped by sociopolitical contexts.

Social identity theory focuses on how individuals identify themselves in terms of group
memberships. (Tajfel & Turner 1986).People define their identities along two dimensions:
social, which is defined by membership in various social groups, and personal, which is the
unique attributes that distinguish an individual from others. Social and personal identities can
become more or less important depending on the situation, but they often interact with one
another. Social identities provide individuals with status and can influence self-esteem.
People tend to evaluate groups they belong to positively and discriminate against groups
they see as a threat to their social identity because they are motivated to evaluate
themselves positively.

Studies have used a minimal group paradigm where people are divided into groups based
on an arbitrary and insignificant factor to show that people tend to favor their own group
when distributing rewards. More recent studies have looked at socially relevant groups and
situations to demonstrate that identification with a group does not happen simply because of
being in a numerical minority but rather requires a situation where group categorization is
meaningful.
People tend to associate themselves with positive and personally important aspects of their
identity in relation to social groups. This helps in achieving a positive social identity,
especially for those belonging to dominant groups. However, it can be challenging for those
who belong to stigmatized groups. They may try to dissociate themselves from their group or
evaluate their group more positively. They may also compete with other groups to improve
their group's status. Such research gives importance to social actors and their actions.

Research has explored how identifying with different ethnic groups can affect a person's
psychology. For example, some studies suggest that African-American students may
prioritize their racial identity and culture, even if it means academic underachievement. This
can result in conflicts and negative psychological consequences. Individuals may also use
impression management strategies to counter negative perceptions of their in-group,
indicating the close relationship between cognition and social interaction. Additionally,
people's prejudices can influence how they categorize others, with racially prejudiced
individuals being more motivated to make accurate racial categorizations to maintain clear
group boundaries.

Identification with a group doesn't always lead to hostility towards those outside the group.
It's when there is competition or threat between groups that in-group identification and
out-group discrimination become linked. Social identity theory suggests that in-group
identification causes out-group bias, while realistic conflict theory suggests that out-group
threat and hostility lead to in-group identification. Studies have shown that attitudes can
affect identifications, which aligns more with realistic conflict theory than social identity
theory.

Cognitive Processes
Cognitive processes, such as attributional patterns, play a role in constructing and
maintaining identities. Studies show that in-group favouritism is common, where positive
behaviours of in-group members are attributed to internal factors and negative behaviours to
external factors. When social categorizations are salient, these attributional patterns become
more intense.

Moscovici's theory of social representations suggests that knowledge structures are

collectively shared and developed through social interaction and communication. This
challenges the traditional view of schemas as resistant to change and highlights the
importance of social processes in shaping cognitive structures. Although experimental
studies have been important in establishing these theories, it is important to validate them in
real-world contexts. The review emphasises the interdependence of cognitive and
interactional processes, with identity management strategies often used to manipulate group
comparisons for the purpose of social identifications.

Interactionism
Symbolic interaction theory states that people give symbolic meaning to objects, behaviors,
and others through interaction. These meanings are transmitted through language and
influence how people behave towards these things. Identities are symbolic representations
that vary in meaning across situations and people, and they locate individuals in social
space based on the relationships implied by these identities.
Interactionist approaches to identity can focus either on the structure of identity or the
processes and interactions involved in constructing identities. The structural approach views
identity as role identities that are hierarchically organized based on their salience to the self
and commitment to them. On the other hand, the process approach emphasizes the
negotiation and construction of identities through self-presentation and impression
management, with identities being strategic social constructions created through interaction.

The way we interact with others shapes our identities, and these interactions are influenced
by social hierarchies. Goffman's concept of "hierarchical observation" explains how people
can control the information others have about them, while total institutions subject individuals
to compulsory visibility and "normalizing judgments." These processes occur in all
institutional settings, not just total institutions.

Identity and language -

Identity is constructed, negotiated, and communicated through language, both in direct
interaction and through various forms of media. People actively produce identity through
their talk and the norms of identity talk include respect for situated identities and basic moral
precepts. Failure to endorse these basic moral precepts can result in denials of responsibility
and other attributional tactics. Studies analyze identity work through everyday interaction,
examining how people communicate, maintain, and repair identities through norms and rules
associated with various aspects of identity such as personal appearance.

Studies show that people who experience social inequalities often struggle with managing
their identities in order to avoid stigmatization. Homeless people, for example, use language
and social strategies, such as in-group techniques and out-group techniques, to minimize
the impact of their stigmatized status on their public interactions. Similarly, individuals with
AIDS use language and identity performances to control and guide the social consequences
of their discredited status.

Identity is not always fixed and can be flexible in verbal interaction. Conversational analysis
shows how identities can change as context changes. It is important to work from
participants' own understandings of their identity, rather than imposing analytical categories.
Studies have shown that people do not always use fixed categories to define themselves,
and differentiations are not always oppositional.

Language plays a role in both the cognitive and interactive aspects of identity. Hermans
proposes a conception of identity that integrates these two aspects and emphasizes
collective voices and social power dynamics. Rapley analyzes how Australian MP Pauline
Hanson used identity claims in her political discourse to mobilize her audience, showing how
identity work and facticity work are mutually supportive components of successful discourse.

Scholars are expanding the study of identity to include visual media and analyzing how
language and nonverbal gestures construct identities in various contexts. Examples include
analyses of the feminist potential of the Oprah Winfrey show, the gender and class dynamics
of a dating game show, and the portrayal of social class in sitcoms. These studies show how
language and nonverbal expressions work together in the interactive construction of
identities.

Identities across time-

Social cognition theories focus on the conservation of cognitive energy and tend to
underemphasize how identities can change over time. Interactionist approaches, on the
other hand, address this question more thoroughly. One model links identity shifts to
historical cultural configurations, while others study identity shifts during life transitions, such
as leaving home for college. These approaches reveal how identities can shift and change
over time, and how different factors, such as social class, can affect this process.

Some researchers examine the idea of identity instability by studying the identities people
distance themselves from. They find that negative identities are not just the opposite of
positive identities, but can indicate complex identity ambivalences. Other studies show that
people may have multiple and contradictory identity goals. For example, young people may
try to fit in with their peer groups by buying certain goods, but also try to maintain their
individuality by purchasing unique items.

Social Bases of identity

Scholars in this field have developed various approaches to studying the instability and
mutability of identities, including investigating historical cultural configurations, life
transitions, and negative identities. They have also examined the multiple and sometimes
contradictory identity goals that individuals pursue, as well as the intersections among
different dimensions of social identities.

Ethnic Identities

Sexual Identities

In times where group identity is important and sexuality is a significant part of identity, it is
expected that gay and lesbian identities would emerge. Sexual identity is different from racial
identity as it is usually recognized later in life. However, models of sexual identity are similar
to those of racial identity. One such model proposed a six-stage process from identity
confusion to synthesis, including positive relationships with non-homosexuals.

Two social constructionist models propose that lesbian and gay identity formation is a
process of recognizing, negotiating, and interpreting one's experiences, with language and
discourse playing a central role. D'Augelli emphasizes the sociopolitical context,
acknowledging the potential fluidity of sexual identity. Epstein's model incorporates social
activism and notes the ironic effect of stigma intensifying the identity. Gonsiorek and Rudolph
provide a general review of models of sexual identity.

The sociopolitical environment surrounding sexual identities is complex and can involve
hiding stigmatized sexual identities. Recently, openness about one's sexuality has been
seen as a sign of a healthy gay identity, and therefore hiding one's sexuality can be viewed
negatively. However, this approach fails to acknowledge the social constraints that may lead
people to hide their sexual identity. People manage information about their sexual identity
just as they do with other identities.
Heterosexuality has begun to receive attention as an identity similar to the recent focus on
whiteness as an identity. However, the concept of heterosexuality as an identity is not widely
embraced, and many feminists do not claim it as their identity. Instead, they see it as a point
on a continuum with lesbianism. The identity of lesbian is politicized, while heterosexuality is
not. Although heterosexual identities such as wife, girlfriend, daughter, and mother are
widely embraced, being heterosexual is not a situation of unproblematic privilege for women
due to the hierarchical relation between women and men. The discussions do not address
the heterosexual identities of men, for whom heterosexuality brings privilege.

Herek connects heterosexual identities with heterosexism, which stigmatizes

nonheterosexual behavior, identity, relationship, or community. Heterosexist practices allow
people to express values that are central to their self-concepts, based on the institutions of
gender and sexuality. According to social identity theory, antigay violence may help
heterosexist people feel more positive about being heterosexual. Antigay assaults can also
serve an ego-defensive function for young men, who are the most common perpetrators, by
affirming their heterosexuality or masculinity.

Gender identities
Gender identities are learned through early socialization and reinforced throughout life. They
are perceived as organizing a sense of self around the perception of being female or male,
and internalizing pre- and proscriptions of behaviors deemed culturally appropriate to these
self-perceptions. Gender identity is a social category and is about more than personality.
Studies find few differences in the existence of gender identity, but there are gender
differences in identity structure, content, developmental process, and context. Recent work
emphasizes contextual influences on the relative salience of gender identities.

Class Identities
Class identities have received little attention in the psychological literature, with most studies
focusing on how class interacts with other identities and on contextual effects on the
salience of class identities. Studies have shown that students from working-class and ethnic
minority backgrounds negotiate their marginal status at elite academic institutions, while
later-generation immigrants are more likely to have class identities similar to those prevalent
in the U.S. There is a lack of research on the class identities of those in privileged
socio-economic circumstances. One study on sex workers shows a disconnect between the
subjective experience of class and occupational experiences and outcomes. An analysis of
relationships between white and ethnic minority artists in a local art community sheds light
on issues of authenticity, assimilation, and cultural integrity

Identities with disability

Scholars have started to focus on identities based on physical and mental disabilities. Low
(1996) studied the experiences of college students with disabilities, who face the challenge
of wanting to be seen as "normal" while also needing to acknowledge their disability to
overcome barriers to academic success. The strategies they use to achieve these goals can
often be contradictory.
Charmaz (1995) discusses how individuals with severe illness navigate identity struggles
and adapt their goals to effectively respond to their physical circumstances. They may need
to surrender to an identity as "ill" and accept the limitations that come with it, which can be
seen as a way to exert secondary control. Charmaz notes that these struggles are rarely a
one-time experience, but rather involve multiple iterations as individuals negotiate their
identities in response to changing circumstances.

Recently, there has been recognition of a "disability culture," which distinguishes people with
disabilities from other minorities. They often become a group member later in life and may
seek out a disability culture for its identity implications. It is unclear if other social
characteristics such as race, gender, and class are muted within disability culture. Gerschick
examines the gendered dynamics of physical disability and argues that men with physical
disabilities struggle with an hegemonic gender order defined by able-bodied masculinities.
While some strive for acceptance within these standards, others reject hegemonic
masculinity and construct alternative identities.

Age Identities
Being aged is a unique social category as essentially everyone moves from not being in this
group to being in it. However, identities based on age have received little explicit attention
from social psychologists, with few exceptions. Gatz and Cotton (1994) speak to the identity
dynamics of aging and note that age identities are both ascribed and achieved, with
permeable boundaries that are defined developmentally. An influx of new members into the
aged category is certain, with numbers increasing much more rapidly than those of other
minority groups with permeable boundaries. The definition of "aged" is flexible, both
culturally and personally.

As people grow older, their subjective age identity tends to diverge from their chronological
age identity. For instance, the proportion of people who say they feel younger than their
chronological age increases as they age, with 86% of those in their 80s reporting feeling
younger than their age (Goldsmith & Heiens, 1992). Older adults even engage in greater
stereotyping of all age groups than do younger people (Rothbaum, 1983). However, greater
self-esteem is associated with feeling younger. Data suggest that life satisfaction is lower
and stress is higher for those who see themselves as old, but congruency between
subjective and actual age leads to greater life satisfaction for older women (Montepare &
Lachman, 1989). Evolving more positive conceptions of aging should lead more older people
to identify as old and to have more positive self-evaluations.

Intersecting Identities
Analyses of intersecting identities have become increasingly important in social psychology
research, with a focus on understanding how different social categories interact and shape
individuals' experiences. While most studies have focused on two co-existing identities, such
as race-ethnicity and gender, there is a growing interest in examining the intersection of
multiple identities. These studies often use qualitative and ethnographic methods to explore
how individuals negotiate and prioritize various aspects of their identities.

For example, Shorter-Gooden and Washington (1996) examined the identities of adolescent
African-American women, looking at the salience of different identity domains such as race,
gender, sexuality, relationships, career, religion, and political beliefs. They found that racial
identity was the most salient identity for these women, but that relationships, primarily with
other women, were also an important part of their identities. Woollett et al (1994) similarly
explored fluid conceptions of ethnic identities among young mothers of Asian origin or
descent, highlighting how motherhood can also shape and change these identities. Overall,
these studies suggest that intersectionality can reveal the complexity and richness of
individuals' experiences with multiple identities.

Takagi's (1994) analysis of intersections between sexual and ethnic identities also applies to
lesbian and gay Asian Americans. She provides a theoretical framework for understanding
these intersections, including how both Asian American and queer history and experiences
involve silence. Similarly, Greene (1998) explores the complexities of lesbian and gay
African American identities, highlighting the tensions between family and ethnic group
loyalties, the importance of parenting, a cultural history of sexual objectification, and the
impact of homophobia. Rust (1996) also examines intersections between sexual and ethnic
identities, focusing specifically on bisexuality. She notes that while developing a bisexual
identity can be positive for some individuals in marginalized racial and ethnic groups, it may
not be the case for others, and explores how bisexuals navigate these intersecting forms of
oppression.

Beckwith (1998) also explores the conflicts between two identities, class and gender, as
experienced by working-class women striking against a coal firm in Virginia. She notes that
the collective identity of women was subsumed in the context of a wider working-class
collective identity, except for an initial all-women strike. However, no other all-women events
were organized, owing to the United Mine Workers of America’s (UWMA) control of strike
activity, which highlights the structural constraints on identity enactment. Beckwith proposes
a framework for theorizing how multiple identifications might intersect and argues that
collective identity generally emerges in response to specific social contexts and struggles.

Intersectionality theory emphasizes the importance of understanding how multiple social

positions and identities intersect and influence each other. This perspective is often
motivated by political investments and commitments to resist all forms of subordination,
rather than only the subordination that affects a particular group. Structural inequalities must
be taken into account, as well as the recognition of multiple (dis)advantages.However, some
theories of intersectionality also reflect a weak form of postmodernism, which recognizes the
fluidity and complexity of identity. This view emphasizes the need to negotiate border spaces
and conceptualizes identities and identity work as tenuous, fragile, and elastic, rather than
fixed and dichotomous. The study by Freitas et al (1997) of negative identities, for example,
highlights the lack of closure between different master statuses and the ongoing negotiation
of identity.

POLITICIZING A SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF IDENTITIES

Hogg and Abrams (1998) also contribute to a politicized social psychology of identity,
focusing on the dynamics of intergroup relations. They argue that social identity is
a means of achieving self-enhancement and positive differentiation from outgroups.
However, these processes are complicated by the fact that group memberships are
not always clear-cut, and individuals may belong to multiple groups with different
statuses and degrees of salience. Hogg and Abrams propose a self-categorization
theory of group processes, which emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in
shaping social identities and intergroup relations. They suggest that individuals
categorize themselves and others into groups based on shared characteristics, and
that the salience of these categories depends on the social context and the goals of
the individual. They argue that social identity can be a source of both conflict and
cooperation between groups, depending on the perceived interdependence of the
groups and the perceived legitimacy of the social hierarchy. Thus, their theory
provides a nuanced understanding of how identity processes intersect with social
inequalities and power dynamics.

Similarly, Tajfel and Turner (1986) propose a social identity theory that emphasizes
the cognitive and motivational factors that underlie intergroup relations. They argue
that individuals categorize themselves and others into groups based on shared char-
acteristics, and that these categories provide a basis for social comparison and self-
evaluation. Social identity theory posits that group membership provides a source
of self-esteem and positive distinctiveness, and that individuals are motivated to
maintain a positive social identity by enhancing the status of their ingroup and de-
valuing outgroups. Tajfel and Turner's theory thus provides a framework for under-
standing the ways in which identity processes intersect with social inequalities and
power dynamics, as individuals may be motivated to maintain their own social
status by reinforcing existing social hierarchies.

Deconstructing Identities
Identity is a complex and contested concept, with traditional views emphasizing a stable core
of self. However, more recent approaches highlight the relational, processual, and multiple
nature of identity. Key principles include fragmentation, hybridity, and diaspora. This
politicized approach points towards questions about the social construction of categories and
power relationships. There is also a growing interest in authenticity as a commitment to
self-values, particularly for members of oppressed groups. Authenticity is seen as a
multidimensional and unified concept that is context-dependent and relational.