Genetic Code

The document discusses the genetic code, including how it was deciphered. It describes George Gamow's proposal of the genetic code, experiments by Har Gobind Khorana synthesizing RNA molecules, and Marshall Nirenberg deciphering the code using cell-free systems and synthetic RNA. The key features of the genetic code are also outlined, including that it is triplet-based, nearly universal, and can have mutations via substitution, insertion, or deletion of bases.

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Genetic Code

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GENETIC CODE

• The entire sequence of nitrogen bases in a DNA or RNA is referred

as genetic code.

• A set of three nitrogen bases code for amino acids and is known as
a Codon
One Codon One Amino acid

George Gamow
Types of nitrogen bases- 4
Number/types of amino acids to be
coded- 20
So a combination of nitrogen bases code
for 20 amino acids
Four nitrogen bases with different
combinations create 64 codons
Gamow proposed a 'diamond code', so called because it depended
on the diamond or trapezoid-shaped cavity formed between four
nucleotide bases in DNA.
Har Gobind Khorana
• Synthesised artificial RNA molecules
with defined combinations of bases
(homopolymers and copolymers) using
enzymes.
• Severo Ochoa enzyme (polynucleotide
phosphorylase) was also helpful in
polymerising RNA with defined
sequences in a template independent
manner (enzymatic synthesis of RNA).

Example- UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU - Homo polymer

UUC UCU UUC UCU UUC UCU – Co polymer

Marshall Nirenberg
• Synthesised amino acid chain in cell-
free system finally helped the code to
be deciphered.
• Chose a cell-free environment,
created when cell walls are broken
down, releasing the cell’s contents.
The remaining cytoplasm can still
synthesize protein when RNA is
added.
• Nirenberg and Matthaei selected E.
coli bacteria cells as their source of
cytoplasm. They added the E.
coli extract to 20 test tubes, each containing a mixture of all 20
amino acids.
• Added synthetic RNA made of only uracil units to each of the 20
test tubes, finding unusual activity in one of the tubes,
containing phenylalanine.
• Synthetic RNA made of a chain of multiple units of uracil
instructed a chain of amino acids to add phenylalanine. The
uracil chain (poly-U) served as a messenger directing protein
synthesis.

Salient features of Genetic Code

(i) The codon is triplet.
61 codons code for amino acids and 3 codons do not code
for any amino acids, hence they function as stop codons.
(ii) One codon codes for only one amino acid, hence, it is
unambiguous and specific.
(iii) Some amino acids are coded by more than one codon, hence
the code is degenerate.
(iv) The codon is read in mRNA in a contiguous fashion. There
are no punctuations.
(v) The code is nearly universal: for example, from bacteria to
human UUU would code for Phenylalanine (phe).
(vi) AUG has dual functions. It codes for Methionine (met), and it
also act as initiator codon.
Mutations and Genetic Code
1. Substitution
A substitution is a genetic mutation where a single nucleotide base is
changed/substituted by another, in a DNA or RNA sequence of an
organism's genome. It is referred to as point mutation.
Substitution

Transition Transversion

Purine Pyrimidine Purine Pyrimidine

substituted by substituted by substituted by substituted by
purine pyrimidine Pyrimidine Purine
Point Mutation in Sickle cell Anaemia
2. Insertion
• Bases get inserted in the DNA or RNA sequence.
• Insertion of one or two bases change the reading frame
from the point of insertion and is called frame shift
insertion
• Insertion of three bases ( codon) does not alter the
reading frame

3. Deletion
• Bases get deleted from the DNA or RNA sequence.
• Deletion of one or two bases change the reading frame
from the point of deletion and is called frame shift
deletion
• Deletion of three bases ( codon) does not alter the
reading frame