1

Principles of Electronic
Communication Systems
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Chapter 1

Introduction to Electronic Communication

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Topics Covered in Chapter 1

 1-1: Significance of Human Communication
 1-2: Communication Systems
 1-3: Types of Electronic Communication
 1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing
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Topics Covered in Chapter 1
(continued)
 1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 1-6: Bandwidth
 1-7: A Survey of Communication Applications
 1-8: Jobs and Careers in the Communication Industry
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Introduction and Review of

Logarithms and Decibels

Prepared by: Engr. Maribelle Banatao - Manalansan

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Logarithms
 In this field, there is no escaping the need to become
comfortable with the logarithmic function. The plotting
of a variable between wide limits, comparing levels
without having to deal with unwidely numbers, and
identifying levels of particular imporatance in the
design, review and analysis procedures are all positive
features of using the logarithmic function.
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Relationship between the variables of a

logarithmic function:

𝑎 = 𝑏𝑥, x = log 𝑏 𝑎

If b = 10 and x = 2
𝑎 = 𝑏 𝑥 = 102 = 100
x = log 𝑏 𝑎 = log10 100 = 2
In other words, if you were ask to find x
10,000 = 10𝑥
x = log10 10000 = 4
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 Logarithms taken to the base 10 are referred to as a

common logarithms, whereas logarithms taken to
the base e are referred to as natural logarithm.

common logarithm : x = log10 𝑎

Natural Logarithm: x = log 𝑒 𝑎

log 𝑒 𝑎 = 2.3 log10 𝑎

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Examples:
1. log10 106
2. log 𝑒 𝑒 3
3. log10 10−2
4. log 𝑒 𝑒 −1

*the examples above clearly reveal that the logarithm of a number taken
to a power is simply the power of the number if the number matches the
base of the logarithm.
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log10 100 0
log10 10 1
log10 100 2
log10 1000 3
log10 10,000 4
log10 100,000 5
log10 1,000,000 6
log10 10,000,000 7
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Properties of Logarithms
log10 1 = 0

𝑎
log10 = log10 𝑎 − log10 𝑏
𝑏

log10 𝑎𝑏 = log10 𝑎 + log10 𝑏

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Power Levels

 The term decibels has its origin in the fact that

power and audio levels are related on a
logarithmic basis.
 the term bel is derived from the surname of
Alexander Graham Bell. For standardization, the
bel (B) is defined by the following equation
relating two power levels, P1 and P2
P2
G = log10 bel
P1
It was found, however, that the bel was too large a
unit of measurement for practicel purposes, so the
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The terminal rating of electronic communication

equipment (amplifiers, microphones, etc.) is
commonly in decibels. For a specified terminal
(output) power (P2) there must be a reference
power level (P1). The reference level is generally
accepted to be 1mW, although on occasion, the 6-
mW standard of earlier years is applied. The
resistance associated with the 1-mW power level
is 600 ohms, chosen because it is the
characteristic impedance of audio transmission
lines. When the 1mW level is employed as the
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1-1: Significance of
Human Communication

 Communication is the process of exchanging

information.

 Main barriers are language and distance.

 Contemporary society’s emphasis is now the

accumulation, packaging, and exchange of
information.
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1-1: Significance of
Human Communication
 Methods of communication:
1.Face to face
2.Signals
3.Written word (letters)
4.Electrical innovations:
 Telegraph
 Telephone
 Radio
 Television
 Internet (computer)
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1-2: Communication Systems

 Basic components:

 Transmitter
 Channel or medium
 Receiver

 Noise degrades or interferes with transmitted

information.
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1-2: Communication Systems

Figure 1-2: A general model of all communication systems.

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1-2: Communication Systems

Transmitter
 The transmitter is a collection of electronic
components and circuits that converts the electrical
signal into a signal suitable for transmission over a
given medium.

 Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers,

tuned circuits and filters, modulators, frequency mixers,
frequency synthesizers, and other circuits.
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1-2: Communication Systems

Communication Channel
 The communication channel is the medium by which
the electronic signal is sent from one place to another.
 Types of media include
 Electrical conductors
 Optical media
 Free space
 System-specific media (e.g., water is the medium for sonar).
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1-2: Communication Systems

Receivers
 A receiver is a collection of electronic components and
circuits that accepts the transmitted message from the
channel and converts it back into a form understandable
by humans.
 Receivers contain amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned
circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector that
recovers the original intelligence signal from the
modulated carrier.
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1-2: Communication Systems

Transceivers
 A transceiver is an electronic unit that incorporates
circuits that both send and receive signals.
 Examples are:
• Telephones
• Fax machines
• Handheld CB radios
• Cell phones
• Computer modems
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1-2: Communication Systems

Attenuation
 Signal attenuation, or degradation, exists in all media
of wireless transmission. It is proportional to the square
of the distance between the transmitter and receiver.
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1-2: Communication Systems

Noise
 Noise is random, undesirable electronic energy that
enters the communication system via the
communicating medium and interferes with the
transmitted message.
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1-3: Types of Electronic
Communication
 Electronic communications are classified according
to whether they are
1. One-way (simplex) or two-way (full duplex or half
duplex) transmissions
2. Analog or digital signals.
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1-3: Types of Electronic
Communication
Simplex
 The simplest method of electronic communication is
referred to as simplex.
 This type of communication is one-way. Examples are:
 Radio
 TV broadcasting
 Beeper (personal receiver)
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1-3: Types of Electronic
Communication
Full Duplex
 Most electronic communication is two-way and is
referred to as duplex.
 When people can talk and listen simultaneously, it is
called full duplex. The telephone is an example of this
type of communication.
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1-3: Types of Electronic
Communication
Half Duplex
 The form of two-way communication in which only one
party transmits at a time is known as half duplex.
Examples are:
 Police, military, etc. radio transmissions
 Citizen band (CB)
 Family radio
 Amateur radio
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1-3: Types of Electronic
Communication
Analog Signals
 An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously
varying voltage or current. Examples are:
 Sine wave
 Voice
 Video (TV)
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1-3: Types of Electronic
Communication

Figure 1-5: Analog signals (a) Sine wave “tone.” (b) Voice. (c) Video (TV) signal.
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1-3: Types of Electronic
Communication
Digital Signals
 Digital signals change in steps or in discrete
increments.
 Most digital signals use binary or two-state codes.
Examples are:
 Telegraph (Morse code)
 Continuous wave (CW) code
 Serial binary code (used in computers)
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1-3: Types of Electronic
Communication

Figure 1-6: Digital signals (a) Telegraph (Morse code). (b) Continuous-wave (CW)
code. (c) Serial binary code.
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1-3: Types of Electronic
Communication
Digital Signals
 Many transmissions are of signals that originate in
digital form but must be converted to analog form to
match the transmission medium.
 Digital data over the telephone network.
 Analog signals.
 They are first digitized with an analog-to-digital (A/D)
converter.
 The data can then be transmitted and processed by
computers and other digital circuits.
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1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing

 Modulation and multiplexing are electronic

techniques for transmitting information efficiently from
one place to another.
 Modulation makes the information signal more
compatible with the medium.
 Multiplexing allows more than one signal to be
transmitted concurrently over a single medium.
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1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing

Broadband Transmission
 A carrier is a high frequency signal that is modulated by
audio, video, or data.
 A radio-frequency (RF) wave is an electromagnetic
signal that is able to travel long distances through
space.
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 Analog Communications System is a system in which

energy is transmitted and received in analog form (a
continuously varying signal such as sine wave). Both
the carrier and information are analog signal.
 Digital Communications
 Digital transmission is a true digital system where digital
pulses (digital levels such as +5V and ground) are
transferred between two or more points in
communications systems.
 No analog carrier
 Original source information may be in digital or
analog form.
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 Digital Radio is the transmittal of digitally modulated

analog carriers between two or more points in a
communications systems.
 Modulating signal and demodulated signal are digital
pulses
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1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing

Baseband Transmission
 Baseband information can be sent directly and
unmodified over the medium or can be used to
modulate a carrier for transmission over the medium.
 In telephone or intercom systems, the voice is placed on
the wires and transmitted.
 In some computer networks, the digital signals are applied
directly to coaxial or twisted-pair cables for transmission.
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1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing

Broadband Transmission
 A broadband transmission takes place when a carrier
signal is modulated, amplified, and sent to the antenna
for transmission.
 The two most common methods of modulation are:
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Another method is called phase modulation (PM), in
which the phase angle of the sine wave is varied.
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1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing

Figure 1-7: Modulation at the transmitter.

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1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing

Figure 1-8: Types of modulation. (a) Amplitude modulation. (b) Frequency modulation.
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1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing

Broadband Transmission
 Frequency-shift keying (FSK) takes place when data
is converted to frequency-varying tones.

 Devices called modems (modulator-demodulator)

translate the data from digital to analog and back again.

 Demodulation or detection takes place in the receiver

when the original baseband (e.g. audio) signal is
extracted.
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1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing

Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more
signals to share the same medium or channel.
 The three basic types of multiplexing are:
 Frequency division
 Time division
 Code division
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1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing

Figure 1-11: Multiplexing at the transmitter.

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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

 The range of electromagnetic signals encompassing

all frequencies is referred to as the electromagnetic
spectrum.
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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Figure 1-13: The electromagnetic spectrum.

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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency and Wavelength: Frequency

 A signal is located on the frequency spectrum according
to its frequency and wavelength.
 Frequency is the number of cycles of a repetitive wave
that occur in a given period of time.
 A cycle consists of two voltage polarity reversals,
current reversals, or electromagnetic field oscillations.
 Frequency is measured in cycles per second (cps).
 The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).
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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency and Wavelength: Wavelength

 Wavelength is the distance occupied by one cycle of a
wave and is usually expressed in meters.
 Wavelength is also the distance traveled by an
electromagnetic wave during the time of one cycle.
 The wavelength of a signal is represented by the Greek
letter lambda (λ).
 When dealing with radio waves, it is common to use
wavelengths rather than frequency.
 Wavelength is the length that one cycle of an
electromagnetic wave occupies
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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Figure 1-15: Frequency and wavelength. (a) One cycle. (b) One wavelength.
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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency and Wavelength: Wavelength
Wavelength (λ) = speed of light ÷ frequency
Speed of light = 3 × 108 meters/second
Therefore:
λ = 3 × 108 / f
Example:
What is the wavelength if the frequency is 4MHz?
λ = 3 × 108 / 4 MHz
= 75 meters (m)
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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency Ranges from 30 Hz to 300 GHz

 The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into segments:

Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF) 30–300 Hz.

Voice Frequencies (VF) 300–3000 Hz.
Very Low Frequencies (VLF) include the higher end of the
human hearing range up to
about 20 kHz.
Low Frequencies (LF) 30–300 kHz.

Medium Frequencies (MF) 300–3000 kHz

AM radio 535–1605 kHz.
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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency Ranges from 30 Hz to 300 GHz

High Frequencies (HF) 3–30 MHz

(short waves; VOA, BBC
broadcasts; government and
military two-way communication;
amateur radio, CB.
Very High Frequencies (VHF) 30–300 MHz
FM radio broadcasting (88–108
MHz), television channels 2–13.
Ultra High Frequencies (UHF) 300–3000 MHz
TV channels 14–67, cellular
phones, military communication.
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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency Ranges from 30 Hz to 300 GHz

Microwaves and Super High 1–30 GHz
Frequencies (SHF)
Satellite communication, radar,
wireless LANs, microwave ovens

Extremely High Frequencies (EHF) 30–300 GHz

Satellite communication, computer
data, radar
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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Optical Spectrum
 The optical spectrum exists directly above the
millimeter wave region.
 Three types of light waves are:
 Infrared
 Visible spectrum
 Ultraviolet
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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Optical Spectrum: Infrared

 Infrared radiation is produced by any physical
equipment that generates heat, including our bodies.
 Infrared is used:
 In astronomy, to detect stars and other physical bodies in the
universe,
 For guidance in weapons systems, where the heat radiated
from airplanes or missiles can be detected and used to guide
missiles to targets.
 In most new TV remote-control units, where special coded
signals are transmitted by an infrared LED to the TV receiver to
change channels, set the volume, and perform other functions.
 In some of the newer wireless LANs and all fiber-optic
communication.
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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Optical Spectrum: The Visible Spectrum

 Just above the infrared region is the visible spectrum
we refer to as light.
 Red is low-frequency or long-wavelength light
 Violet is high-frequency or short-wavelength light.
 Light waves’ very high frequency enables them to
handle a tremendous amount of information (the
bandwidth of the baseband signals can be very wide).
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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Optical Spectrum: Ultraviolet

 Ultraviolet is not used for communication
 Its primary use is medical.
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1-6: Bandwidth
 Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum occupied by a signal.

 Channel bandwidth refers to the range of

frequencies required to transmit the desired
information.
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1-6: Bandwidth
More Room at the Top
 Today, virtually the entire frequency spectrum between
approximately 30 kHz and 300 MHz has been spoken
for.
 There is tremendous competition for these frequencies,
between companies, individuals, and government
services in individual carriers and between the different
nations of the world.
 The electromagnetic spectrum is one of our most
precious natural resources.
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1-6: Bandwidth
More Room at the Top
 Communication engineering is devoted to making the
best use of that finite spectrum.
 Great effort goes into developing communication
techniques that minimize the bandwidth required to
transmit given information and thus conserve spectrum
space.
 This provides more room for additional communication
channels and gives other services or users an
opportunity to take advantage of it.
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1-6: Bandwidth
Spectrum Management and Standards
 Spectrum management is provided by agencies set up
by the United States and other countries to control
spectrum use.
 The Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
and the National Telecommunications and
Information Administration (NTIA) are two agencies
that deal in spectrum management.
 Standards are specifications and guidelines necessary
to ensure compatibility between transmitting and
receiving equipment.
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1-7: A Survey of
Communications Applications
 Simplex
 AM and FM  Paging services
broadcasting  Navigation and
 Digital radio direction-finding
 TV broadcasting services
 Digital television (DTV)  Telemetry
 Cable television  Radio astronomy
 Facsimile  Surveillance
 Wireless remote control  Music services
 Internet radio and
video
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1-7: A Survey of
Communications Applications
 Duplex
 Telephones  Family Radio service
 Two-way radio  The Internet
 Radar  Wide-area networks
 Sonar (WANs)
 Amateur radio
 Metropolitan-area
 Citizens radio
networks (MANs)
 Local area networks
(LANs)
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1-8: Jobs and Careers in the
Communication Industryf
 The electronics industry is roughly divided into
four major specializations:
1. Communications (largest in terms of people
employed and the dollar value of equipment
purchased)
2. Computers (second largest).
3. Industrial controls.
4. Instrumentation.
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1-8: Jobs and Careers in the
Communication Industry
Types of Jobs
 Engineers design communication equipment and
systems.

 Technicians install, troubleshoot, repair, calibrate, and

maintain equipment.

 Engineering Technicians assist in equipment design,

testing, and assembly.
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1-8: Jobs and Careers in the
Communication Industry
Types of Jobs
 Technical sales representatives determine customer
needs and related specifications, write proposals and
sell equipment.

 Technical writers generate technical documentation for

equipment and systems.

 Trainers develop programs, generate training and

presentation materials, and conduct classroom training.
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1-8: Jobs and Careers in the
Communication Industry
Major Employers
 The communication electronics industry is made up of
the following segments:

 Manufacturers

 Resellers

 Service Organizations

 End users
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1-8: Jobs and Careers in the
Communication Industry

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

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