Prepared by: Leila M.

Collantes
E-mail Address: [email protected]

Central Luzon State University

Science City of Muñoz 3120
Nueva Ecija, Philippines

Instructional Module for the Course

SED 2100- The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Module 2 - Biological Development

Overview

In this module, you will have a better understanding of the

biological beginnings, physical and motor development
milestones of human being in the different periods. You will also
gain knowledge or concepts of neuroscience specifically the
different processes or development of the brain of a human being.
Lastly, you will know and comprehend the environmental influences
or factors affecting biological/physical development as well as the
different theories that explain the developmental milestones of the
different stages of human being.

Time Allotment (4 Weeks)

 SED 2100 The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles

I. Objectives

After studying this module, you should be able to:

1. describe the difference between chromosomes and genes

2. explain the function of autosomes and sex chromosomes
3. state the definition of terms such as alleles, dominant and recessive
genes, genotype and phenotype
4. recognize the unique properties of DNA and RNA
5. discuss the process of fertilization or conception
6. describe the different stages of prenatal development process
7. enumerate the common hazards of pre-natal development
8. discuss the effects of teratogens during prenatal development
9. explain the effects of drugs with and without prescription to the
developing embryo/fetus.
10. describe the development of reflexes
11. identify the milestones and accomplishments of children in every stage of
his life

II. Learning Activities

Discussion

A. Biological Beginnings

Genetic Foundations

- The science of genetics is the study of heredity.

- Each of us is made up of trillion of units called cells.
- Within every cell is a control center or nucleus.
- Nucleus contains rod-like structures call chromosomes.
- Chromosomes store and transmit genetic information. Human
chromosomes come in 23 matching pairs (an exception is the XY
pair in males).
- Each member of a pair corresponds to the other in size, shape, and
genetic foundation.
The Genetic Code
- The basis of heredity is a chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA).
- The double-helix structure of DNA resembles a long, spiraling
ladder whose steps are made of pairs of chemical units called
bases.

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- The bases –adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine
(G).

Source: https://le.ac.uk/vgec/topics/dna

- The letters mentioned above are the “letters” of the genetic code,
which cellular machinery “reads”.

- Chromosomes are coils of DNA that consists of smaller segments

called genes.
- Chromosomes are made up of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. It is a
long double-stranded molecule that looks like a twisted ladder.
Each rung of the ladder consists of pair of chemical substances
called bases.
- A gene is a segment of DNA along the length of the chromosomes.
- Genes can be of different lengths-perhaps 100 to several thousand
ladder rungs long.
- An estimated 20,000 to 25,000 genes lie along the human
chromosomes (Human Genome Program, 2008).
- Each gene is located in a definite position on its chromosome and
contains thousands of bases.
- The sequence of bases in a gene tells the cell how to make the
proteins that enable it to carry our specific functions.

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- A unique feature of DNA is that it can duplicate itself through a

process called mitosis.
- Through mitosis the non sex cells divide in half over and over
again, the DNA replicates itself, so that each newly formed cell has
the same DNA structure as all the others.
- Each cell division creates a genetic duplicate of the original cell,
with the same hereditary information.
- Each cell (except the sex cells) continues to have 46 chromosomes
identical to those in the original zygote provided the development is
normal.
The Sex Cells

- Sex cells and others called it gametes – the sperm and ovum.
When these two sex cells are combined, a new individuals is

created.

- Gametes are formed through a cell division process called meiosis.

- During meiosis halves the number of the chromosomes normally
present in body cells. When the sperm and ovum unite at

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fertilization, the resulting cell is called a zygote, which is again have

46 chromosomes.

What determines Sex?

- Autosomes meaning not sex chromosomes or chromosomes that
are not related to sexual expression.
- There are 22 pairs of autosomes in the human body. The 22
matching pairs which geneticists number from longest (1) to
shortest (22).
- Sex chromosomes is the twenty-third pair of chromosomes , one
from the father and one from the mother.

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- Sex chromosomes are either X chromosomes or Y chromosomes.

-

- In females, this pair is called XX; and in males, it is called XY. So

male sex chromosomes is either an X or Y chromosome.

- The X is relatively large chromosome, whereas the Y is short and

carries little genetic material. The Y chromosome contains the
gene for maleness, called the SRY gene.

- When an ovum (X) is fertilized by an X-carrying sperm, the zygote

formed is XX, a genetic female.

- When an ovum (X) is fertilized by a Y-carrying sperm, the resulting

zygote is XY, a genetic male.

- The sex of the new organism s determined by whether an X-

bearing or a Y-bearing sperm fertilizes the ovum.

- The sex chromosomes govern the sex of the child.

Multiple Offspring

Types/Ways of Multiple births

a. Identical or Monozygotic twins – (mono means one) results from a

single fertilized ovum which duplicate and separates into two clusters
of cells that develop into two individual. They are called identical twins
because they have same genetic makeup.

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b. Fraternal or Dyzygotic twins – (di means two) results from the

release and fertilization of two ova, the resulting babies are commonly
called fraternal twins . This is the most common type of multiple birth.

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Patterns of Genetic Inheritance

Two forms of each gene occur at the same place on the chromosomes,
one inherited from the mother and one from the father. Each form of a gene is
called an allele. If the alleles from both parents are alike, the child is
homozygous and will display the inherited trait. If the alleles differ then the child
is heterozygous and relationship between the alleles determines the phenotype.

Dominant-Recessive relationships. Dominant-recessive inheritance occurs

in many heterozygous pairings. If only one allele affects the child’s characteristics
it is called dominant; the second allele which has no effect is called recessive.
Hair color is an example. The allele for dark hair is dominant ( we can represent
it with a capital D), whereas the one for blond hair is recessive (symbolized a
lowercase b). A child who inherits a homozygous pair of dominant alleles (DD)
will both be dark-haired, even though their genotypes differ. Blond hair can
result only from having two recessive alleles (bb). Heterozygous individuals with
just one recessive allele (Db) can pass trait to their children. Therefore, they are
called carriers of the trait.
Below are examples of some human characteristics and disorders that
follow the rules of dominant-recessive inheritance. As you read, many disabilities
are product of recessive alleles. Example of this is phenylketomuria, or PKU,
which affects the way the body breaks down proteins contained in many foods.
Infants born with two recessive alleles lack an enzyme that converts one of the
basic amino acids that make up proteins (phenylalanine) into a byproduct
essential for body functioning (tyrosine). Without enzyme, phenylalanine quickly
builds to toxic levels that damage the central nervous system. By 1 year, infants
with untreated PKU are permanently mentally retarded.

Table 1 Examples of Dominant and Recessive Characteristics

Dominant Recessive
Dark hair Blonde hair
Normal hair Pattern baldness
Nonred hair Red hair
Facial dimples No dimples
Normal hearing Some form of deafness
Normal vision Nearsightedness
Farsightedness Normal vision
Normal vision Congenital cataracts
Normally pigmented skin Albinism

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Double-jointedness Normal joints

Type A blood Type O blood
Type B blood Type O blood
Rh positive blood Rh-negative blood
Source: McKusick, 2011

Table 2 Examples of dominant and Recessive Diseases

Autosomal Diseases Description
Pale appearance, retarded physical growth,
Cooley’s anemia and lethargic behavior begin iin infancy.
Lung. Liver, and pancreas secrete large
Cystic fibrosis amounts of thick mucus, leading to breathing
and digestive difficulties.
Inability to metabolize the amino acid
Phenylketonuria phenylalanine, contained in many proteins,
causes severe central nervous system
damage in the first year of life.
Abnormal sickling of red blood cells causes
Sickle cell anemia oxygen deprivation, pain, swelling, and tissue
damage. Anemia and susceptibility to
infections, especially pneumonia occur.
Central nervous system degeneration, with
Tay-Sachs disease onset at about 6 months, leads to poor
muscle tone blindness, deafness and
convulsions.
Huntington disease Central nervous system degeneration lead to
muscular coordination difficulties, mental
deterioration, and personality changes.
Symptoms usually do not appear until age 35
or later.
Marfan syndrome Tall, slender build; thin, elongated arms and
legs; and heart defects and eye
abnormalities, especially of the lens.
Excessive lengthening of the body results in a
variety of skeletal defects
X-linked Diseases
Duchenne muscular dystrophy Degenerative muscle disease. Abnormal gait,
loss of ability to walk between 7 and 13 years
of age
Hemophilia Blood fails to clot normally; can lead to
severe internal bleeding and tissue damage
Diabetes insipidus Insufficient production of the hormone
vasopressin results in excessive thirst and
urination. Dehydration can cause central
nervous system damage.

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Incomplete Dominance is a pattern of inheritance in which both alleles

are expressed in the phenotype, resulting in a combined trait, or one that is
intermediate between the two. The sickle cell trait, a heterozygous condition
present in many black Africans, provides an example. Sickle cell anemia occurs in
full form when a child inherits two recessive alleles. They cause the usually
round red blood cells to become sickle (crescent) shaped, especially under low-
oxygen conditions. The sickled cells clog the blood vessels and block the flow of
blood, causing intense pain, swelling, and tissue damage.

X-linked Inheritance is applied when a harmful allele is carried on the X

chromosome. Males are more likely to be affected because their sex
chromosome do not match. A well-known example is hemophilia, a disorder in
which the blood fails to clot normally.

Prenatal Diagnosis and Fetal Medicine

Prenatal diagnostic methods are medical procedures that permit the

detection of developmental problems before birth.

Table 3 Prenatal Diagnostic Methods

Method Description
Amniocentesis The most widely used technique.
A hollow needle is inserted through the abdominal wall
to obtain a sample of fluid in the uterus. Cells are
examined for genetic defects. Can be performed by the
14th week after conception: 1 to 2 more weeks are
required for test results. Small risk of miscarriage.
Chorionic Villus sampling A procedure that can be used if results are desired or
needed very early in pregnancy. A thin tube is inserted
into the uterus through the vagina, or a hollow needle is
inserted through the abdominal wall. A small plug of
tissue is removed from the end of one or more chorionic
villi, the hairlike projections on the membrane
surrounding the developing organism. Cells are
examined for genetic defects. Can be performed at 9
weeks after conception; results are available within 24
hours. Entails a slightly greater risk of miscarriage than
amoniocentesis. Also associated with a small risk of limb
deformities which increases the earlier the procedure is
performed.
Fetoscopy A small tube with a light source at one end is inserted
into the uterus to inspect the fetus for defects fot he
limbs and face. Also allows a sample of fetal blood to be
obtained, permitting diagnosis of such disorders as
hemophilia and sickle cell anemia, as well as neural
defects. Usually performed between 15 and 18 weeks

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after conception but can be done as early as 5 weeks.

Entails some risk of miscarriage.
Ultrasound High-frequency sound waves are beamed at the uterus;
their reflection is translated into a picture on a video
screen that reveals the size, shape; and placement of the
fetus. Permits assessment of fetal age, detection of
multiple preganancies and identification of gross
physical defects; also used to guide amniocentesis,
chorionic villus sampling, and fetoscopy.When used five
or more times, may increase the chances of low birth
weight.
Ultrafast MRI Sometimes used as a supplement to ultrasound, where
brain or other abnormalities are detected and MRI can
provide greater diagnostic accuracy. The ultrafast
technique overcomes image blurring due to fetal
movements. No evidence of adverse effects.
Maternal Blood analysi By the second month of pregnancy, some fo the
developing organism’s cells enter the maternal blood-
stream. An elevated level of alpha-fetoprotein may
indicate kidney disease, abnormal closure of the
esophagus, or neural tube defects, such as anencephaly
(absence of most of the brain) spina bifida (bulging of
the spinal cord from the spinal column). Isolated cells
can be examined for genetic defects.
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis After in vitro fertilization and duplication of the zygote
into a cluster of about 8 to 10 cells, or 1 or 2 cells are
removed and examined for hereditary defects. Only if
that sample is free of detectable genetic disorders is the
fertilized ovum implanted in the woman’s uterus.
Sources: Hahn and Chitty, 2008; Jokhi & Whitby, 2011; Kumar & O’Brien, 2004; Moore & Persaud, 2008; Sermont Van
Steirteghem, & Liebaers, 2004.

Prenatal Development

Prenatal development takes place in three stages/period: germinal,

embryonic, and fetal. During these three stages of gestation which is
equivalent to 38 weeks of pregnancy, the original single-celled zygote
grows into an embryo and then a fetus.

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Conception happens once every 28 day. In the middle of a

woman’s cycle, an ovum bursts from one of her ovaries, two walnut-sized
organs located deep inside her abdomen, and is drawn into one of two
fallopian tubes- long, thin structures that lead to the hollow, soft-lined
uterus. While the ovum is traveling, the spot on the ovary from which it
was released, now called the corpus luteum, secretes hormones that
prepare the lining of the uterus to receive a fertilized ovum. If pregnancy
does not occur, the corpus luteum shrinks, and the lining of the uterus is
discarded two weeks later with menstruation.

The male produces sperm in vast number-an average of 300 million

a day. In the final process of maturation, each sperm develops a tail that
permits it to swim long distances, upstream in the female reproductive
tract, through the cervix (opening of the uterus), and into the fallopian
tube, where fertilization usually takes place. The journey is difficult, and
many sperm die. Only 300 to 500 reach the ovum, if one happens to be
present. Sperm live for up to 6 to days and can lie in wait for the ovum,
which survives for only 1 day after being released in to the fallopian tube.
However, most conceptions result from intercourse during a 3-day period-
on the day of ovulation or during the 2 days preceding it
(Wilcox,Weinberg, & Baird, 1995)

Period of the zygote(Germinal Period). The period of the

zygote lasts about two weeks, from fertilization until the tiny mass of cells
drifts down and out of the fallopian tube and attaches itself into the wall
of the uterus. The zygote’s first cell duplication is long and drawn out; it is
not complete until about 30 hours after conception. Gradually, new cells
are added at a faster rate. By the fourth day, 60 to 70 cells exist that form
a hollow, fluid-filled ball called a blastocyst. The cells on the inside of the
blastocyst, called the embryonic disk, will become the new organism; the
thin outer ring of cells, termed the trophoblast, will become the structures
that provide protective covering and nourishment.

Implantation occurs between the 7th and 9th days. The blastocyst
burrows deep into the uterine lining, where, surrounded by the woman’s
nourishing blood, it starts to grow earnest. At first, the trophoblast
(protective outer layer) multiplies fastest. It forms a membrane called the
amnion, that enclosed the developing organism in amniotic fluid, which
helps keep the temperature of the prenatal world constant and provides a
cushion against any jolt caused by the woman’s movement. A yolk sac
emerges that produces blood cells until the developing liver, spleen, and
bone marrow are mature enough to take over this function.

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The events of these first two weeks are delicate and uncertain. As
many as 30 percent of zygotes do not survive this period. In some, the
sperm and ovum do not join properly. In others, for some unknown
reason, cell duplication never begins. By preventing implantation in these
cases, nature eliminated most prenatal abnormalities.

The Placenta and Umbilical cord, by the end of the second

week, cells of the trophoblast form another protective membrane- the
chorion, which surrounds the amnion. From the chorion, tiny fingerlike
villi, or blood vessels emerge. As these villi burrow into the uterine wall, a
special organ called the placenta starts to develop. By bringing the
mother’s and embryo’s blood close together, the placenta permits food
and oxygen to reach the developing organism and waste products to be
carried away. A membrane forms that allows these substances to be
exchanged but prevents the mother’s and the embryo’s blood from mixing
directly.

The placenta is connected to the developing organism by the

umbilical cord, which first appears as a primitive body stalk and during the
course of pregnancy, grows to a length of 1 to 3 feet. The umbilical cord
contains one large vein that delivers blood loaded with nutrients and two
arteries that remove waste products. The force of blood flowing through
the cord keeps it firm, much like a garden hose, so it seldom tangles
while the embryo, like a space-walking astronaut, floats freely in its fluid-
filled chamber.(Moore & Persaud, 2008).

By the end of the period of the zygote, the developing organism

has found food and shelter in the uterus. Already, it is a very complex
being. These dramatic beginnings take place before most mothers know
they are pregnant.

Period of the Embryo. This period lasts from implantation

through the eighth week of pregnancy. During these brief six weeks, the
most rapid prenatal changes take place, as the groundwork is laid for all
body structures and internal organs.

Last Half of the First Month. The embryonic disk forms three layers
of cells: a) ectoderm which will become the nervous system and skin; b)
mesoderm, from which will develop the muscles, skeleton, circulatory
system, and other internal organs; and c) the endoderm, which will
become the digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, and glands.

At first, the nervous system develops fastest. The ectoderm folds

over to form the neural tube, or primitive spinal cord. At 3 ½ weeks, the

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top swells to form the brain. While the nervous system is developing, the
heart begins to pump blood, and muscles, backbone, ribs and digestive
tract appear. At the end of the first month, the curl embryo – only ¼ inch
long- consists of millions of organized groups of cells with specific
functions.

The Second Month growth continues rapidly. The eyes, ears, nose,
jaw, and neck form. Tiny buds become arms, legs, fingers and toes.
Internal organs are more distinct: The intestines grow, the heart develops
separate chambers, and the liver and spleen take over production of blood
cells so that the yolk is no longer needed. Changing body proportions
cause the embryo’s posture to become more upright.

At 7 weeks. Production of neurons (nerve cells that store and

transmit information) begins deep inside the neural tube at the
astounding pace of more than 250,000 per minute (Nelson, 2011). Once
formed, neurons begin travelling along tiny threads to their permanent
location, where they will form the major parts of the brain.

At the end of this period, the embryo-about 1 inch long and 1/7
ounce in weight can already sense it world. It responds to touch,
particularly in the mouth area and on the soles of the feet. And it can
move, although its tiny flutters are still too light to be felt by the mother.
(Moore & Persaud, 2008).

Period of the Fetus starts from the ninth week to the end of
pregnancy, it is the longest prenatal period. During the “growth and
finishing” phase, the organism increases rapidly in size, especially from
the ninth to the twentieth weeks.

The third month, in this period, the organs, muscles and nervous
system starts to become organized and connected. When the brain
signals, the fetus kicks, bends its arms, forms a fist, curls its toes, turns its
head, opens its mouth and even sucks its thumb, stretches and yawns.
Body position changes occur as often as 25 times per hour (Einspieler,
Marschik, & Precthtl, 2008). The tiny lungs begin to expand and contract
in an early rehearsal of breathing movements. By the twelfth week, the
external genitals are well-formed, and the sex of the fetus can be
detected with ultrasound (Sadler, 2009). Other finishing touches appear,
such as fingernails, toenails, tooth buds, and eyelids. The heartbeat can
now be heard through a stethoscope. At the end of the third month the
first trimester is complete.

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The Second Trimester is between 17 and 20 weeks, the new being

has grown large enough that the mother can feel its movements. A white,
cheeselike substance called vernix covers the skin, protecting it from
chapping during the long months spent in the amniotic fluid. White,
downy hair called lanugo also covers the entire body, helping the vernix
stick to the skin.

At the end of the second trimester, many organs are well –

developed. Also, most of the brain’s billions of neurons are in place; few
will be produced at this time. However, glial cells, which support and feed
the neurons, continue to increase rapidly throughout the remaining
months of pregnancy, as well as after birth. Consequently, brain weight
increases tenfold from the twentieth week until birth (Roelfsema et al.,
2004). At the same time, neurons begin forming synapse, or connections,
at a rapid pace.

Brain growth means new behavioral capacities. The 20-week old

fetus can be stimulated as well as irritated by sounds. Slow eye
movements appear, with rapid eye movements following at 22 weeks. And
if a doctor looks inside the uterus using fetoscopy, fetuses try to shield
their eyes from the light with their hands, indicating that sight has begun
to emerge (Moore & Persaud, 2008). Still, a fetus born at this time cannot
survive. Its lungs are too immature, and the brain cannot yet control
breathing movements.

The Third Trimester, a fetus born early has chance of survival.

The point at which the baby can first survive, called the age of viability,
occurs sometime between 22 and 26 weeks (Moore & Persaud, 2008). A
baby born between the seventh and eight months, however, usually
needs oxygen assistance to breathe. Although the brain’s respiratory
center is now mature, tiny air sacs in the lungs are not yet ready to inflate
and exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen.
The brain continues to make great strides. The cerebral cortex, the
seat of human intelligence, enlarges. Convolutions and grooves in its
surface appear, permitting a dramatic increase in surface area that allows
for maximum prenatal brain growth without the full-term baby’s head
becoming too large to pass through the birth canal. As neural connectivity
and organization improve, the fetus spends more time awake. At 20
weeks, fetal heart rate reveals no period of alertness. But by 28 weeks,
fetuses are awake about 11 percent of the time, a figure that rises to 16
percent just before birth (DiPietro et al., 1996). Between 30 and 34
weeks, fetuses show rhythmic alternations between sleep and
wakefulness that gradually increase in organization (Rivkees, 2003).
Around this time, synchrony between fetal heart rate and motor activity

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peaks: A rise in heart rate is usually followed within 5 seconds by a burst

of motor activity (DiPietro et al., 2006). These are clear signs that
coordinated neural networks are beginning to form in the brain.

By the end of pregnancy, the fetus takes on the beginning of a

personality. Higher fetal activity in the last weeks of pregnancy predicts a
more active infant in the first month of life- a relationship that, for boys,
persists into early childhood (Groome et al., 1999). Fetal activity is linked
in other ways to infant temperament. In one study, more active features
during the third trimester became 1-year olds who could better handle
frustration and 2-year-olds who were less fearful, in that they more
readily interacted with toys and with an unfamiliar adult in a laboratory
(DiPietro et al., 2002). Perhaps fetal activity level is an indicator of healthy
neurological development, which fosters adaptability in childhood. The
relationships just described, however, are only modest.

The third trimester also brings greater responsiveness to external

stimulation. Between 23 and 30 weeks, connections form between the
cerebral cortex and brain regions involved in pain sensitivity. By this time,
painkillers should be used in any surgical procedures (Lee et al., 2005).
Around 28 weeks, fetuses blink their eyes in reaction to nearby sounds
(Kisilevsky & Low;1998; Saffran, Werker, & Werner, 2006). And at 30
weeks, fetuses presented with a repeated auditory stimulus against the
mother’s abdomen initially react with a rise in heart rate and body
movements. But over the next 5 to 6 minutes, responsiveness gradually
declines, indicating habituation (adaptation) to the sound. If the stimulus
is reintroduced after a 10-minute delay, heart rate falls off far more
quickly (Dirix et al., 2009). This suggest that fetuses can remember for at
least a brief period.

Prenatal Environmental Influences

Teratogens refers to any environmental agent that causes damage

during the prenatal period. It came from the Greek word teras which
means “malformation” or “monstrosity”. Scientist chose this word because
they first learned about harmful prenatal influences from cases in which
babies had been profoundly damaged. Furthermore, the harm done by the
teratogens is always simple and straightforward. It depends on the
following factors:

1. Dose. The larger the doses over longer periods the more it
would have negative effects.

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2. Heredity. The genetic makeup of the mother and the developing

organism plays an important role. Some individuals are better
able than others to withstand harmful environments.
3. Other negative influences. The presence of several negative
factors at once, such as additional teratogens, poor nutrition,
and lack of medical care, can worsen the impact of a single
harmful agent.
4. Age. The effects of teratogens vary with the age of the
organism at time of exposure.

Variety of teratogens:

a. Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs.

Thalidomide when taken by mothers 4 to 6 weeks after

conception produced gross deformities to the embryo’s developing
arms and legs and less frequently, damage to the ears, heart, kidneys,
and genitals. Children exposed to thalidomide who grew older scored
below average in intelligence. Perhaps the drug damaged the central
nervous system directly. Or the child-rearing conditions of these
severely deformed youngsters may impaired their intellectual
development.

Diethylstilbestrol (DES), a synthetic hormone, was widely

prescribed between 1945 and 1970 to prevent miscarriages. As
daughters of these mothers reached adolescence and young
adulthood, they showed unusually high rates of cancer of the vagina,
malformation of the uterus, and infertility. When they tried to have
children, their pregnancies more often resulted in prematurity, low
birth weight, and miscarriage than those of non-DED-exposed women.
Young men showed an increased risk of genital abnormalities and
cancer of the testes (Hammes & Laitman, 2003; Palmer et al., 2001).

Accutane is the most widely used potent teratogen, it is a vitamin

A derivative and is known by the generic name isotretinoin. It is
prescribed to treat severe acne and taken by hundreds of thousands
of women of childbearing age in industrialized nations. Exposure
during the first trimester of pregnancy results in eye, ear, skull, brain,
heart and immune system abnormalities (Honein, Paulozzi, & Erickson,
2001).

Aspirin is one of the many drugs that has a small molecule

enough to penetrate the placental barrier and can enter the embryonic

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or fetal blood stream. Several studies suggest that regular aspirin use
is linked to low birth weight, infant death around the time of birth,
poorer motor development, and lower intelligence test scores in early
childhood (Barr et al., 1990, Kozer et al., 2003; Streissguth et al.,
1987).

Caffeine from coffees, tea, cola and cocoa contain another

frequently consumed drug. As amounts exceed 100 milligrams per day
(equivalent to one cup of coffee), low birth weight and miscarriage
increase (CARE Study Group, 2008; Weng, Odouli, & Li, 2008). And
anti-depressant medications are linked to increased risk of premature
delivery and birth complications, including respiratory distress and
persistent high blood pressure in infancy (Alwan & Friedman, 2009;
Lund, Pedersen, & Henriken, 2009; Udechuku et al., 2010).

b. Illegal Drugs

Cocaine, Heroin, or methadone (a less addictive drug used to

wean people away from heroin). Babies born to users of these drugs
are at risk for a wide variety of problems including prematurity, low
birth weight, physical defects, breathing difficulties, and death at or
around the time of birth. (Bandstra et al., 2010; Howell, Coles, & Kable,
2008; Schuetze & Eiden, 2006). The infants are also considered born
drug-addicted. They are often feverish and irritable and have trouble
sleeping, and their cries are abnormally shrill and piercing-a common
symptom among stressed newborns (Bauer et al., 2005). Infants
exposed to heroin and methadone, throughout the first year, - are less
attentive to the environment than nonexposed babies, and their motor
development is slow. But after infancy, some children get better,
whereas others remain jittery and inattentive. The kind of parenting
they receive may explain why difficulties continue for some but not for
others (Hans & Jeremy, 2001). Prenatally exposed babies to cocaine
develop lasting problems. Evidence shows that cocaine constricts the
blood vessels, causing oxygen delivery to the developing organism to
fall for 15 minutes following a high dose. It also can alter the
production and functioning of neurons and the chemical balance in the
fetus’s brain. These effects may contribute to an array of cocaine-
associated physical defects, including eye, bone, genital, urinary tract,
kidney and heart deformities; brain hemorrhages and seizures; and
severe growth retardation (Covingtun et al.,2002; Feng;2005; Salisbury
et al., 2009).

Marijuana is another illegal drug, it is used more widely than

heroin or cocaine. Researchers have linked prenatal marijuana exposure

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to smaller head size (a measure of brain growth); to attention,

memory, and academic achievement difficulties; to impulsivity and
overactivity; and to depression as well as anger and aggression in
childhood adolescence (Goldschmidst et al., 2004; Gray et al., 2005;
Huizink 7 Mulder, 2006; Jutras Aswad et al., 2009).

Tobacco. The best known effect of smoking during the prenatal

period is low birth weight. But the likelihood of other serious
consequences such as miscarriage, prematurity, cleft lip and palate,
impaired heart rate and breathing during sleep, infant death, and
asthma and cancer later in childhood, also increases. The more
cigarettes a mother smokes, the greater the chances that her baby will
be affected. And if a pregnant women stops smoking at any time, even
during the third trimester, she reduces the likelihood that her infant will
be born underweight and suffer from future problems (Klesges et al.,
2001). Evidences shows that babies of smoking mother who appear to
be born in good physical condition have slight behavioral abnormalities
which might threaten the child’s development. Newborns of smoking
mothers are less attentive to sounds, display more muscle tension, are
more excitable when touched and visually stimulated, and more often
have colic (persistent crying) – findings that suggest negative effects on
brain development (Law et al., 2003; Sondergaard et al., 2002). In
addition, prenatally exposed youngsters tend to have shorter attention
spans, difficulties with impulsivity and overactivity, poorer memories,
lower mental test scores, and higher levels of disruptive, aggressive
behavior (Fryer, Crocker, & Mattson, 2008; Lindblad & Hjern, 2010;
Nigg & Breslau, 2007). Nicotine, the addictive substance in tobacco,
constricts blood vessels, lessens blood flow to the uterus, and causes
the placenta to grow abnormally. This reduces the transfer of nutrients,
so the fetus gains weight poorly. Nicotine also raises the concentration
of carbon monoxide in the blood streams of both mother and fetus.
Carbon monoxide displaces oxygen from red blood cells, damaging the
central nervous system and slowing body growth in the fetuses of
laboratory animals (Friedman,1996).

Alcohol. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Disorder (FASD), a term that

encompasses a range of physical, mental, and behavioral outcomes
caused by prenatal alcohol exposure. Below are the three types of
diagnoses of FASD according to its severity:

a. Fetal alcohols syndrome (FAS), distinguished by 1)slow physical

growth, 2) a pattern of three facial abnormalities (short eyelid
openings; a thin upper lip; a smooth or flattened philtrum, or
indentation running from the bottom of the nose to the center

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of the upper lip, and 3) brain injury; evident in a small head and
impairment in at least three areas of functioning – for
examples, memory, language and communication, attention
span and activity level (overactivity), planning and reasoning,
motor coordination or social skills.
b. Partial fetal alcohol syndrome (p-FAS), characterized by 1) two
of the three facial abnormalities just mentioned and 2) brain
injury, again evident in at least three areas impaired
functioning. Mothers of children with p-FAS generally drank
alcohol in smaller quantities, and children’s defect vary with the
timing and length of alcohol exposure.
c. Alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND), in which
at least three areas of mental functioning are impaired, despite
typical physical growth and absence of facial abnormalities.
Again, prenatal alcohol exposure, through confirmed, is less
pervasive than in FAS (Chudley, et al., 2005; Locke et al.,
2005).

Even when provided with enriched diets, FAS babies fail to

catch up in physical size during infancy or childhood. Mental
impairments associated with all three FASD diagnoses is also
permanent. The more alcohol a woman consumes during
pregnancy, the poorer the child’s motor coordination, speed of
information processing, attention, memory, reasoning, and
intelligence and achievement test scores during the preschool
and school years( Burden, Jacobson & Jacobson, 2005;
Korkman, Ketttunen, & Autti-Raemoe, 2003; Mattson, Calarco,
& Lang, 2006).

c. Radiation

Ionizing radiation can cause mutation, damaging DNA in ova and

sperm. When mothers are exposed to radiation during pregnancy, the
embryo or fetus can suffer additional harm. Defects due to radiation
were tragically apparent in the children born to pregnant women who
survived the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World
War II. Similar abnormalities surfaced in the nine months following the
1986 Chernobyl, Ukraine, nuclear power plant accident. After each
disaster, the incidence of miscarriage and of babies born with
underdeveloped brains, physical deformities and slow physical growth
rose dramatically (Hoffman, 2001; Schull, 2003). Evacuation of
residents in areas near the Japanese nuclear facility damaged by the
March 2011 earthquake and tsunami was intended to prevent these

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devastating outcomes. Even when a radiation-exposed baby seems

normal, problems may appear later. Low-level radiation a result of
industrial leakage or medical X-rays, can increase the risk of childhood
cancer (Fatibeme et.al., 1999). In middle childhood, prenatally
exposed Chernobyl children showed abnormal EEG brain-wave activity,
lower intelligence test scores, ad rates of language and emotional
disorders two to three times greater than those of nonexposed Russian
children. Women should do their best to avoid medical X-rays during
pregnancy. If dental, thyroid, chest, or other X-rays are necessary,
insisting on the use of an abdominal X-ray shield is a key protective
measure.

d. Environmental Pollution

In industrializes nations, an astounding number of

potentially dangerous chemicals are released into the environment.
More than 75,000 are in common use and many new pollutant are
introduced each year. When 10 newborns were randomly selected
from U.S. hospitals for analysis of umbilical cord blood, researchers
uncovered a startling array of industrial contaminants – 287 in all.
They concluded that babies are “born polluted” by chemicals that
not only impair prenatal development but also increase the chances
of health problems and life-threatening diseases later on (Houlihan
et al., 2005). Prenatal exposure to traffic-related air pollution due
to residence near or roadways, for example, is linked to lower birth
weight, with complicated pregnancies at greater risk (Rich et al.,
2009; Seo et al., 2010).

Other Pollutants that cause severe prenatal damage:

Mercury may caused physical deformities, mental

retardation, and abnormal speech, difficulty in chewing and
swallowing and uncoordinated movements. High levels of prenatal
mercury exposure disrupt production and migration of neurons,
causing widespread brain damage (Clarkson, Magos, & Myers,
2003; Hubbs-Tait et al., 2005).

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), were used to insulate

electrical equipment. This PCBs find their way into waterways and
entered into the food supply. Exposure to very high levels of PCBs
in rice oil resulted in low birth weight, discolored skin, deformities
of the gums and nails, EEG brainwave abnormalities and delayed
cognitive development.

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Lead, is present if paint flaking off the walls of old buildings

and in certain materials used in industrial occupations. High level of
prenatal lead exposure are consistently related to prematurity, low
birth weight, brain damage and a wide variety of physical defects.
The greater the prenatal lead exposure, the lower children’s test
scores.

Dioxins is a toxic compound resulting from incineration-

exposure to it is linked to brain, immune system and thyroid
damage in babies and to an increased incidence of breast and
uterine cancers in women, perhaps through altering hormone level
(ten Tusscher, & Koppe, 2004).

e. Maternal Disease

a. Viruses

Rubella (three-day, or German measles) Infants whose

mothers become ill during prenatal development tend to have
deafness, eye deformities, including cataracts; heart, genital,
urinary, intestinal, bone, and dental defects; mental retardation.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can lead to
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), a disease that
destroys the immune system. The virus is pass by the expectant
mother to the fetus 20 to 30 percent of the time. The virus
progresses rapidly in infants. Weight loss, diarrhea, and repeated
respiratory illnesses are common. It also causes brain damage, as
indicated by seizures, gradual loss in brain weight, and delayed
mental and motor development.

b. Bacterial/Parasitic

The most common among bacteria/parasitic is

toxoplasmosis, caused by a parasite found in many animals.
Pregnant women may become infected from eating raw or
undercooked meat or from contact with the feces of infected cats.
It is likely to cause eye and brain damage once it strikes during the
first trimester of prenatal development.

f. Other Maternal Factors

1. Exercise

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Regular Moderate exercise, such as walking, swimming,

biking, or an aerobic workout, is related to increased birth weight
and a reduction in risk for certain complications, such as
pregnancy-induced maternal diabetes and high blood
pressure(Kalisiak & Spitznangle, 2009; Olson et al., 2009)

Frequent, vigorous extended exercise – working up a sweat

for more than 30 minutes, four or five days a week, especially late
in pregnancy-results in lower birth weight than in healthy,
nonexercising controls (Clappet al.,2002; Leet & Flick,2003).

But during the last trimester, when the abdomen grows very
large, mothers have difficult moving freely and often must cut back
on exercise. However, most women do not engage in sufficient
moderate exercise during pregnancy to promote their own and
their baby’s health(Poudevigne & O’Connor, 2006). An expectant
mother who remains fit experiences fewer physical discomforts,
such as back pain, upward pressure on the chest, or difficulty
breathing in the final weeks.

2. Nutrition

A healthy diet that results in maternal weight gain of 25 to

30 pounds (10 to 13.15) helps ensure health of mother and baby.

Prenatal malnutrition can cause serious damage to the

central nervous system. The poorer the mother’s diet, the greater
the loss in brain weight, especially if malnutrition occurred during
the last trimester. The time, the brain is increasing rapidly in size,
and for it to reach its full potential, the mother must have a diet
high in all the basic nutrients (Morgane et al., 1993). An inadequate
diet during pregnancy can also distort the structure of other
organs, including the liver, kidneys, and pancreas, resulting in
lifelong health problems, including cardiovascular disease and
diabetes in adulthood (Barker, 2008; Whincup et al., 208).
Many studies show that providing pregnant women with
adequate food has a substantial impact on their newborn babies.
For example,taking folic acid supplement around the time of
conception reduces by more than 70 percent abnormalities of the
neural tube, such as anencephaly and spina bifida. Folic acid
supplementation also reduces the risk of other physical defects,
including cleft lip and palate, urinary tract abnormalities, and limb
deformities.

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Other vitamins and minerals also have established benefits,

Enriching women’s diets with calcium helps prevent maternal high
blood pressure and premature births.
Adequate magnesium, and zinc reduce the risk of many
prenatal and birth complications(Durlach, 2004;Kontic-Vucinic,
Sulovic, & Radunovic, 2006). Fortifying table salt with iodine
virtually eradicates infantile hypothyroidism, a condition of stunted
growth and cognitive impairment,caused by prenatal iodine
deficiency – a common cause of mental retardation in may parts of
the developing world (Williams, 2008)

Childbirth

- Childbirth is often referred to as labor.

- Labor is an apt term for the process of giving birth.
- The hardest physical work that a woman may ever do.
- A complex series of hormonal exchanges between mother and
fetus.
- Labor is a series of uterine, cervical, and other changes called
parturition.

Three Stages of Childbirth

a. Dilation and effacement of the cervix – this is the longest stage

of labor, lasting an average of 12 to 14 hours with a first birth
and 4 to 6 hour with later births. Contractions of the uterus
gradually become more frequent and powerful, causing the
cervix, or uterine opening, to widen and thin to nothing,
forming a clear channel from the uterus into birth canal, or
vagina.

b. Delivery of the baby – the second stage is much shorter that

the first, lasting about 50 minutes for a first baby and 20
minutes in later births. Strong contractions of the uterus
continue, but the mother also feels a natural urge to squeeze
and push with her abdominal muscles. As she does so with each
contraction, she forces the baby down and out.

c. Birth of the placenta – labor comes to an end with a few final

contractions and pushes. These cause the placenta to separate

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from the wall of the uterus and be delivered in about 5 to 10

minutes.

Stages of Childbirth
Source: https://microbenotes.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Stages-of-
Labor.gif

Approaches to Childbirth

1. Natural, or prepared, childbirth consists of a group of techniques aimed

at reducing pain and medical intervention and making childbirth as
rewarding an experience as possible.

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2. Home Delivery or home birth has been a popular in certain

industrialized nations such as England, Netherlands and Sweden. The
mothers want birth to be an important part of family life, to avoid
unnecessary medical procedures, and to have greater control over their
own care and that of their babies than hospitals permit. Home births are
attended by doctors, many more ae handled by certified nurse-midwives,
who have degrees in nursing and additional training in childbirth
management.

3. Labor and Delivery medication, some form of medication is used such as

analgesic, and anesthetics.
Analgesics, drugs used to relieve pain, may be given in mild doses
during labor to help mother relax.

Anesthetics are a stronger type of painkiller that blocks sensation.

Epidural analgesia is the most common approach to controlling pain
during labor in which a regional pain-relieving drug is delivered
continuously through a catheter into a small space in the lower spine.

Birth Complication

1. Oxygen Deprivation

Some infants experience anoxia, the inadequate oxygen supply during

the birth process. This problem results from a failure to start breathing
within a few minutes. If regular breathing is delayed for more than 10
minutes the baby may likely to have brain damage ( Kendall & Peebles,
2005)
Conditions why anoxia occurs:
a. Squeezing of the umbilical cord. This occur when the infants are
in breech position during delivery. Breech position turned in
such a way that the buttock s or feet would be delivered first.
b. Placenta abruptio, or premature separation of the placenta, a
life-threatening event that requires immediate delivery.
c. Rh factor incompatibility between the mother’s and baby’s blood
types. When the mother is Rh negative (lacks the Rh protein)
and the father is Rh positive (has the Rh protein), the baby may
inherit the father’s Rh positive blood type. If even a little of a
fetus’s Rh positive blood crosses the placenta into the Rh
negative mother’s bloodstream, she begins to form antibodies

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to the foreign protein. If these enter the fetus’s system, they

destroy red blood cells, reducing the supply of oxygen.

2. Preterm and Low-Birth-Weight Infants

Babies born three weeks or more before the end of the a full 38-
week pregnancy or who weigh less than 5 ½ pounds (2500 grams)
were categorized as “premature”. Birth weight is the best available
predictor of infant survival and healthy development. Newborn who
weigh less than 3 ½ pounds (1 500 grams) experience difficulties that
are not overcome.

B. Physical and Motor Development

1. Infancy Early Learning, Motor Skills and Perceptual

Capacities:The Organized Infant

Reflexes

A reflex is an inborn, automatic response to a particular form of

stimulation. Reflexes are the neonate’s most obvious organized patterns
of behavior. Some reflexes have survival value.

Rooting reflex helps a breastfed baby find the mother’s nipple.

Babies display in only when hungry and touched by another person, not
when they touch themselves (Rochat & Hespos,1997).

Sucking reflex help babies adjust their sucking pressure to how

easily milk flow from the nipple (Craig & Lee, 1999). If sucking were not
automatic, species would be unlikely to survive for a single generation.

The swimming reflex helps a baby who is accidentally dropped into

water stay afloat, increasing the chances of retrieval by the caregiver.

The Moro reflex or “embracing reflex” is believed to have helped

infants cling to their mothers when they were carried about all day. If the
baby happened to lose support, the reflex caused the infant to embrace.

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Palmar grasp reflex, this is so strong during the first week that it
can support the baby’s entire weight, along with embrace reflex regain
her hold on the mother’s body (Kessen, 1967; Present, 1958)

Tonic neck reflex may prepare the baby for voluntary reaching.
When infants lie on their in this “fencing position” they naturally gaze at
the hand in front of their eyes. The reflex may encourage then to combine
vision with arm movements and, eventually reach for object (Knobloch &
Pasamanick, 1974).

States

State of arousal or degrees of sleep and wakefulness of the

newborn infants throughout the day and night. During the first month,
these states alternate frequently. The most fleeting is quiet alertness,
which usually moves quickly toward fussing and crying. Newborn spend
the greatest amount of time asleep – about 16 to 18 hours a day. Young
babies’ sleep –wake cycles are affected more by fullness-hunger than by
darkness-light (Davis, Parker, & Montgomery, 2004; Goodlin-Jones,
Burnham, & Anders, 2000).

Between birth and 2 years, the organization of sleep and

wakefulness changes substantially. Total sleep time declines slowly; the
average 2-year-old still needs 12 to 13 hours per day. Period of sleep and
wakefulness become fewer but longer, and the sleep-wake pattern
increasingly conforms to a circadian rhythm, or 24-hour schedule. By 2 to
3 months, infants respond more to darkness-light. Most 6 to 9 month-olds
take two daytime naps; by abut 18 months, children generally need only
one nap. For 3 to 5 years, napping subsides (Iglowstein et al., 2003).

Below are the five states of arousal of infant.

Infant States of Arousal

State Description Daily Duration in

Newborn
Regular, or NREM, The infant is t full rest and shows little or no 8-9 hours
sleep body activity. The eyelids are closed, no eye
movement occur, the face is relaxed, and
breathing is slow and regular
Irregualr, REM, Gentle limb movements, occasional stirring, 8-9 hours
sleep and facial grimacing occur. Although the eyelids
are closed, occasional rapid eye movements
can be seen beneath them. Breathing is

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irregular
Drowsiness The infant is either falling asleep or waking up. Varies
Body is less active than in irregular sleep, but
more active than in regular sleep. The eyes
open and close; when open, they have a glazed
look. Breathing is even but somewhat faster
than in regular sleep.
Quiet alertness The infant’s body is relatively inactive, with 2-3 hours
eyes open and attentive. Breathing is even.
Waking activity and The infant shows frequent bursts of 1-4 hours
crying uncoordinated body activity. Breathing is very
irregular; face may be relaxed or tense and
wrinkled. Crying may occur.
Source: Wollf, 1966

Sleep

Sleep is composed of at least two states.

1. Irregular or Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep, brain-wave

activity, measured with the EEG is remarkably similar to that of the
waking state. The eyes dart beneath the lids; heart rate, blood pressure,
and breathing are uneven; and slight body movements occur.
2. Regular or Non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep, the
body is almost motionless, and heart rate, breathing, and brain-wave
activity are slow and even.

Neonatal Behavioral Assessment

To assess the organized functioning of newborn babies test were

used. The most widely used of these tests, T. Berry Brazelton’s Neonatal
Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS). It evaluates the baby’s reflexes,
muscle tone, state changes, responsiveness to physical and social stimuli,
and other reactions . Another is the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network
Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS), specifically designed for use with newborn
at risk for developmental problems because of low birth weight, preterm
delivery, prenatal substance exposure, or other conditions (Lester &
Tronick, 2004).

Motor Development in Infancy

The Sequence of Motor Development

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1. Gross-motor development refers to control over actions that

help infants get around in the environment such as crawling, standing,
and walking

2. Fine-motor development has to do with smaller movements

such as reaching, and grasping.

Motor Skills as Dynamic System

Dynamic system theory of motor development refers to the

mastery of motor skills involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of
action. When motor skills work as a system, separate abilities blend
together, each cooperating with others to produce more effective ways of
exploring and controlling environment.
Example, control of the head and upper chest combine into sitting
with support. Kicking, rocking on all fours, and reaching combine to
become crawling. Then crawling, standing, and stepping are united into
walking (Adolph & Berger, 2006; Thelen, 1989).
Each new skill is a joint product of the following factors: central
nervous system development, the body’s movement capacities, the goals
of the child has in mind, environmental supports for the skill.

Milestones : Some Gross-and Fine-Motor Attainments of the First

Two Years
MOTOR SKILL AVERAGE AGE AGE RANGEIN
WHICH 90 PERCENT
OF INFANTS ACHIEVE
THE SKILL
When held upright, holds head erect and 6 weeks 3 weeks-4 months
steady
When prone, lifts self by arms 2 months 3 weeks-4 months
Rolls from side to back 2 months 3 weeks-5 months
Grasps cube 3 months, 3 2-7 months
weeks
Rolls from back to side 41/2 months 2-7 months
Sits alone 7 months 5-9 months
Crawls 7 months 5-11 months
Pulls to stand 8 months 5-12 months
Plays pat-a-cake 9 months, 3 7-15 months
weeks
Stands alone 11 months 9-16 months
Walks alone 11 months, 3 9-17 months
weeks
Build tower of two cubes 11 months, 3 10-19 months
weeks

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Scribbles vigorously 14 months 10-21 months

Walks up stairs with help 16 months 12-23 months
Jumps in place 24 months, 2 17-30 months
weeks
Walks on tiptoe 25 months 16-30 months
Note: These milestones represent overall age trends. Individual differences exist in the precise age
at which each milestone is attained
Sources: Bayley,1969, 1993, 2005

Perceptual Development in Infancy

a. Touch

Touch is a fundamental means of interaction between parents and

babies. Touch helps stimulate early physical growth, and it is vital for
emotional development. That is why, it is not surprising that sensitivity to
touch is well-developed at birth.

The newborn baby responds to touch, especially around the mouth,

on the palms, and on the soles of the feet. During the prenatal period,
these areas, along with the genitals, are the first to become sensitive to
touch (Humprey,1978; Streri,2005). Allowing a baby to endure severe
pain overwhelms the nervous system with stress hormones, which can
disrupt the child’s developing capacity to handle common, everyday
stressors. The result is heightened pain sensitivity, sleep disturbances,
feeding problems, and difficulty calming down when upset (Mitchell &
Boss,2002). Gentle touching, in contrast, enhances babies positive
responsiveness to their physical and social surroundings. An adult’s soft
caresses induce infants to smile and become more attentive to the adult’s
face (Stack & Muir, 1992). And parents vary their style of touching,
depending on whether the goal of their interactions is to comfort, convey
affection, or induce smiling, attention, or play in their baby (Jean & Stack,
2009; Stack, 2010).
Research on infant mammals indicates that physical touch releases
endorphins – painkilling chemicals in the brain ( Axelin, Salantera, &
Lehtonen, 2006; Gormally et al., 2001). Gentle touching enhances babies’
positive responsiveness to their physical and social surroundings. Adult’s
soft caresses induce infants to smile and become more attentive to the
adult’s face (Stack & Muir, 1992).
Allowing a baby to endure severe pain overwhelms the nervous
system with stress hormones, which can disrupt the child’s developing
capacity to handle common, everyday stressors. The results is heightened
pain sensitivity, sleep disturbances, feeling problems, and difficulty
calming down when upset.

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b. Taste and Smell

Facial expressions reveal that newborns can distinguish several

basic tastes. They relax their facial muscles in response to sweetness,
purse their lips when the taste is sour, and show a distinct archlike mouth
opening when it is bitter (Steiner, 1979; Steiner et al., 2001). These
reactions are important for survival: The food that best supports the
infant’s early growth is the sweet-tasting milk of the mother’s breast. Not
until 4 months do babies prefer a salty taste to plain water, a change that
may prepare them to accept solid food (Mennella & Beauchamp, 1998).
There is also certain odor preferences present at birth. Example,
the smell of banana or chocolate causes a relaxed, pleasant facial
expression, whereas the odor of rotten eggs makes the infant frown
(Steiner, 1979). During pregnancy, the amniotic fluid is rich in tastes and
smells that vary with the mother’s diet-early experiences that influences
newborns’ preferences.

c. Hearing

Newborn infants can hear a wide variety of sounds- sensitivity that

improves greatly over the first few months (Saffran, Werker, & Werner,
2006; Tharpe & Ashmed, 2001). Responsiveness to sound provides
support for the young baby’s exploration of the environment. Infants as
young as 3 days old turn their eyes and head in the general direction of a
sound.
At birth, infants prefer complex sound, such as noise and voices,
to pure tones. And babies only a few days old can tell the difference
between a variety of sound patterns: a series of tones arranged in
ascending versus descending order; tone sequences with rhythmic
downbeat versus those without; utterances with two versus three
syllables; the stress patterns of words, such as “ ma-ma” versus ;ma-ma”;
and even two languages spoken by the same bilingual speaker, as long as
those language differ in their rhythmic features. (Mastropiere & Turkewitz,
1999; Ramus, 2002; Sansavini, Bertocini, & Giovanelli, 1997; Trehub,
2001; Winker et al., 2009).

d. Speech Perception

Young infants listen longer to human speech than to structurally

similar nonspeech sounds (Vouloumanos, 2010). And they can detect the
sounds of any human language. Newborns make fine-grained distinctions
among many speech sounds.

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Milestones: Development of Touch, Taste Smell, and Hearing

AGE TOUCH TASTE AND SMELL HEARING
Birth Responds to touch Distinguishes Prefers complex sounds to
and pain sweet, sour, and pure tones.
Distinguish shape bitter tastes;
of object placed in prefers sweetness. Distinguishes some sound
palm patterns.
Distinguishes
odors; prefers Prefers listening to own
those of sweet- mother’s voice over
tasting foods. unfamiliar woman’s voice,
and native language as
Prefers smell of opposed to foreign language.
own mother’s
amniotic fluid and Make subtle distinctions
the lactating breast between almost all speech
sounds, including sounds not
found in own language.

Turns eyes and head in the

general direction of a sound
1-6 Frequently engages Prefers a salty taste Prefers listening to human
months in exploratory to plain water. speech over structurally
mouthing of similar nonspeech sounds.
objects Readily changes
taste preferences Organizes sounds into
through experience increasingly elaborate
patterns, such as musical
phrases.

Identifies location of a sound

more precisely.
By the end of this period,
becomes sensitive to syllable
stress patterns in own
language
7-12 Recognizes the same melody
months played in different keys.

Screens out sounds not used

in native language.

Detects speech units crucial

to understanding meaning,
including familiar words and
regularities in sound and

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word sequences.
Note: These milestones represent overall age trends. Individual differences exist in the precise age
at which each milestones is attained.

e. Vision

At birth, vision it the least developed of the senses. Visual

structures in both the eye and the brain are not yet fully developed. For
example, retina, he membrane lining the inside of the eye that capture light and
transforms it into messages that are sent to the brain, are not as mature or
densely packed as they be in several months. The optic nerve that relays these
messages, and visual center in the brain that receive them, will not be adult like
for several years. And the muscle of the lens, which permit us to adjust our focus
to varying distances, are weak (Kellman & Arterberry, 2006).

As result the babies can not focus their eyes well, and their visual acuity,
or fineness of discrimination, is limited. At birth, infants perceive objects at a
distance fof 20 feet about as clearly as adults do at 600 feet (Slater et al., 2010).
Furthermore, babies see unclearly across a wide range of distances (Banks,
1980; Hainline, 1998). As a result, images such as the parent’s face, even close
up, look like the blurry image. Moreover, babies are not yet good at
discriminating colors.

Milestones: Visual Development in Infancy

AGE: Birth – 1 month

ACUITY, COLOR PERCEPTION, FOCUSING, AND EXPLORATION

Visual acuity is 20/600.
Scans the visual field and tracks moving object

DEPTH PERCEPTION
Responds to motion blinking defensively when an object moves
toward the face.

PATTERN PERCEPTION
Prefers large, bold patterns
Responds to separate parts of a pattern, focusing on single high
contrast features.
Prefers to look at simplified drawings of facelike patterns and at
photos of faces with eyes open and a direct gaze.
Shows preferences for attractive faces over less attractive ones.

OBJECT PERCEPTION

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Displays size and shape constancy.

AGE: 2 – 3 months

ACUITY, COLOR PERCEPTION, FOCUSING, AND EXPLORATION

Has adultlike focusing ability
Scans mre thoroughly and systematically

DEPTH PERCEPTION
Responds to binocular depth cues

PATTERN PERCEPTION
Prefers patterns with finer details
Thoroughly scans internal pattern features
Begin to perceive overall pattern structure.
Prefers complex drawings of human face to other, equally complex
stimulus arrangements.
Prefers and more easily discriminates among female than male
faces.
Recognizes and prefers mother’s face and distinguishes among
faces of strangers.

OBJECT PERCEPTION
Uses motion and spatial arrangement to identify objects.

AGE : 4-5 months

ACUITY, COLOR PERCEPTION, FOCUSING, AND EXPLORATION

Color discrimination is adultlike

DEPTH PERCEPTION
Sensitivity to binocular depth cues improves.
Begins to respond pictorial depth

PATTERN PERCEPTION
Perceives subjective boundaries in simple patterns.
Increasingly relies on relational information (such as distance
among features) to differentiate faces.
Distinguishes emotionally positive from emotionally negative facial
expressions.

OBJECT PERCEPTION
Uses shape, color, and texture to identify objects.

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Perceives an object’s path of movement as continuous without

seeing the entire path.

AGE: 6-9 months

ACUITY, COLOR PERCEPTION, FOCUSING, AND EXPLORATION

Visual acuity improves to near 20/20.
Scans the visual field and tracks moving objects more efficiently.

DEPTH PERCEPTION
Responsiveness to pictorial depth cues improves.

PATTERN PERCEPTION
Perceives subjective boundaries in simple patterns.
Increasingly relies on relational information (such as distance
among features) to differentiate faces.
Distinguishes emotionally positive from emotionally negative facial
expression

AGE: 10-12 months

PATTERN PERCEPTION
Continues to improve at detecting subjective form: Detects familiar
objects represented by incomplete drawings.

The Course of Physical Growth

1. Changes in Body Size

The most obvious signs of physical growth are changes in overall

body size. During infancy these changes are rapid- faster than at any
other time after birth. By the end of the first year, a typical infant’s height
is 50 percent greater than at birth.

By two years, it is 75 percent greater. There are two types of

growth curves are used to track overall changes in body size. The distance
curve and the velocity curve.

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The distance curve plots the average size of sample of children at each
age, indicating typical yearly progress toward maturity.

The velocity curve plots the average amount of growth at each yearly
interval, revealing the exact timing of growth spurts.

2. Changes is Body Proportions

As the child’s overall increases, parts of the body grow at different

rates. There are two growth patterns that describe these changes, the
cephalocaudal trend and the proximodistal trend.
Cephalocaudal trend from the Latin for “head to tail”, the head
develops first from the primitive embryonic disk, followed by the lower
part of the body.

Proximodistal trend growth proceeds, literally, “from near to far” –

from the center of the body outward. In the prenatal period, the head,
chest, and truck grow first, then the arms and legs finally the hands and
the feet.

During infancy and childhood, the arms and legs continue to grow
somewhat ahead fo the hands and feet.

3. Changes in Muscle- Fat Makeup

Body fat increases in the last few weeks of prenatal life and
continues to do so after birth, reaching a peak at about 9 months of age.
This early rise in “baby fat” helps the infant keep a constant body
temperature.

At birth, girls have slightly more body fat than boys, a difference
that persists into the school years and then magnifies. Around 8, girls
start to add more fat on their arms, legs, and trunk; they continue to do
so throughout puberty, while the arm and leg fat of adolescent boys
decreases (Siervegel et al., 2000).

Both sexes gain muscle at puberty, but this increase is 150 percent
greater in boys, who develop skeletal muscles, hearts, and lungs capacity
(Rogol, Roemmich, & Clark, 2002).

Boys gain far more muscle strength than girls, contributing to their
superior athletic performance during the teenage years (Ramos et al.,
1998).

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4. Skeletal Growth

The best estimate of a child’s physical maturity is skeletal age.

Skeletal age is a measure of development of the bones of the body.The
embryonic skeleton is first formed out of soft, pliable tissue called
cartilage.Epiphyses are special growth centers, appear at the two extreme
end of each of the long bones of the body.

Skeletal age can be estimated by X-raying the bones to determine the

number of epiphyses and the extent to which they are fused.

Gains in Gross-Motor Skills

2. Milestones: Gross-Motor Development in Early and

Middle Childhood

AGE GROSS-MOTOR SKILLS

2-3 years Walks more rhythmically; hurried walk changes to run
Jumps, hops, throw, and catches with rigid upper body.
Pushes riding toy with feet; little steering
3-4 years Walks up stairs, alternating feet, and down stairs, leading with one foot.
Jumps and hops, flexing upper body.
Throws and catches with slight involvement of upper body; still catches by
trapping ball against chest.
Pedals and steers tricycle.
4-5 years Walks down stairs, alternating feet.
Runs more smoothly.
Gallops and skips with one foot.
Throws ball with increased body rotation and transfer of weight on feet;
catches ball with hands.
Rides tricycle rapidly: steers smoothly.
5-6 years Increases running speed to 12 feet per second
Gallops more smoothly: engages in true skipping and sideways stepping.
Displays mature, whole-body throwing and catching pattern; increases
throwing speed.
Rides bicycle with training wheels.
7-12 years Increases running speed to more than 18 feet per second.
Displays continuous, fluid skipping and sideways stepping.
Increases vertical jump from 4 to 12 inches and broad jump from 3 to over
5 feet; accurately jumps and hops from square to square.
Increases throwing and kicking speed, distance and accuracy.
Increases ability to catch small balls thrown over greater distances.
Involves the whole body in batting a ball; batting increases in speed and
accuracy.

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Hand dribbling changes from awkward slapping of the ball to continuous,

relaxed, even stroking
Note: These milestones represent overall age trends. Individual differences exist in the precise age
at which each milestones is attained.
Sources: Cratty,1986; Haywood & Getchell, 2005; Malina & Bouchard, 1991.

C. Neuroscience and Brain Development

What is the brain?

The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion,

touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every
process that regulates our body. Together, the brain and spinal cord that
extends from it make up the central nervous system, or CNS.

What is the brain made of?

Weighing about 3 pounds in the average adult, the brain is about 60% fat.
The remaining 40% is a combination of water, protein, carbohydrates and
salts. The brain itself is a not a muscle. It contains blood vessels and nerves,
including neurons and glial cells.

What is the gray matter and white matter?

Gray and white matter are two different regions of the central nervous system. In
the brain, gray matter refers to the darker, outer portion, while white matter
describes the lighter, inner section underneath. In the spinal cord, this order is
reversed: The white matter is on the outside, and the gray matter sits within.

Gray matter is primarily composed of neuron somas (the round central cell
bodies), and white matter is mostly made of axons (the long stems that connects
neurons together) wrapped in myelin (a protective coating). The different
composition of neuron parts is why the two appear as separate shades on certain
scans.

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Each region serves a different role. Gray matter is primarily responsible for
processing and interpreting information, while white matter transmits that
information to other parts of the nervous system.

How does the brain work?

The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the
body. Different signals control different processes, and your brain interprets
each. Some make you feel tired, for example, while others make you feel pain.

Some messages are kept within the brain, while others are relayed through the
spine and across the body’s vast network of nerves to distant extremities. To do
this, the central nervous system relies on billions of neurons (nerve cells).

Main Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

At a high level, the brain can be divided into the cerebrum, brainstem and
cerebellum.

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Cerebrum
The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises gray matter (the cerebral cortex) and
white matter at its center. The largest part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and
coordinates movement and regulates temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum
enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and
learning. Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.

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Cerebral Cortex

Cortex is Latin for “bark,” and describes the outer gray matter covering of the
cerebrum. The cortex has a large surface area due to its folds, and comprises
about half of the brain’s weight.

The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. It is covered with
ridges (gyri) and folds (sulci). The two halves join at a large, deep sulcus (the
interhemispheric fissure, AKA the medial longitudinal fissure) that runs from the
front of the head to the back. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the
body, and the left half controls the right side of the body. The two halves
communicate with one another through a large, C-shaped structure of white
matter and nerve pathways called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is in
the center of the cerebrum.

Brainstem
The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. The
brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

 Midbrain. The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is a very complex structure

with a range of different neuron clusters (nuclei and colliculi), neural
pathways and other structures. These features facilitate various functions,
from hearing and movement to calculating responses and environmental
changes. The midbrain also contains the substantia nigra, an area
affected by Parkinson’s disease that is rich in dopamine neurons and part
of the basal ganglia, which enables movement and coordination.
 Pons. The pons is the origin for four of the 12 cranial nerves, which
enable a range of activities such as tear production, chewing, blinking,
focusing vision, balance, hearing and facial expression. Named for the
Latin word for “bridge,” the pons is the connection between the midbrain
and the medulla.
 Medulla. At the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the brain
meets the spinal cord. The medulla is essential to survival. Functions of
the medulla regulate many bodily activities, including heart rhythm,
breathing, blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. The medulla
produces reflexive activities such as sneezing, vomiting, coughing and
swallowing.

The spinal cord extends from the bottom of the medulla and through a large
opening in the bottom of the skull. Supported by the vertebrae, the spinal cord
carries messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body.

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Cerebellum
The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a fist-sized portion of the brain located at the
back of the head, below the temporal and occipital lobes and above the
brainstem. Like the cerebral cortex, it has two hemispheres. The outer portion
contains neurons, and the inner area communicates with the cerebral cortex. Its
function is to coordinate voluntary muscle movements and to maintain posture,
balance and equilibrium. New studies are exploring the cerebellum’s roles in
thought, emotions and social behavior, as well as its possible involvement in
addiction, autism and schizophrenia.

Brain Coverings: Meninges

Three layers of protective covering called meninges surround the brain and the
spinal cord.

 The outermost layer, the dura mater, is thick and tough. It includes two
layers: The periosteal layer of the dura mater lines the inner dome of the
skull (cranium) and the meningeal layer is below that. Spaces between the
layers allow for the passage of veins and arteries that supply blood flow to
the brain.
 The arachnoid mater is a thin, weblike layer of connective tissue that
does not contain nerves or blood vessels. Below the arachnoid mater is
the cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF. This fluid cushions the entire central
nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and continually circulates around
these structures to remove impurities.
 The pia mater is a thin membrane that hugs the surface of the brain and
follows its contours. The pia mater is rich with veins and arteries.

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Lobes of the Brain and What They Control

Each brain hemisphere (parts of the cerebrum) has four sections, called lobes:
frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. Each lobe controls specific functions.

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 Frontal lobe. The largest lobe of the brain, located in the front of the
head, the frontal lobe is involved in personality characteristics, decision-
making and movement. Recognition of smell usually involves parts of the
frontal lobe. The frontal lobe contains Broca’s area, which is associated
with speech ability.
 Parietal lobe. The middle part of the brain, the parietal lobe helps a
person identify objects and understand spatial relationships (where one’s
body is compared with objects around the person). The parietal lobe is
also involved in interpreting pain and touch in the body. The parietal lobe
houses Wernicke’s area, which helps the brain understand spoken
language.
 Occipital lobe. The occipital lobe is the back part of the brain that is
involved with vision.
 Temporal lobe. The sides of the brain, temporal lobes are involved in
short-term memory, speech, musical rhythm and some degree of smell
recognition.

Deeper Structures Within the Brain

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Pituitary Gland
Sometimes called the “master gland,” the pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure
found deep in the brain behind the bridge of the nose. The pituitary gland
governs the function of other glands in the body, regulating the flow of hormones
from the thyroid, adrenals, ovaries and testicles. It receives chemical signals from
the hypothalamus through its stalk and blood supply.

Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is located above the pituitary gland and sends it chemical
messages that control its function. It regulates body temperature, synchronizes
sleep patterns, controls hunger and thirst and also plays a role in some aspects
of memory and emotion.

Amygdala
Small, almond-shaped structures, an amygdala is located under each half
(hemisphere) of the brain. Included in the limbic system, the amygdalae regulate
emotion and memory and are associated with the brain’s reward system, stress,
and the “fight or flight” response when someone perceives a threat.

Hippocampus
A curved seahorse-shaped organ on the underside of each temporal lobe, the
hippocampus is part of a larger structure called the hippocampal formation. It
supports memory, learning, navigation and perception of space. It receives
information from the cerebral cortex and may play a role in Alzheimer’s disease.

Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is located deep in the brain and attached by a stalk to the top of
the third ventricle. The pineal gland responds to light and dark and secretes
melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle.

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Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Deep in the brain are four open areas with passageways between them. They
also open into the central spinal canal and the area beneath arachnoid layer of
the meninges.

The ventricles manufacture cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF, a watery fluid that

circulates in and around the ventricles and the spinal cord, and between the
meninges. CSF surrounds and cushions the spinal cord and brain, washes out
waste and impurities, and delivers nutrients.

Source:https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/anatomy-of-
the-brain

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1. Hormonal Influences on Physical Growth

The most important hormones for human growth are released by

the pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain near the
hypothalamus, a structure that initiates and regulates pituitary secretions.

Growth hormone (GH) is the only pituitary secretion produced

continuously throughout life, affects development of all tissues except the
central nervous system and the genitals. GH production doubles during
puberty, contributing to tremendous gains body size, and then decreases
after final adult height is reached. GH acts directly on the body and also
stimulates the liver and epiphyses of the skeleton to release another
hormone, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), which triggers cell
duplication throughout the body, especially the skeleton, muscles, nerves,
bone marrow, liver, kidney, skin and lungs.

2. Development of Neurons

The human brain has 100 to 200 billion of neurons, or nerve cells,
that store and transmit information. Between them are tiny gaps, or
synapses, where fibers from different neurons come close together but do
not touch. Neurons send messages to one another by releasing chemicals
called neurotransmitters, which cross synapses.

A surprising aspect of brain growth is programmed cell death,

which makes a space for these connective structures; As synapse from,
many surrounding neurons die -20 to 80 percent, depending on the brain
region(de Haan & Johnson, 2003). Neurons that are seldom stimulated
soon lose their synapses, in a process called synaptic pruning that returns
neurons not needed at the moment to an uncommitted state so they can
support future development.

3. Development of the Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex surrounds the rest of the brain, resembling half
of a shelled walnut. It is the largest brain structure – accounting for 85
percent of the brain weight and containing the greatest number of
neurons and synapses.

4. Regions of the Cerebral Cortex

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The prefrontal cortex, lying in front of areas controlling the body

movement, is responsible for thought – in particular, consciousness,
attention, inhibition of impulses, integration of information, and use of
memory, reasoning, planning, and problem-solving strategies.

5. Lateralization and Plasticity of the Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex has two hemispheres, sides that differ in their
functions. Left hemisphere is largely responsible for verbal abilities (such
as spoken and written language) and positive emotion (such as joy). The
right hemisphere handle spatial abilities (judging distances, reading maps,
and recognizing geometric shape) and negative emotion ( such as
distress)

Brain Plasticity

A highly plastic cerebral cortex, in which many areas are not yet
committed to specific functions, has a high capacity for learning. And if a
part of the cortex is damaged, other parts can take over the tasks it would
have handled.

The Reticular formation, a structure in the brain stem that

maintains alertness and consciousness.

Hippocampus an inner brain which plays a vital role in memory and

in images of space that help us find our way.

Amygdala also located in the inner brain, adjacent to the

hippocampus, a structure that plays a central role in processing emotional
information.

The corpus callosum is a large bundle of fibers connecting the two

cerebral hemisphere.

Additional Reading materials: Take note number one was

already uploaded here. Please download Numbers 2-4..

1. https://nancyguberti.com/5-stages-of-human-brain-development/
2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2989000/
3. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/early-brain-
development.html

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4. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/brain-
development

5 Stages of Human Brain Development

Posted In Blog | 16 comments

Throughout the lifetime of the human brain it continues to undergo changes. I cannot stress
the importance of each stage and how we need to nourish and protect our brain growth from
0 to 100 and hopefully beyond!
Let’s review each of the five stages of human brain growth:
Stage 1: 0 to 10 months 
 Neurons and connections growing.

 Pregnant woman should stay as stress-free as possible, take folic acid, B6 & B12,
stimulate this young developing brain with sounds and sensations. Mother should avoid
toxins, cigarettes, heavy metals, alcohol, drugs.

Stage 2: birth to 6 years

 Development of voluntary movement, reasoning, perception, frontal lobes active in
development of emotions, attachments, planning, working memory, and perception. A
sense of self is developing and life experiences shape the emotional well being.

 By age six, the brain is 95% its adult weight and peak of energy consumption.

 Caregivers need to provide nurturing environment and daily individualized

communication. Negative or harsh treatment may come with emotional consequences
in the future.

Stage 3: 7 to 22 years
 The neural connections or ‘grey’ matter is still pruning, wiring of brain still in progress,
the fatty tissues surrounding neurons or ‘white’ matter increase and assist with speeding
up electrical impulses and stabilize connections. The prefrontal cortex is the last to
mature and it involves the control of impulses and decision-making.

 Therefore, teenagers need to learn to control reckless, irrational and irritable behavior.
Avoiding drugs, alcohol, smoking, unprotected sex and substance abuse.

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Stage 4: 23 to 65 years
 Finally, the brain reaches its peak power around age 22 and lasts for 5 more years.
Afterwards, it’s a downhill pattern. Last to mature and the first to go are the brain
functionality of executive control occurring in the prefrontal and temporal cortices.
Memory for recalling episodes start to decline, processing speed slows and working
memory is storing less information.

 Best approach is to stay mentally active, learn new things, stay physically active and eat
a very healthy diet. Avoid toxins, cigarettes, alcohol and mind-altering drugs.

Stage 5: older than 65 years

 Brain cells are lost in the critical areas such as the hippocampus responsible for
processing memories.

 Learn new skills, practice meditation to promote neutral emotions, exercise to improve
abstract reasoning and concentration.

 Avoid stress or incorporate stress reducing meditation and exercises.

 Eat a healthy diet with foods to nourish one’s level of dopamine.

Factors Affecting Biological/Physical Development

Heredity- (This was already discusses in Module 1)

Nutrition

It is important at any time of development, but it is especially

crucial during the first two years because the baby’s brain and body are
growing so rapidly. Pound for pound, an infant’s energy needs are twice
those of an adult. Twenty-five percent of babies’ total caloric intake is
devoted to growth, and infants need extra calories to keep their rapidly
developing organs functioning properly (Meyer, 2009)

Breastfeeding versus Bottle-Feeding.

The World Health Organization recommends breastfeeding until

age 2 years, with solid foods added at 6 months.

Reasons to Breastfed

Nutrition and Health Explanation

Advantages

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Provides the correct Compared with the milk of other mammals, human milk is
balance of fat and higher in fat and lower in protein. This balance, as well as
protein the unique proteins and fats contained in human milk, is
ideal for a rapidly myelinating nervous system
Ensures nutritional A mother who breastfeeds need not add other foods to
completeness her infant’s diet until the baby is 6 months old. The milk
of mammals are low in iron, but the iron contained in
breast milk is much more easily absorbed by the baby’s
system. Consequently, bottle-fed infants need iron-
fortified formula.
Helps ensure healthy One-year-old breastfed babies are leaner (Have a higher
physical growth percentage of muscle to fat), a growth pattern that persist
through the preschool years and that may help prevent
later overweight and obesity.
Protects against many Breastfeeding transfers antibodies and other infection-
diseases fighting agents from mother to baby and enhances
functioning of the immune system. Compared with bottle-
fed infants, breastfed babies have far fewer allergic
reactions and respiratory and intestinal illnesses. Breast
milk also has anti- inflammatory effects, which reduce the
severity of illness symptoms. Breastfeeding in the first
four months (especially when exclusive) is linked t lower
blood cholesterol levels in childhood and , thereby. May
help prevent cardiovascular disease.
Protects against faulty Sucking the mother’s nipple instead of an artificial nipple
jaw development and helps avoid malocclusion, a condition in which the upper
tooth decay and lower jaws do not meet properly. It also protects
against tooth decay due to sweet liquid remaining in the
mouths of infants who fall asleep while sucking on a
bottle.
Ensures digestibility Because breastfeed babies have a different kind of
bacteria growing in their intestines than do bottle-fed
infants, they rarely suffer from constipation or other
gastroinstestinal problems.
Smooth the transition to Breastfed infants accept new solid foods more easily than
solid foods do bottle-fed infants, perhaps because of their greater
experience with a variety of flavors, which pass from the
maternal diet into the mother’s milk.
Sources: American Academy of Pediatrics,2005a; Buescher, 2001; Michels et al.,2007; Owen et
al,2008; Rosetta & Baldi, 2008; Wayerman, Rothenbacher & Brenner, 2006

Nutrition in Childhood and Adolescence

3. Puberty: The Physical Transition to Adulthood

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Primary sexual characteristics, involve the reproductive organs

directly (ovarie, uterus and vagina in females; penis, scrotum, and testes
in males).

Secondary sexual characteristics are visible on the outside of the

body and serve as additional signs of sexual maturity (for example, breast
development in females and the appearance of underarm and pubic hair
in both sexes).

Sexual Maturation in Girls

Menarche, or the first menstruation came from the Greek word

arche, meaning “beginning”, typically occurs relatively late in the
sequence of pubertal events – around age 121/2 to 151/2.

The first sign of puberty in boys is the enlargement of the testes

(glands that manufacture sperm) accompanied by changes in the texture
and color of the scrotum. The penis begins to enlarge.

Milestones: Pubertal Development

GIRLS AVERAGE AGE ATTAINED AGE RANGE
Breast begin to bud 10 8-13
Height spurt begins 10 8-13
Pubic Hair appears 10.5 8-14
Peak strength spurt 11.6 9.5-14
Peak height spurt 11.7 10-13.5
Menarche 12.5 10.5-14
Peak weight spurt 12.7 10-14
Adult stature reached 13 10-16
Pubic hair growth completed 14.5 14-15
Breast growth completed 15 10-17

BOYS AVERAGE AGE ATTAINED AGE RANGE

Testes begin to enlarge 11.5 9.5-13.5
Pubic hair appears 12 10-15
Penis begin to enlarge 12 10.5-14.5
Height spurt begins 12.5 10.5-16
Spermache occurs 13.5 12-16
Peak height spurt 14 12.5-15.5
Peak weight spurt 14 12.5-15.5
Facial Hair begins to grow 14 12.5-15.5
Voice begins to deepen 14 12.5-15.5
Penis and testes growth completed 14.5 12.5-16
Peak strength spurt 15.3 13-17

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Adult stature reached 15.5 13.5-17.5

Pubic hair growth completed 15.5 14-17

Summary of the Milestones or developmental tasks

In each stage of developmental certain task or tasks are expected of

every individual. Robert Havighurst defines developmental task as one that
“arises at a certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads
to happiness and success worth later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness
social disapproval and difficulty with later tasks.” (Havighurst, 1972).

Developmental Stages

There are eight (8) developmental stages given by Santrock. The eight (8)
developmental stages cited by Santrock are the same with Havighurst’s six (6)
developmental stages only they Havighurst did not include prenatal period.
Havighurst combined infancy and early childhood while Santrock mentioned the
as two (2) separate stages. These developmental stages are described more in
detail in the next paragraph.

The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)

Let’s describe the developmental tasks and outstanding trait of each stage
as described by Santrock and compare them to those listed by Havighurst
himself.
1. Prenatal Period (from conception to birth) – it involves tremendous
growth- from a single cell to an organism complete with brain and
behavioral capabilities.
2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months) – a time of extreme
dependence to on adults. Many psychological activities are just beginning
- language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination and social
learning.

3. Early Childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade 1) – these are

the preschool years. Young children learn to become more self-sufficient
and to care for themselves, develop school readiness skills and spend
many hours in play with peers
.
4. Middle and Late Childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary
school years) – the fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic
are mastered. The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its

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culture. Achievement becomes a more central theme of the child’s world

and self-control increases.

5. Adolescence (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of

age) – begins with rapid physical changes – dramatic gains in height and
weight, changes in body contour, and the development of sexual
characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, development of public
and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. Pursuit of independence and
identity are prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic.
More time is spent outside of the family.

6. Early Adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the
30s) – it is a time of establishing personal and economic independence,
career development, selecting a mater, learning to live with someone in
an intimate way, starting a family and rearing children.

7. Middle Adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) – it is a time of expanding

personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next
generation in becoming competent and mature individuals; and of
reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career.

8. Late Adulthood (60s and above) – it is a time for adjustment to

decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement and adjustment to
new social roles.

D. Theories

1. Development Milestones (Gesell)

Clinical psychologist and pediatrician Arnold Gesell wrote these

words nearly a century ago, in an article titled “The Significance of the
Nursery School,” published in 1924 in the inaugural issue of Childhood
Education.  The words were true then, and they’re truer now.
Prior to the early twentieth century, scientific observations of
children were not common.  Arnold Gesell was one of the first
psychologists to systematically describe children’s physical, social, and
emotional achievements through a quantitative study of human
development from birth through adolescence.

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He focused his research on the extensive study of a small number of

children. He began with pre-school children and later extended his work
to ages 5 to 10 and 10 to 16. From his findings, Gesell concluded that
mental and physical development in infants, children, and adolescents
are comparable and parallel orderly processes.
The results of his research were utilized in creating the Gesell
Development Schedules, which can be used with children between
four weeks and six years of age. The test measures responses to
standardized materials and situations both qualitatively and
quantitatively.

Areas emphasized include motor and language development,

adaptive behavior, and personal-social behavior. The results of the test
are expressed first as developmental age (DA), which is then converted
into developmental quotient (DQ), representing “the portion of normal
development that is present at any age.” A separate developmental
quotient may be obtained for each of the functions on which the scale is
built.
Gesell’s observations of children allowed him to
describe developmental milestones in ten major areas: motor
characteristics, personal hygiene, emotional expression, fears
and dreams, self and sex, interpersonal relations, play and
pastimes, school life, ethical sense, and philosophic outlook. His
training in physiology and his focus on developmental milestones led
Gesell to be a strong proponent of the “maturational” perspective of child
development.

That is, he believed that child development occurs according to a

predetermined, naturally unfolding plan of growth.  Gesell’s most notable
achievement was his contribution to the “normative” approach to
studying children. In this approach, psychologists observed large
numbers of children of various ages and determined the typical age, or
“norms,” for which most children achieved various developmental
milestones.

In the 1940s and 1950s, Gesell was widely regarded as the nation’s
foremost authority on child-rearing and development, and developmental
quotients based on his development schedules were widely used as an
assessment of children’s intelligence. Gesell argued, in widely read
publications, that the best way to raise children requires reasonable
guidance, rather than permissiveness or rigidity.

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Eventually, the preeminence of Gesell’s ideas gave way to theories

that stressed the importance of environmental rather than internal
elements in child development, as the ideas of Jerome S. Bruner and
Jean Piaget gained prominence. Gesell’s writings have been criticized by
other psychologists because he did not readily acknowledge that there
are individual and cultural differences in child development, and his focus
on developmental norms implied that what is typical for each age is also
what is desirable.
Although the developmental quotient is no longer accepted as a
valid measure of intellectual ability, Gesell remains an important pioneer
in child development and is recognized for his advances in the
methodology of carefully observing and measuring behavior, and
describing child development.  He created a foundation for subsequent
research that described both average developmental trends and
individual differences in development.  He also inaugurated the use of
photography and observation through one-way mirrors as research tools.

Source: https://schoolworkhelper.net/growth-and-development-theory-arnold-gesell-1880-
1961/

2. Ecological Systems Theory (Brofenbrenner)

The ecological theory developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-
2005) primarily focuses on the social contexts in which children live
and people who influences their development.

Five Environmental Systems. Bronfenbrenner’s (1995,

Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) ecological theory identifies five
environmental systems that range from close interpersonal interactions
to broad-based influence of culture. The five systems are the
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and
chronosystem.

A microsystem is a setting in which the individual spends

considerable time such as the student’s family, peers, school and
neighborhood. Within these microsystems the individual has direct
interactions with parents, teachers, peers and others. For
Bronfenbrenner, the student is not a passive recipient of experiences
but is someone who reciprocally interacts with others and helps to
construct the microsystem.

The mesosystem involves linkages between microsystems.

Examples are the connections between family experiences and school
experiences and between family and peers.

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The exosystem is at work when experiences in another setting (in

which student does not have an active role) influence what students
and teachers experience in the immediate context. For example,
consider the school and park supervisory boards in a community. They
have strong roles in determining the quality of schools, parks,
recreational facilities, and libraries, which can help or hinder a child’s
development.

The macrosystem involves the broader culture. Culture is a very

broad term that encompasses the roles of ethnicity and socioeconomic
factors in children’s development. It’s the broadest context in which
students and teachers live, reinforcing the society’s values and
customs (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). For example, some cultures (such as
rural China and Iran) emphasize traditional gender roles.

The chronosystem includes the sociohistorical conditions of

students’ development. For example, the lives of children today differ
in many ways from what their parents and grandparents experienced
as children (Schaie & Willis, 2016). Today’s children are more likely to
be in child care, use computers, and grow up in new kinds of
dispersed, deconcentrated cities that are not quite urban, rural or
suburban.

E. Current Research and Pedagogical Application

Enrichment Tasks

1. Please Open the link below and watch the different videos related to
prenatal development such as ovulation, fertilization,

https://youtu.be/_5OvgQW6FG4?list=TLPQMjYwOTIwMjCCI9yl73yn4g

References
Acero, VO et.al. Human Growth and Development and Learning: Rex
Bookstore
Bee, Helen. The Developing Child. Ninth Edition. A Pearson Education
Company. Copyright 2000 by Allyn and Bacon. Printed in the United State
of America
Berk, Laura E. Child Development, Ninth Edition. Pearson Education, Inc., 2013
Bustos, AS, Malolos, NI, Ramirez, AE, Ramos, EC, & Bustos-Orosa, MA.
Introduction to Psycholoy, Katha Publishing, 1999

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Bustos, AS and Espiritu, SC. Psychological, Anthropological and Sociological

Foundations of Education. Katha Publishing Co., Inc 1996
Coleman, JS. The Adolescent Society, The Free Press Corporation
Corpuz, BB, Lucas MD, Borabo, HG & Lucida, PI. The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon City,
Philippines, 2018
Corpuz,BB, Lucas MD, Borabo, HG & Lucida, PI. Child and Adolescent
Development. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon City, Philippines, 2015
Hurlock. Elizabeth B. Developmental Psychology: A life Span Approach.,Fifth
Edition Mc Graw Hill Book Company, 1980
Jersild, AT. The Psychology of Adolescence, 2 nd Edition Teachers College
Columbia University
Lerner, RM and Hultsch DF.Human Development: A Life-Span Perspective,
McGraw Hiil Book Company
Lucas, MD. & Corpuz BB. Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive process.
Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon City, Philippines, 2014
Owens, Karen B. Child and Adolescent Development an Integrated Approach.
Thomson Asian Edition Copyright 2006
Papalia, ED and et.al. Human Development 9th and 10th Edition,Mc Graw Hill
2004
Santrock, John W. Educational Psychology: Theory and Application to Fitness
and Performance. 6th Edition. Published by McGraw-Hill Education. 2018
Schunck, Dale H. Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective. Sixth
Edition. Pearson Education. Inc., publishing as Ally and Bacon, Copyright
2012

Online References

You may also open this link for further readings regarding physical
development of a human being to deepen your knowledge on the said topic.
https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/child-growth-and-
development

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