ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS

RULES TO FOLLOW
 ADJECTIVES

• Modifies Nouns
• Modifies Pronouns
 ADJECTIVES
• Proper Adjectives: French fries, Spanish
bread
• Collective Adjectives: The rich of
Connecticut are responsible
• Possessive Adjectives: my , your, his, her
The bakery sold his favorite bread.
Chidren are neglected by their parents.
 ADJECTIVES
• Demonstrative Adjectives this - these; that - those
Pron. : This is my house.
Adj. : This house is mine.
• Interrogative Adjectives
Pron.: What is your name?
Adj.: What book are you reading?
• Indefinite Adjectives
Pron. Many attended the meeting.
Adj: Many people believe that corporations are
under-taxed.
 DEFINITION OF AN
ADJECTIVE:
• It tells what kind of person, place, or thing.
A noun or a pronoun is.
• It may also point out which one or how
many.
 EXAMPLES:
• The ship was an English vessel. (what
kind)

• This factory is mine. (which one)

• Many people enjoy the annual dinner. (how
many, which one)
 Order of Adjectives
• Determiners ( a, an, the)
• Observations (beautiful, interesting)
• Size and Shape (large, round)
• Age (young, old, new, ancient)
• Color (red, violet)
• Origin (Persian, Canadian, French)
• Material (woolen, metallic, wooden)
• Qualifier (rocking chair, hunting cabin)
 Order of Adjectives in a Series
What’s the correct order?
• a glass Venetian ashtray
• a German brown beer-mug
• the three first days
• my two last jobs
• a black big cat
• the glass round table
 Order of Adjectives in a Series
What’s the correct order?
• a Venetian glass ashtray
• a brown German beer-mug
• the first three days
• my last two jobs
• a big black cat
• the round glass table
 Order of Adjective
• American
• Dark MAN
• Young
• Handsome
• A
• Tall
 AN ADVERB:
• Modifies an active verb or a verb phrase by
expressing manner, place, time, degree, or
number.
 TYPES OF ADVERBS:
• Simple
• Interrogative
• Negative
 EXAMPLES:
• SIMPLE:
– She moved quietly. (Manner and tell how)
– I waited there for an hour. (Place and tell
where)
– You may leave soon. (Time, tells when)
– I called you once. (Number, tells how many)
– He sat very still. (Degree, tells how much)
 Interrogative Adverb

• Introduces a sentence that asks a question

• where, when, why and how
 EXAMPLES:
• Interrogative:
– When will you return?
– How is the trunk being sent?
 Negative Adverb
• Denies or contradicts a statement
• no, not , never, only, scarcely and hardly

Note: two negative adverbs should not be

used together.
 EXAMPLES:
• Negative
• - I can scarcely believe my eyes. ( correct)
• - I haven’t no more sea shells. (incorrect)
 Familiar Adverbs
to Know
• almost finally seldom
unusually certainly hardly
quite so usually just rather
very rather fairly nearly too
scarcely well
 Order of Adverbs
• Adverb of manner
• Adverb of place
• Adverb of frequency
• Adverb of time
• Adverb of purpose
 Arrange the adverbs
• I have to run each morning quickly after
breakfast in order to catch my bus to
school down the street.
 Using Multiple Adverbs
• I have to run quickly (manner) down the
street (place) each morning (frequency)
after breakfast (time) in order to catch
my bus to school (purpose).
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Cohesion and coherence

terms used in discourse analysis to

clarify the reliability of written
discourses.
Cohesion and coherence
 Cohesion can be thought of as  Coherence can be thought of
all the grammatical and lexical as how meanings and
links that link one part of a sequences of ideas relate to
discourse to another. This each other. Typical examples
includes use of synonyms, would be general> particular;
lexical sets, pronouns, verb statement> example; problem>
tenses, time references, solution; question> answer;
grammatical reference, etc. claim> counter-claim.
For example, 'it', 'neither' and
'this' all refer to an idea
previously mentioned. 'First of
all', 'then' and 'after that' help
to sequence a discourse.
'However', 'in addition' and 'for
instance' link ideas and
arguments in a discourse.
Coherent

 Coherent discourses make sense to the

listener/ reader. Coherence in linguistics is
what makes a discourse semantically
meaningful.
? What does cohesion mean

 You might think of cohesion as a means of

establishing connections within a discourse at
all sorts of different levels, e.g., section,
paragraphs, sentences and even phrases.
How is cohesion different from
coherence?
 It is difficult to separate the two. However, think of coherence as
the discourse making sense as a whole at an ideas level, and
cohesion as rather more mechanical links at a language level.
You can imagine that it is possible for a piece of writing to
contain plenty of cohesion yet little coherence.
 Cohesion is the glue that holds a piece of writing together. In
other words, if a paper is cohesive, it sticks together from
sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph.
Cohesive devices certainly include transitional words and
phrases, such as therefore, furthermore, or for instance, that
clarify for listeners/readers the relationships among ideas in a
piece of writing. However, transitions aren't enough to make
writing cohesive. Repetition of key words and use of reference
words are also needed for cohesion.
Coherence
 When sentences, ideas, and details fit together
clearly, listeners/readers can follow along easily,
and the writing is coherent. The ideas tie together
smoothly and clearly. To establish the links that
readers need, you can use the methods listed here.
 Repetition of a Key Term or Phrase
 This helps to focus your ideas and to keep your
listener/ reader on track.
 Example: The problem with contemporary art is that
it is not easily understood by most people.
Contemporary art is deliberately abstract, and that
means it leaves the viewer wondering what she is
looking at.
Synonyms
 Synonyms are words that have essentially
the same meaning, and they provide some
variety in your word choices, helping the
listener/ reader to stay focused on the idea
being discussed.
 Example: Myths narrate sacred histories and
explain sacred origins. These traditional
narratives are, in short, a set of beliefs that
are a very real force in the lives of the people
who tell them.
Pronouns
 This, that, these, those, he, she, it, they, and we are
useful pronouns for referring back to something
previously mentioned. Be sure, however, that what
you are referring to is clear.
 Example: When scientific experiments do not work
out as expected, they are often considered failures
until some other scientist tries them again. Those
that work out better the second time around are the
ones that promise the most rewards.
Transitional Words
 There are many words in English that cue our
listeners/readers to relationships between
sentences, joining sentences together. Words such
as however, therefore, in addition, also, but,
moreover, etc.
 Example: I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad
time of the year, too. The leaves turn bright shades
of red and the weather is mild, but I can't help
thinking ahead to the winter and the ice storms that
will surely blow through here. In addition, that will be
the season of chapped faces, too many layers of
clothes to put on, and days when I'll have to shovel
heaps of snow from my car's windshield.
Sentence Patterns
 Sometimes, repeated or parallel sentence
patterns can help the listener/reader follow
along and keep ideas tied together.
 Example: (from a speech by President John
F. Kennedy) And so, my fellow Americans:
ask not what your country can do for you--ask
what you can do for your country.
 http://
www.missouri.edu/~pattonmd/cohesion.html
 http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/style/cohesion.html
"Cohesion is determined by lexically and
grammatically overt intersentential
relationships, whereas coherence is
based on semantic relationships."
Connor
Conjunctions
and
Interjections
What is a Conjunction?
• A conjunction is like glue. It helps things to stick
together.

• A conjunction joins words, phrases, and sentences,

which are called clauses.
There Are 3 Types of Conjunctions
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
2. Subordinating Conjunctions
3. Correlative Conjunctions
 Take Notes in Your Interactive Notebooks
1. Draw a Tree Map 2. Label the Branches as the Three
Types of Conjunctions

Conjunctions

Coordinating Subordinating Correlative

Definition and Example Definition and Example Definition and Example

What is a Conjunction?
• Conjunctions join two or more words.

Example: I went to the store to buy eggs, milk, and

bread.
What is a Conjunction?
• Conjunctions can join two prepositional phrases.

Ex. I went skiing down the hill and past the trees.
What is a Conjunction?
• Conjunctions can connect two clauses or sentences.
• When two sentences are joined, a comma MUST be
placed before the conjunction.

Ex. I played cards for awhile, but then I played chess.

Types of Conjunctions
• One type of conjunction is the coordinating
conjunction.
• They connect words, phrases, and clauses, which are
sentences.
• They connect things of equal value.

(This means that they would connect a noun

with another noun or a prepositional phrase
with another prepositional phrase.)
Types of Conjunctions
• There are seven coordinating conjunctions: Use
FANBOYS to remember

for and nor but

or yet so
Types of Conjunctions
• Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
• “And” connects things that are alike or joined
together.
• Ex. I want popcorn and pizza.
 Types of Conjunctions

• Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your sentence.

• “But” is used to connect things that are different or separated.
• Ex. I want popcorn but not pizza.
Types of Conjunctions
• Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
• “Or” is used to offer a choice.
• Ex. Do I want popcorn or pizza?
Types of Conjunctions
• Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
• “Nor” is used to offer a negative choice.
• Ex. I do not want popcorn nor pizza.
Types of Conjunctions
• Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
• “Yet” is used to show a change. When it is used to
combine two sentences, you must put a comma
before it.
• Ex. I want popcorn, yet I also want pizza.
Types of Conjunctions
• Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
• “So” is used to show a relationship between things.
When it is used to combine two sentences, you must
put a comma before it.
• Ex. I want popcorn, so I made some.
Types of Conjunctions
• Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
• “For” is also used to show a relationship between
things. When it is used to combine two sentences,
you must put a comma before it.
• Ex. I ordered a pizza, for I was hungry.
Types of Conjunctions
• Another Type of Conjunction is a Subordinating Conjunction.
A subordinating conjunction-
-Connects a dependent clause (a clause that cannot be
written as a separate sentence) with an independent
clause.
IF, WHILE, BECAUSE, ALTHOUGH, AFTER, BEFORE,
UNLESS, WHEN, UNTIL, SINCE, THEN, AS
• We celebrated after we won the game.
• Because our train was delayed, we arrived late.
• Watson listened quietly while Holmes explained his
theory
Types of Conjunctions
• Another type of conjunction is called correlative
conjunctions.
• Correlative conjunctions connect words, phrases, and
clauses, which are sentences.
• Correlative conjunctions connect things of equal
value.
(This means that they will connect a verb with
another verb or a sentence with another sentence.)
Types of Conjunctions
• Correlative Conjunctions are not single words. They
work in pairs.
• There are five pairs of correlative conjunctions:

both….and whether….or neither….nor

not only….but also either….or

Examples of Correlative
Conjunctions
I saw both the Statue of Liberty and the Empire State
Building.
Examples of Correlative
Conjunctions
I don’t want neither pickles nor tomato on my
hamburger.
Examples of Correlative
Conjunctions
I don’t know whether to play baseball or to play
basketball this year.
Examples of Correlative
Conjunctions
Either the student or the teacher can answer the
question.
Examples of Correlative
Conjunctions
Not only do I play the flute, but I also play the clarinet.
Conjunction Junction
• http://www.schooltube.com/video/6b265f3478554fef9
93c/Conjunction-Junction
What is an Interjection?
• An interjection is something that interrupts a
sentence.
• It is something that also expresses your emotions like
happiness, fear, anger, or pain.
• Some examples of interjections are:
ouch, wow, uh oh, oh no, gosh, shhhh
Punctuating Interjections
• If an interjection is spoken calmly, simply put a
comma after it and continue the sentence.

Ex. Shhh, the baby is sleeping.

Ex. Oh my, I dropped my pencil.

Punctuating Interjections
• If an interjection is spoken with more emotion, it is
followed by an exclamation point. The next word is
then capitalized.

Ex. Ouch! I just cut my finger.

Ex. He scored the winning touchdown. Wow!

 The five types of context clues are:

1. Definition/Explanation Clues

Sometimes a word's or phrase's meaning is explained immediately after its use.

Example: "Haberdashery, which is a store that sells men’s clothing, is becoming more
common today.”

2. Restatement/Synonym Clues

Sometimes a hard word or phrase is said in a simple way.

Example: "Lou was sent to the haberdashery to find a new suit. He needed to wear
one for his uncle’s wedding."
Because the sentence says that Lou would find a suit at the haberdashery, then
it must be a place where clothes for men are sold.

3. Contrast/Antonym Clues

Sometimes a word or phrase is clarified by the presentation of the opposite meaning

somewhere close to its use. Look for signal words when applying context clues.
Example: "Lou wanted to go to the haberdashery, but Ann wanted to shop at the boutique.”
The signal word but tells the reader that an opposite thought is going to be stated.

4. Inference/General Context Clues

Sometimes a word or phrase is not immediately clarified within the same sentence.
Relationships, which are not directly apparent, are inferred or implied. The reader must
look for clues within, before, and after the sentence in which the word is used.

Example: “The haberdashery was Lou’s favorite place. He loved shopping for nice suits.
The people who worked there were so kind and helpful.”

5. Punctuation
Readers can also use clues of punctuation and type style to infer meaning, such as
quotation marks (showing the word has a special meaning), dashes , parentheses or
brackets (enclosing a definition), and italics (showing the word will be defined).

Examples: Tom's father was a haberdasher, or men’s shop keeper, in the story.
Tom's father was a haberdasher (men’s shop keeper) in the story.
In the story, Tom's father was a haberdasher-or men’s shop keeper.
Tom's father was a “haberdasher”. He had a clothing store for men.
 Strategies for Critical
and Effective Reading
and Writing
 Today’s Lecture
Critical Thinking
Effective Reading Strategies
Writing strategies
What is critical thinking?
Purposeful goal-directed thinking
Aims to make judgments based on
evidence/fact rather than guesswork/opinion
Reflective and reasonable thinking that
focuses on what to believe and do (Ennis,
1985).
Memorizing does not require critical
thinking—application does!

“Learning without thought is labor lost.” Confucius

Are you a critical thinker? Do
you:
Base judgments on facts and reasoning?
Support views with evidence?
Evaluate the credibility of sources?
Turn mistakes into learning opportunities?
Ask “why” and “why not”?
Seek themes, patterns?
Follow hunches?
Critical Thinking Skills: You
can improve yours!
Learning is developmental
No limits to the development of the human brain
or capacity to learn—the neuron’s ability to make
and strengthen connections is lifelong.
Students can improve critical thinking
skills with practice
Gather objective information
Put info in context
Don’t jump to conclusions
 Reading
Strategies
Passive Reading Habits:
Take the Quiz!
Do you memorize exact phrases?
Do you try to memorize everything?
Do you review by re-reading the textbook word for
word?
Do you review ideas without knowing what
questions they answer?
Do you review without knowing how you are
expected to apply the info on a test?
Do you set aside lots of time for one review right
before the test?
Preparing to Read
Learn how to use your Preview the material by
textbook: Find the reading:
index, appendices and Chapter title and intro
glossary. Headings and
subheadings
Boldfaced/italicized
words
Visual cues
Chapter summary and
review questions
As You Read
Pay special attention to Ask yourself questions:
main ideas and “Do I understand what
supporting details I’m reading?”
Reexamine graphs, “Does this make sense
charts and to me?”
illustrations. Be sure Annotate:
to read captions under
Highlight
visual aids
Write notes
Make a table or visual
After You Read
Think about what Mark down any points
you’ve learned. Can you don’t understand in
you answer the the margins or
chapter questions? notebook—ask your
Can you apply what instructor to explain
you’ve learned to the next class!
Computing
programme?
Can you restate the
main ideas in your
own words?
In Other Words…
Reading the text several times is not
enough!
You must actively participate while you
read.
Think about what you already know
Identify topics you don’t understand with
questions
Reorganize information for better retention
Pick out points you think will be on the test—
apply what you are reading
Discussion
Are you most often an active or a passive
reader? Explain.

Share an active reading strategy that has

worked for you in school or work.

What are the differences between active

reading and studying?
Writing Effectively
Effective Writing Basics
Tips that can improve your
writing in any medium
Five keys to effective writing
Put the reader first
Use simple words and short sentences
Use jargon only when necessary
Write with verbs and nouns
Format to improve readability
 Five keys to effective writing
Key #1: Put the reader first
Communication = understanding
Write to EXpress not Impress
Use words readers can picture
Tie in to the reader’s experience
WIIFM – What’s in it for me
 Five keys to effective writing
Key #2: Use simple words and short
sentences
 Example 1
Per our conversation, I am enclosing
herewith a remittance of $25 for the balance
due on my account. (18 words)
As we discussed, here is the $25 remaining
on my account. (11 words)
Here is the $25 remaining on my account. (8
words)
 Example 2
As pertaining to the question of whether or
not to construct a new storage facility,
corporate management will ascertain the
appropriateness of such an issue in the near
future.
Management will decide next week whether
to build a new storage facility.
 Tip
Avoid wordy prepositional phrases
In the amount of (for)
In order to (to)
Due to the fact that (because)
In the event that (if)
During the time that (when, while)
 Five keys to effective writing
Key #3: Use jargon only when necessary
What is jargon?
 Example 3
The new FMIS system from Global provides
VOR/DME nav redundancy, as well as
enhanced GPS capability.
Global's new flight management system
provides several ways to navigate your
airplane, including the latest in satellite
navigation.
 Example 4
While the new ST7000 provides extensive
memory and is extremely user compatible, it
lacks the requisite capacity for calculating at
a high rate of speed.
Our computer system is easy to use and has
enough memory, but it is too slow.
 Example 5
Demand-side capacity combined with
transmission wheeling contracts and local
generation resources will be able to meet local
demand and spinning reserve requirements for
the next five years.

SMUD will be able to save and produce enough

power to meet local needs for the next five
years.
 Five keys to effective writing
Key #4: Write with verbs and nouns
Use the active voice
When it is okay to use passive voice
 Example 6
The company (S) sells (V) insurance (O).
Not: Insurance is sold by the company.

The construction crew repaired the road.

Not: The road was repaired by the construction
company.

Tests showed the new material did not wear

well.
Not: When tests were run, it was discovered
that good wear is not exhibited by the new
material.
 Example 7
Choose the right verb and the right
noun
Mr. Johnson ran quickly across the four-lane
street, almost falling down when he stepped in a
large hole in the concrete. (22 words)
Mr. Johnson sprinted across the boulevard,
stumbling when he stepped in a pothole. (13
words)
 Five keys to effective writing
Key #5: Format document to improve
readability
Use lists, bullets, charts, tables, indents, italics,
bolds, headings and subheadings
The 100-word rule
 Plan, organize, write
Before you begin
Who is the audience (“My audience is
_________.”)
Purpose of the message (“My purpose
is________.”
How will the reader use the information (“So that
the reader will________.”)
 Plan, organize, write
As you begin
Assemble all useful information
Determine what’s important
Choose what to leave out
Group information logically
 Plan, organize, write
Four ways to organize
Division
Compare/contrast
Cause/effect
Problem-analysis solution
 Division
Start with main idea, then discuss the parts
Example:
ACME Corporation faces four problems that threaten
its competitiveness:
Outdated marketing plan
Poor service record
High prices
Low Morale
 Compare/Contrast
Use familiar to explain unfamiliar
Put the conclusion up front
Example:
If we expand in the West we will face the same
challenges as we did in expanding to the South:
Lack of identity
Poor distribution
Short p-term cash flow problem
Untrained labor force
 Problem-Analysis-Solution
Find a straightforward way to offer
recommendations
Example:
The shipping dock’s inability to ship product fast
enough results from a inefficient tracking system. The
solution is to:
Invest in a new computer system
Retrain staff
Inform customers of realistic shipping times
Budget for overtime to meet peak demand
 Cause/Effect
Presents a clear-way analysis
A-B; A-B-C-D; ABCD-E
Example:
Reorganizing the marketing department will cause two
benefits and one problem:
Improved accountability
Better communication
Problem – poorer service to industrial customers
 Plan, organize, write
Develop an outline
Write
Write the easiest part first
Develop major sections one at a time
Introduction for main ideas
Main point in first paragraph
Turn off your internal editor
 Plan, organize, write
90% of writing is re-writing and editing
Let the document cool
Run a Fog test
Aim to cut first draft by at least 10%
Make the most of your memory:
the key to effective studying

Your ability to remember

is affected by—
Distractions
Time of day
Comfort Level
Stress
Interest in material
Level of motivation
 General to Specific
Before learning new material, get a general overview
Make it Meaningful
Ask yourself, “How will I use this information?”
Create Associations
Relate what you’re learning to what you know
Learn Actively
Manipulate and change the information
Reduce Distractions
Turn off the TV!
Monitor Your Learning
Ask yourself questions at the end of section
Knowledge is a treasure,
but practice is the key to it.

Thomas Fuller
Using Formal
and Informal
Language
Appropriately
 Art Imitates Life
• In writing, formal and informal
language work in a similar way… to
influence tone, which, in turn, speaks
to your audience.
Tone
Tone is defined as the
writer’s attitude toward the
subject matter and his or
her readers.
Audience
The audience is your
reader or listener– the
recipient of your verbal or
written communication.
 Diction
• Diction is word choice
• Word choice is important in establishing
tone
• Three levels of diction:
– 1. high or formal diction
– 2. neutral diction
– 3. informal or low diction
Characteristic of Formal
and Informal Language
Formal Informal

serious light
objective humorous
impersonal personal
reasoned casual
controlled offhanded
reserved "loose"
plainspoken
simple
 Why does it even matter?
• Official or serious situations are often signaled
by the use of formal language, while ordinary or
relaxed situations are signaled by the use of
informal language.
– What determines formal or informal:
• public versus private occasion,
• The size of the audience,
• The relationship of the speaker/writer with the audience,
• The ability to vary your language according to
the situation is often considered a mark of an
educated person.
 Certain Situations
Formal Situations Informal Situations

job interview text message

principal’s office visit friendly letter
business letter “locker” conversation
class essay Journal-style writing
 What makes INFORMAL
language?
• Simple grammatical structure
• Personal evaluation
– Using first person
– Using forms of “you”
• Colloquial or slang
vocabulary
– Contractions are considered
slang
What makes FORMAL
language?
• Formal language, even when
spoken, is often associated with
the conventions expected of
written standard English.
• Although you generally don’t
worry as much about formality in
speaking, it is extremely
important in writing because of
the knowledge you are recording
through the written word.
Continued on next slide…
 Remember… when you are speaking,
What makes
writing formal
or analyzing language in a
formal situation…
language (continued)?
• Formal language does not use contractions
• Avoids personal pronouns such as: you, I, us,
me, and we
• Includes more polysyllabic words—BIGGER
words
• Complex, complete sentences
• Avoidance of colloquial or slang vocabulary
Remember… when you are speaking,
What tooravoid
writing inlanguage
analyzing formalin a
writing… formal situation…
• Exclamation marks
• Needless words like “well” and “you know”
• First and second person point of view
• Beginning sentences with coordinating
conjunctions
• Too many short, choppy sentences that
could be combined to make more complex
sentence structures
What to avoid in formal
writing…
• Avoid most shortenings in formal writing. In
formal English, you talk on the “telephone,” not
the “phone”
• Know what acronyms may be used in your
writing. In formal English, you should limit your
use of acronyms, abbreviations making use of
letters that stand for certain words
• Similarly, limit your use of absolute terms, such
as "everybody," "always," "never"
• Avoid cliché’s and colloquialisms
 Common Colloquialisms and
Informal Words
• A lot, alot • Cute
• Ain't • Fellow
• Alright, all right • For sure
• Anyways • Get, obtain
• Anybody, anyone • Get, understand
• As • Gonna, wanna
• Big, large great • Got
• Buy • How come
• Contraption • How do you do
• Could of, would of, should • Humongous
of • Kid
 Common Colloquialisms and
Informal Words Continued
• Kinda, kind of, sorta, sort • So
of • Thus, thusly
• Let • Until, till, ‘til
• Like • Use
• Most • Use to
• On the other hand • Yeah
• Pretty
• Real, really
• Shall, will, should, would
 Formal or Informal?

• The project will be

completed next year.

• We’ll finish this job next

year.
 Formal or Informal?
• We did some experiments.
• The students conducted an
experiment.
 Formal or Informal?

• The decision will be

expected at 9:00 A.M.

• You have to decide at 9:00!

 Formal or Informal?

• The idea is better than mine.

• I think your idea will help solve

this problem.
 Formal or Informal?

• Please place new items in

the container near the door.

• Put them by the door.

 Formal or Informal?

The field trip participants will

meet at the A-Town Wal-
Mart.
 References
“Formal/informal language.” 15 October
2008 <http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/
SESLL/EngLang/LILT/forminf.htm>.
“How to Avoid Colloquial (Informal) Writing.” 16
October 2008
<http://www.wikihow.com/Main-Page>.
“Tone: A Matter of Attitude.” Capital
Community College. 2006. 15 October
2008 <http://grammar.ccc.commnet.
edu/grammar/composition/tone.htm>.
DEFINITION
Function words (closed class
words/grammatical words) are words
that have little meaning in the dictionary
sense but which serve important
functions to express grammatical
relationship with other words within a
sentence.
KINDS OF FUNCTION
WORD
Articles
Auxiliary verbs
Conjunctions
Determiners
Intensifiers
Prepositions
Pronouns
Intensifiers
ARTICLES
Article is a type of determiner that precedes a
noun.
There are two types of article in English:
definite article (the)
The definite article is a determiner that refers
to a particular person or thing.
The may be used with a singular or a plural
noun.
indefinite (a/an)
The indefinite article is a determiner which
marks an unspecified count noun. A/an is
generally used with a single countable noun.
Cont…definite article
The can refer . . .
back to another noun:
She bought a car and a bike, but she
used the bike more.
to human institutions that we
sporadically use, attend, observe, etc.
I went to the theatre.
I watched the news on TV.
Cont…indefinite article
Use a before a word that starts with a
consonant sound ("a bat," "a unicorn")
Use an before a word that starts with a
vowel sound ("an uncle," "an hour").
AUXILIARY VERBS
Auxiliary verbs are “helping” verbs that
combine with various parts of other
verbs to make verb phrases.
Kinds of auxiliary verb: be, have, do,
modals
The verb "be"
The verb be can be used as an auxiliary and a
full verb. As an auxiliary we use this verb for -
ing present participle and the passive voice.
Note that be is an irregular verb:
is, am, are
was, were
be, been
He is playing football. (aux. verb)
The house is/was built. (aux. verb)
He had been playing football. (aux. verb)
They are fifteen years old. (full verb)
The verb "have"
The verb have can be used both as an
auxiliary and as a full verb. As an auxiliary we
use this verb to form compound tenses
(perfect tense) in active and passive voice.
he/she/it : has
Present Tense
the/we/I/you : have
he/she/it/they/we/I/you: had (past tense)
He has played football.
He had played football.
The house has/had been built.
I have a car. (full verb)
The verb "do"
The verb do can be both an auxiliary and a
full verb. As an auxiliary we use do in
negative sentences and questions for most
verbs.
Simple Present: I/we/you/they : do
he/she/it : does
Simple Past: I/he/she/it/we/you/they : did
He does not play football.
Does he play football?
She does her homework every day. (full
verb)
Modals
Can, could, may, might, must, shall,
should, will, would.
The modals can only be used as an
auxiliary. Ex: He will not play football.
Marginal modal can be used as either an
auxiliary or a main verb : dare, need,
ought to, used to.
CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is used to link words,
phrases, and clauses.
Kinds of conjunctions: Coordinating,
subordinating, and correlative
conjunctions.
Coordinating Conjunction
A conjunction that joins two similarly constructed
and/or syntactically equal words or phrases or
clauses within a sentence.
FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
Ex:
Dogs and cats are often do not get along. (comp.
subject)
The old woman slipped and fell on the pavement.
(Comp. verb)
The thief moved quickly and quietly. (comp. adverb)
I can see you before two o’clock or after five. (comp.
prep. Phrase)
I cannot sing well, nor can I dance well. (comp. clause)
Subordinating Conjunction
A conjunction that introduces a
dependent clause.
If I have much money, I will buy many
books.
Although I have many friends, I feel
lonely.
Correlative Conjunction
A paired conjunction that links balanced
words, phrases, and clauses.
The elements connected by correlative
conjunctions are usually parallel--that is,
similar in length and grammatical form.
These are the primary correlative conjunctions
in English:
both . . . and
either . . . or
neither . . . nor
not . . . but
not only . . . but also
Example

Both Mark and I do the assignment.

Not only the woman but (also) the man
loved this strange little man.
She will either pay for the ring or return
it.
Neither money nor power has made
him arrogant.
DETERMINERS
A word or a group of words that introduces
a noun. Determiners include articles,
demonstratives, quantifiers, and
possessive determiners.
Article: the, a/an
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
Quantifiers: all, some, much, many, a lot of,
etc.
Possessive determiners in English are my,
your, his, her, its, our, and their.
Demonstratives
A determiner that points to a particular
noun or to the noun it replaces. There
are four demonstratives in English: the
"near" demonstratives this and these,
and the "far" demonstratives that and
those.
Example:
That book is yours.
These apples are rotten.
Quantifiers
In grammar, a type of determiner (such as all,
some, or much) that expresses a contrast in
quantity. It tells us how many or how much.
Quantifiers usually appear in front of nouns (as
in all children, five onions, a few good men),
but they may also function as pronouns (as in
All have returned).
Example:
Few people visited him in hospital (= he had
almost no visitors)
He had little money (= almost no money)
Possessive determiner
A determiner used in front of a noun to
express possession or belonging (as in
"my phone").
Example:
Their bus was late.
INTENSIFIER
A word that emphasizes another word or
phrase.
It's quite hot today.
Ms. Stress is really busy right now.
He's my very best friend.
PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are the words that indicate
location. Usually, prepositions show this
location in the physical world.
Example:
The puppy is on the floor.
The puppy is in the trash can.
The puppy is beside the phone.
 Prepositions can also show location in time.
Pay attention the next three examples:
At midnight, Jill craved mashed potatoes with
grape jelly.
In the spring, I always vow to plant tomatoes
but end up buying them at the supermarket.
During the marathon, Iggy's legs complained
with sharp pains shooting up his thighs.
Note: but means the same as except—Everyone
ate frog legs but Jamie
PRONOUNS
A word that takes the place of a noun,
noun phrase, or noun clause.
Personal Pronouns

A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing

and changes its form to indicate person, number,
gender, and case.
A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the
pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence. The
subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she,"
"he," "it," "we," "you," "they.“
Example:
I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the
green knapsack.
You are surely the strangest child I have ever met.
 An objective personal pronoun
indicates that the pronoun is acting as
an object of a verb, compound verb,
preposition, or infinitive phrase. The
objective personal pronouns are: "me,"
"you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you," and
"them."
Example:
After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw
it into the garbage can.
 A possessive pronoun indicates that
the pronoun is acting as a marker of
possession and defines who owns a
particular object or person. The
possessive personal pronouns are
"mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its,"
"ours," and "theirs.“
Example:
The smallest gift is mine.
 A demonstrative pronoun points to
and identifies a noun or a pronoun.
"This" and "these" refer to things that
are nearby either in space or in time,
while "that" and "those" refer to things
that are farther away in space or time.
Example:
This must not continue.
 An interrogative pronoun is used to
ask questions. The interrogative
pronouns are "who," "whom," "which,"
"what" and the compounds formed with
the suffix "ever" ("whoever,"
"whomever," "whichever," and
"whatever").
Example:
Whom do you think we should invite?
Whoever told you to do such a thing?
 a relative pronoun is used to link one
phrase or clause to another phrase or
clause. The relative pronouns are "who,"
"whom," "that," and "which." The
compounds "whoever," "whomever," and
"whichever" are also relative pronouns.
Example:
The man who answered the phone was
rude.
You may invite whomever you like to the
party.
 An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an
identifiable but not specified person or thing. An
indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none,
or some.
The most common indefinite pronouns are "all,"
"another," "any," "anybody," "anyone," "anything,"
"each," "everybody," "everyone," "everything," "few,"
"many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some,"
"somebody,“
Example:
Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve
showed up.
 A reflexive pronoun is used to refer back
to the subject of the clause or sentence.
The reflexive pronouns are "myself,"
"yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself,"
"ourselves," "yourselves," and
"themselves." Note each of these can also
act as an intensive pronoun.
Example:
After the party, I asked myself why I had
faxed invitations to everyone in my office
building.
 An intensive pronoun is a pronoun
used to emphasize its antecedent.
Intensive pronouns are identical in form
to reflexive pronouns.
Example:
They themselves promised to come to
the party even though they had a final
exam at the same time.
INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word added to a
sentence to convey emotion. It is not
grammatically related to any other part of
the sentence.
In writing, an interjection is typically
followed by an exclamation point.
Example:
Ouch, that hurt!
Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.
Hey! Put that down!
Exercise 1
1. Is the bold verb an auxiliary or a full verb?
2. I am hungry.
3. They will help you.
4. We do not know his address.
5. My friend Amy does a lot of sports.
6. How much is it?
7. I am reading an interesting book at the moment.
8. Will you be there?
9. She has never been to London.
10. Does he speak English?
11. They have a cat and a dog.
This presentation is
brought to you by
Grammar Bytes!,
©2021 by Robin L.
Simmons.
 Adjectives and Adverbs

Or
really
Is it real windy?
windy?
 This presentation
explains how to
discriminate
between and use
correct adjectival
and adverbial
forms.
An adjective and/or adverb
item on an objective test
might look like this ...
 Sample Item

Jacob ate slow,

slow,chewing
slowly,chewing
chewinghis
hishis
food
food
food
thoroughly.
thoroughly.
thoroughly.
AA BB
His mother was really
really impressed
impressed since
since she
she
C
often accused him of bolting dinner.
Slow must
Is slow,
A. slowly
slowly become
thoroughly, or
B. thorough slowly, a fix
really a
that option A
C. real problem?
makes.
D. No change is necessary.
 Adjectives describe nouns .

The mhands
a n l a yom
o net hmeacnoluacyh o. n t h e
r ed c o u c h .

I’m not sure

That’s not
handsome
very
is the right
descriptive!
adjective.
A dverbs m o d i f y verbs ,
adj ecti ves , a n d other adverbs .

T h e m a n fsl ihr taem

dei nl easbsol y
l d fm
l i rat n
end ei r.
n an
extr em el y b o l d m a n n e r.

Sometimes
successfully!
W hat sounds right is not
always cor r ect!

K e n n y t h i n k s t h a t h e i s rreeal
a l cl y
ool.
cool.

Totally hip people

know that the adverb
really needs to
modify an adjective
like cool!
 Quick Test

Directions: In the items that follow, choose

the option that corrects an error in the
underlined portion(s). If no error exists, choose
“No change is necessary.”

Blow us away
with what you
know.
 Item 1

Farzana did poor

poor on
poorlyonon
her
her
heralgebra
algebra
algebra
quiz.
quiz.
quiz.
She
She
She
A
couldn’t concentrate well
well because
because her
her tablemate
tablemate
B
was chomping noisily
noisilyononaapiece
pieceofofgum.
gum.
C

A. poorly
poorly
B. good
C. noisy
D. No change is necessary.
 Item 2

Lawrence cheated on the chemistry test, but he is

still very
very happy
happy with
with his
his A.
A.

A. real
B. so
C. well
D. No change
changeisisnecessary.
necessary.
 Item 3

The excruciating
excruciatinglong
excruciatinglylong
long
school
school
school
day
day
day
put
put
put
Wanda
Wanda
Wanda
inin in
A
a bad
bad mood.
mood. She
She was
was very
verytired
tiredand
andjust
just
B C
wanted to go home to relax.

A. excruciatingly
excruciatingly
B. worser
C. real
D. No change is necessary.
 Item 4
The horrifying
horrifyingnews
newsthat
thatProfessor
ProfessorAnderson
Anderson
A
was assigning another 10-page paper made his

students complain bitter

bitterabout
bitterly
about
about
his
hishis
very
very
very
hard
hard
hard
B C
requirements.

A. horrifyingly
B. bitterly
bitterly
C. real demanding
D. No change is necessary.
 Item 5

The duck quacked loud,

loud, hoping
hoping that
that we
we would
would
throw it some of our French fries.

A. loudest
B. real loud
C. loudly
loudly
D. No change is necessary.
 Item 6

Mr. Hodges says to quit gossiping about Veronica

and finish typing his report real
real quick.
quick.

A. very quick
B. real quickly
C. right
right now
now
D. No change is necessary.
 Item 7

We roasted in the very

very hot
hotsun,
sun,sweat
sweatpouring
pouring
A
profuse off
profuse
profuselyoffoff
our
ourour
skin.
skin.
skin.
Thoughts
Thoughts
Thoughts
of
oficed
of
iced
iced
tea
tea
tea
and
and
and
BB
lemonade plagued us mercilessly.
mercilessly.
C

A. real hot
B. profusely
profusely
C. merciless
D. No change is necessary.
 Item 8
We moved into the new apartment realreal easy.
easily.
easy.
AA
Rebecca shamelessly
shamelesslyflirted
flirtedwith
withsome
somestrong
strong
B
neighbors who were happy
happy to to help
help with
with the
the
C
heavy boxes.

A. easily
easily
B. shameless
C. happily
D. No change is necessary.
 Item 9
Alex did good
goodduring
well during
duringhis
his
hisspeeches,
speeches,
speeches,addressing
addressing
addressing
AA
his classmates with confidence and poise. But he

did poorly
poorlyfor
forthe
thesemester
semesterbecause
becausehe
henever
never
B
submitted homework punctually.
punctually.
C
A. well
well
B. poor
C. punctual
D. No change is necessary.
 Item 10

The incessant
incessantloud
incessantly loud
loud
barks
barks
barks
ofofher
of
her
her
neighbor’s
neighbor’s
neighbor’s
dogs
dogs
dogs
A
kept Diane from getting a good
good night’s
night’s sleep.
sleep. She
She
B
did not feel well
well rested
rested the
the next
next day.
day.
C

A. incessantly
incessantly
B. well
C. good
D. No change is necessary.
The End.
Definition:-

Preposition is a word, which is used before a noun, a

noun phrase or a pronoun , connecting it to another
word.
@ Simple prepositions: Prepositions which consists
only one word.
e.g. in, on, at, with, against etc..,
@ Compound prepositions: Prepositions which
consists of two or more words.
e.g. instead of, in the middle of, by the side of etc..,
Some prepositions
 Kinds of Prepositions

There are three types in prepositions

 Prepositions of Place

Some prepositions show where something happens.

They are called prepositions of place.
Examples:-

Sanny was sitting under a tree.

There’s a wooden floor underneath the carpet.

Some geese flew over their house.

John and Sarah were hiding inside the wardrobe.

There was a tree beside the river.

I have a friend who lives in America.

 Prepositions of Place: AT, IN, ON

— In general, we use:
at - for a POINT
at the corner, at the bus stop, at the door
in - for an ENCLOSED SPACE
in the garden, in London, in my wallet
on - for a SURFACE
on the wall, on the ceiling, on a page
Notice the use in these standard expressions

at in on
at home in a car on a bus
at work in a taxi on a train
at school in a hellicopter on a plane
at university in a boat on a ship
at the top in a lift on the left
at the bottom in the newspaper on the way
at the side in the sky
at reception in Oxford Street
 Prepositions of Time

Some prepositions show when something happens.

They are called prepositions of time.
Examples:-
School starts at nine o’clock.

We’re going to the zoo on Saturday.

No, you can’t watch a video. It’s past your bedtime already.

I visited my grandparents during the summer.

You must finish the work by Friday.

I’ll do my homework before dinner.

 Prepositions of Time: AT, IN, ON

— In general, we use:
at - for a PRECISE TIME
at 3 o’clock, at noon, at dinnertime
in - for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and
LONG PERIODS
in May, in summer, in 1990,
on - for DAYS and DATES
on Sunday, on 6 March, on Christmas Day
 Notice the use in these standard expressions

at in on
at night in the morning on Tuesday morning
at the weekend in the afternoon on Sunday evening
at Christmas
at the same time
at present
 Prepositions of Direction

Some prepositions show where something is going.

They are called prepositions of direction.

Examples:-

The boys chased after each other.

The football rolled down the hill.

A man was walking his dog along the riverbank.

The freeway goes right through the city.

We were travelling towards Miami.

 Prepositions with special uses

Usage of OF
Our modules are full of real life examples.
I ate a plate of rice and a quarter of milk.
Would you like a glass of lemon juice?
I need three pieces of paper.
Most of the children in my class like
Education.
There are several ways of cooking Upma.
Usage of “FOR”

I made this bookmark for Mom.

Is there room for me on this seat?

I’d like a new computer for Christmas.

We’re going downtown for a meeting. I made this gift for

my mother.

Is there place for me on this seat?

I’d like a new Laptop for Next year..

Usage of “WITH”

He pounds nails with a hammer.

Mix the flour with water.

She painted the picture with her new paints.

Would you like to come with us to the cinema?

I can do difficult problems with help from Mom.

Who is the man with the beard?

Usage of “EXCEPT” AND “INSTEAD OF”

I like all kinds of food except Upma.

Everyone likes chocolate except Tom.

We go to school every day except Saturday and Sunday.

You should eat fruit instead of candy.

Dad is coming to the theater with us instead of Mom.

We could watch TV instead of reading our books.

Usage of “LIKE”, “AS” and “THAN”

Kathleen looks like her dad.

Andrew smiles like his mother.
Peter sings like a professional singer.
Are these shoes the same as those?
Sue is nearly as tall as the teacher.
My backpack is bigger than John’s.
Dad is taller than all of us.
This painting is more beautiful than that one.
The neighborhood streets are less busy than
downtown streets.
 Prepositions with Adjective ,Verbs .

Prepositions are used with some adjectives. The

adjectives in these examples are printed in color.

Dad was angry with us.

We were afraid of the big dog.
She’s not very interested in sports.
John is very good at drawing.
Mr. Lee is pleased with our work.
The teachers are always kind to us.
What’s wrong with the computer?
Prepositions are used with some verbs. The
verbs in these examples are printed in color.

I’m looking for my pencil. Have you seen it?

Can you think of another word for ‘pleased’?
Does this book belong to you?
We’re listening to CDs.
I agree with you.
Tell me about the show you saw.
Cut the cake into five pieces.
They borrowed money from the bank.
Prepositions are used with some nouns. The
nouns in these examples are printed in color.

What’s the answer to this question?

Is there a reason for this delay?
What’s the matter with you?
Here’s an example of good behavior.
Congratulations on winning the competition!
Traffic can cause damage to the environment.
 TRY THIS:
1. A cat was sitting _______the roof of my car. (place)
2. Some people were talking ___the movie. (time)
3. A man was coming____ us on his bike. (direction)
4. The party starts_____ six o’clock. (time)
5. She put the book ____her bag. (place)
6. We walked____ the street to the park. (place)
7. She keeps her slippers____ her bed. (place)
8. We always wash our hands ____meals. (time)
9. She ran ____the dog because she was frightened.
(direction)
Thank you.
This powerpoint was kindly donated to
www.worldofteaching.com

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 Stress-Timed or Syllable-Timed?
ì What is a syllable?
ì Sy-lla-ble = 3 syllables
ì Or-ange = 2 syllables
ì Foot = 1 syllable

ì What is stress?

ì I don’t know what stress is, Rebecca!

 Stress-Timed vs. Syllable-Timed
Languages!
Stress-Timed Language Syllable-Timed Languages
English Finnish
German Icelandic
Mandarin Chinese Cantonese Chinese
Swedish French
Norwegian Italian
Dutch Spanish
…and many more! …and many more!

Discuss:
Is YOUR native language, or 2nd or 3rd language, stress-timed or
syllable-timed? Does this explain for any difficulties you have with
intonation/word stress in English??
 Do you remember: True or False?
ì The MORE syllables in a sentence, the MORE time you need to
pronounce the sentence. (In English.)

ì Explain your answer!

 False! It depends on the number of
“stressed words”!
1. Dogs chase cats.

2. The dogs chase cats.

3. The dogs chase the cats.

4. The dogs will chase the cats.

5. The dogs will be chasing the cats.

6. à If the number (#) of stressed words is the same, you need

approximately the same amount of time!
 Remember!
ì English is a stress-timed language, NOT a syllable-timed
language!
ì If you can remember that English is stress-timed, then English
will not be so stressful for you. Ha, ha!

vs.
 Not all of the words are stressed!
ì Do you know how we classify/divide words in sentences in
English?

ì CONTENT words (stressed)

ì Function / structure words (unstressed)

ì Let’s check out this website!

 Rules for Sentence Stress in English

ì The basic rules of sentence stress are:

ì CONTENT words are STRESSED!

ì Function / structure words are unstressed.

ì The time between stressed words is always the same…

 Content Words (STRESSED!)
Words used for MEANING Example

Main verbs Sell, give, employ, decorate, buy,

borrow, study, work…
Nouns Education, employment, shower,
embarrassment, goal, dream,
grammar…
Adjectives Beautiful, crazy, frustrating, interesting,
blue, sorrowful, excited, hard-working…

Adverbs Well, poorly, quickly, loudly, skillfully,

never, always, sometimes…
Negative auxiliary verbs Don’t, aren’t, can’t, won’t, wouldn’t…
Function/ Structure Words (unstressed)

Words used for GRAMMAR Example

Pronouns He, we, they, I, you, she, he, it,

we…
Prepositions On, at, into, in, around, across,
under…

Articles A, an, the

Conjunctions And, but, or, because…

Auxiliary (helping) verbs Am, are, is, have, has, can,

could, must, should…
 An Exception to the Rule!
ì Sometimes we can stress a word that would normally be only a
structure word, for example, to correct someone’s
understanding.

“She speaks Spanish, doesn’t she?" "No, she doesn’t, but SHE
does.”
 Vocabulary Drill!
1. Syllable: ________ C. Don’t, can’t, shouldn’t, etc.

2. Stress / intonation: ________ D. One or more pieces of sound in a word

3. Grammar: ________ E. The system of rules to organize meaning

in a language
4. Content: ________
F. He, she, it, we, they, you, etc.
5. Polyglot : ________
G. The main ideas (of a speech/text/etc.)
6. Auxiliary / helping verb: ________
H. Somebody who speaks multiple
7. Articles: ________ languages

8. Pronouns: ________ I. Emphasis to show importance in

syllables, words and sentences
9. Nouns: ________ J. Can, will, am, is, are, should, have, has…
10. Negative auxiliaries: ________

A. The, a, an