Thermal Engineering

Introduction

• Thermal means Heat

• Thermal engineering focuses on the transfer of heat, fluid
mechanics, and heating and cooling systems, such as those used in
the electric power industry, the automobile industry and the heating,
ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) industry.
• Aspects of Thermal Engineering
• Thermodynamics
• Fluid Mechanics
• Heat Transfer and mass transfer
Careers for Thermal Engineers
• Some systems that use heat transfer and may require a thermal engineer include:
• Combustion engines
• Compressed air systems
• Cooling systems, including for computer chips
• Heat exchangers
• HVAC
• Process-fired heaters
• Refrigeration systems
• Solar heating
• Thermal insulation
• Thermal power plants
Course Objectives
Objectives:
1) This course introduces students to S.I. and C.I. engines, their combustion
phenomena, and the engine operating parameters that affect their smooth
operation, performance and emission parameters.

2) The student will learn about vapour power cycles, Rankine cycle
performance optimization, and fuel combustion analysis.

3) Learn about how compressors work, their efficiencies, and the impact of
clearance and other parameters.
Syllabus
• UNIT-I Actual Cycles and their Analysis:

• Introduction, Actual and Fuel-Air Cycles of CI Engines, Time Loss Factor, Heat
Loss Factor, Exhaust Blowdown-Loss due to Gas exchange process, Loss due to
Rubbing Friction.

• Introduction to I. C. ENGINES: Classification – Working principles, Valve and

Port Timing Diagrams, Engine systems -Fuel, Carburetor, Fuel Injection System,
Ignition, principles of supercharging and turbo charging.
• UNIT – II Combustion in S.I. Engines:
• Normal Combustion and abnormal combustion – Importance of flame speed
and effect of engine variables – Types of Abnormal combustion, pre-
ignition and knocking- Fuel requirements and fuel rating- combustion
chamber – requirements.
• Combustion in C.I. Engines: Four stages of combustion – Delay period and
its importance – Effect of engine variables – Diesel Knock- Need for air
movement, suction, compression and combustion induced turbulence -open
and divided combustion chambers – fuel requirements and fuel rating
• UNIT – III Measurement, Testing and Performance: Parameters of
performance
measurement of cylinder pressure, fuel consumption, air intake, exhaust gas
composition, Brake power – Determination of frictional losses and indicated
power – Performance test – Heat balance sheet and chart

• UNIT – IV Vapour power cycles:

• Rankine cycle- schematic layout, Thermodynamic analysis, Concept of mean
temperature of heat addition, methods to improve cycle performance by
Reheating and Regeneration.
• Combustion: Fuel and combustion, concept of heat of reaction, adiabatic flame
temperature, stoichiometry, flue gas analysis.
• UNIT - V Compressors
• Classification –Reciprocating type, Principle of operation, work required,
Isothermal efficiency, volumetric efficiency and effect of clearance, multi stage
compression, saving of work, minimum work condition for two stage
compression.
• Text Books: 1. I.C. Engines / V. Ganesan- TMH
• 2. Thermal Engineering / RK Rajput/ Lakshmi Publications
• References:
• 1. IC Engines - M.L.Mathur&R.P.Sharma - DhanpathRai& Sons.
• 2. I.C. Engines - J.B.Heywood /McGrawHIll.
• 3. Thermal Engineering - R.S.Khurmi& J.S.Gupta- S.chandPubl
• 4. Thermal Engineering / PL Ballaney, Khanna Publishers
• Course Outcomes:
• At the end of the course, the student will able to
• CO1: evaluate the performance of IC engines and compressors under the given
operating conditions.
• CO2: Understand the functionality of the major components of the IC Engines
and effects of operating conditions on their performance.
• CO3: evaluate the various parameters impacting the functioning of IC engines.
• CO4: Apply the laws of Thermodynamics to analyze thermodynamic cycles
and understand the various components of the combustion process.
• CO5: Understand the various types of compressors and their functionality.
HEAT ENGINE
• a machine for converting any of various forms
of energy into mechanical force and motion

• The engine consists of a fixed cylinder and a

moving piston. The expanding combustion
gases push the piston, which in turn rotates
the crankshaft. Ultimately, through a system of
gears in the powertrain, this motion drives the
vehicle's wheels.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINES

If the combustion of the fuel takes

place inside the engine, then it is
called an internal combustion engine

if the combustion takes place outside

the engine, then it is called external
combustion engine

In the reciprocating engines, the

piston will have a to and fro motion
inside the cylinder of an engine
Internal Combustion Engines
• NOMENCLATURE
• Bore
• Piston Area
• Stroke
• Top Dead Center
• Bottom Dead Center
• Clearance Volume
• Swept Volume
• Compression Ratio
• Mean Effective Pressure

• Bore (d)
• The nominal inside diameter of the engine cylinder is called Cylinder bore.
• Designate by the Letter d and expressed in millimetres (mm)
• Piston Area (A)
• The area of the circle of diameter equal to the cylinder
bore is called the Piston Area.
• Designate by the Letter A and expressed in square
centimeters (cm²)
• A = πd²/4

• Top Dead Center (TDC)

• The extreme position of the piston at the top of the
cylinder of the vertical engine is called the top dead center
(TDC).

• Bottom Dead Center (BDC)

• The extreme position of the piston at the bottom
of the cylinder of the vertical engine called
bottom dead centre (BDC).
• Stroke (L)
• The maximum distance travelled by the piston
in the cylinder in one direction is known as
stroke.
• In other words, The distance travelled by the
piston from TDC to BDC is called the stroke.
• Designate by the Letter L and expressed in in
millimetres (mm)

• Clearance Volume (Vc)

• The volume contained in the cylinder above
the top of the piston, when the piston is at the
top dead centre is called the clearance volume.
• Designate by the Letter Vc and expressed in in
cubic centimetres (cc)
• Swept Volume (Vs)
• Swept volume is the volume covered by the piston while
moving from TDC to BDC.
• In other words, The volume swept by the piston during
one stroke is called the swept volume or piston
displacement.
• Swept Volume (Vs) = Vs = AxL
• Compression Ratio
• Compression ratio is a ratio of the volume when the
piston is at the bottom dead centre to the volume when
the piston is at top dead centre.
• Compression ratio = Maximum Cylinder Volume/
Minimum Cylinder Volume
• Compression ratio = (Swept Volume + Clearance
Volume)/ Minimum Cylinder Volume
• usually, the compression ratio will vary from 5: 1 to 10:
1 for petrol engines and from 12:1 to 22: 1 for diesel
engines.
• Mean Effective Pressure
• This is the Average pressure acting on the piston during the
thermodynamic processes.
• Mean Effective Pressure = Torque × Number of revolution for the power
stroke × 2π / Displacement
COMPONENTS OF AN IC ENGINE
• 1. Cylinder:
• It is located in the engine block also
known as the cylinder block.
• It contains a liner or sleeves around it.
• This liner is worn out when subjected
to work and can be easily replaced.
• The cylinders have part or space for
the piston to move upward and
downward, making the combustion
take place.
• Cylinders are characterized by their
bore and stroke.
• The bore is the inner diameter and the
stroke is the effective length along the
piston reciprocates i.e. the movement
of the piston from the TDC to the
BDC, they are the uppermost and the
lowermost point of the stroke.
• The cylinder block also contains some
hollow space around and in between
the individual cylinders, these hollow
parts are known as jackets.
• It allows coolant to enters and
circulates to enables effective heat
dissipation in the case of liquid-
cooled engines.
• 2. Piston:
• The piston is a cylindrical part that
moves upward and downward in the
cylinder, allowing the complete
combustion cycle to take place

• The diameter of the piston is a bit

less than the bore of the cylinder to
avoid quick wear of the piston
surface.
• There are three rings known as
piston rings fitted in the circular
recesses on the piston surfaces.
• These rings are made of aluminum,
having direct contact with the
cylinder liner, thus preventing piston
wear.
• The two first rings are compression rings
• it is chamfered on the outer part, helping to
cause the blow by effect (prevention of waste
gases inside the combustion chamber from
entering into the crankcase.)
• the third ring is known as the oil ring
• it prevents oil from entering the combustion
chamber and ensure proper distribution of oil
along the cylinder walls.
• 3. Crankshaft:
• These engine parts help to
converts the sliding motion
from the piston into rotary
motion via the connecting rod.
• It is located below the cylinder
block inside a casing called the
crankcase.
• The crankshaft has projections
bent and offset from the shaft
axis.
• In a multi-cylinder engine,
each cylinder is provided with
its own crankpin, provided to
attach the piston by the
connecting rod.
• A part of the crankshaft named crankpin journal
bearing is known as a big end, having a sliding
bearing.
• Another part of it called counterbalance weights.
• It is provided to counter the tensional vibrations
experienced by the crankshaft because of the
reciprocating unbalance of the moving piston
during the combustion process.
• the crank balance is either bolted to the crank
body or forms an integral part.
• Crankshafts are either produced in parts or as a
single piece.
• The single-piece design is more preferable
because it leaves no space for vibration and
offers a better fiber flow and good stress-bearing
capabilities.
• Finally, crankshafts are typically produced from steel by roll
forging or ductile steel through casting. whilst single-piece
crankshafts are made from heat threatened carbon steels.
• Some other steels like vanadium micro-alloyed steels are also
used due to the higher strength it can offer without heat
treatment.

• 4. Connecting rod:
• These engine parts are provided to connect the piston to the
crankshaft. Just as mentioned earlier, it converts the linear
motion of the piston into the rotary motion of the crank.
• One of its end parts is attached to the piston through a piston
pin also known as a gudgeon pin and wrist pin.
• Another end is attached to the crankpin journal using bolts to
hold down the upper and lower bearing caps called the big end.
• The bearing is in the form of two half-shells
placed in the crank journal by the big end
connecting rod.
• Both ends are not rigidly fixed in order to
rotate through an angle.
• Hence, both ends are in continuous motion
and under tremendous stress from the
pressure of the piston.
• The connecting rod is generally made from
forged steel and sometimes from aluminum
alloy when lightweight and high-impact
absorbing ability is prioritized.
• The connecting rod is manufactured with a
high degree of precision as it is a sensitive
part that is prone to failure.
• Cylinder head
• These engine parts serve as a cover to the cylinder
block, valve, rocker arms, and ignition element.
• It is bolted to the cylinder block with the head
gasket in between.
• The cylinder head is made from cast iron and
sometimes aluminum alloy when the lightweight
part is needed and as it conducts heat more
quickly than cast iron.
• In an overhead camshaft engine, the camshaft is
placed in the head with the absence of pushrod
arrangement for the valve mechanism.
• Some other parts like the inlet, exhaust ports, and
the combustion chamber also have their space
beneath the cylinder, making it form one whole
engine component.
• Camshaft:
• It is a shaft containing a cam fitted on it.
• It functions is to control the valves directly by sitting over
them or through the rocker arm and pushrod mechanism.
• The valve timing is determined by the size of the camshaft.
• That is, the opening and closing of valves are governed by
the camshaft which is mounted on the crankshaft either
directly through a reduction gear or indirectly through a
pulley and a timing belt.
• Camshaft coupled to the crank by the gear required a
pushrod and tappet mechanism along with rocker arms.
• The camshaft is commonly made of chilled iron castings
and billet steel used in making high-quality ones. The
purpose of the chilled iron offers greater wear resistance
and surface hardness.
• Valves:
• Valves as known as poppet valves on IC engines.
• It is made of a long thin circular rod named valve
stem and a flat circular disk called valve head,
which is tapered along the thin rod.
• The function of the valve is to enables of valve for
a fresh intake of fuel and air and the release of
waste gases (exhaust.)
• The opening and closing of the valve are caused by
the sliding motion of the camshaft and the
associated linkages.
• Engine valves are made from steel alloys filled
with sodium to increase the heat transfer capacity.
• Finally, the valves are of two sections; intake/inlet
valve, which allows fresh charge to enters the
chamber when open, and the exhaust/outlet valve
allows the escape of the exhaust gases.
• Engine valves are made from steel alloys
filled with sodium to increase the heat
transfer capacity.
• Finally, the valves are of two sections;
intake/inlet valve, which allows fresh
charge to enters the chamber when open,
and the exhaust/outlet valve allows the
escape of the exhaust gases.
• Rocker arm:
• It plays an important role as it transmits the
rotary motion of the cam or crankshaft through a
tappet/latch and converts it into a linear motion of
the valve stem, helping in depressing the valve
head
• The rocker head is made from steel stampings for
light and medium-duty engines whereas the
heavy-duty diesel engine rocker head is made of
cast iron and forged carbon steel as it offers
greater strength and stiffness.
• The rocker arms oscillate about a fixed pivot rod
in the cylinder head.
• Crankcase:
• It is located below the cylinder block containing the
bearings that rotate the crank.
• This main bearing is a sliding bearing with an
adequate oil supply in it.
• Four-cylinder inline petrol engines contain three
bearings in the crankcase, one at each end and one in
the middle while diesel engines have five main
bearings, one at each end and one between each
cylinder.
• The crankcase is made from cast iron and aluminum
the same material used in making the cylinder block.
• A crankcase serves many purposes to the engine as it
helps to protect its inner mechanism from dust, dirt,
and some other materials.
• It also serves as housing that encloses the crankshaft
and the connecting rod, keeping the oil and air.
 Classification of IC Engines
• An internal combustion can be classified in to different types based on
different parameters mentioned below.
• 1. Based on type of Ignition:
• (a) Spark Ignition (b) Compression Ignition

• 2. Engine Cycle:
• (a) Four stroke (b) Two stroke

• 3. Basic Design :
• (a) Reciprocating (b) rotary
 Classification of IC Engines
• 4. Position and number of cylinders of reciprocating engines:
• (a) single cylinder (b) multiple cylinders
• Inline
• V-engine
• Opposed cylinder engine
• W engine
• Opposed piston engine
• Radial engine
 Classification of IC Engines
• 5. Air Intake Process:
• (a) Natural aspirated engines (b) turbo charged or super charged
engines (c) Crank case compressed engines

• 6. Method of fuel input for spark ignition engines:

• (a) carbureted engine
• (b) multi point port fuel injection
• (c) Throttle body fuel injection
• (d) Gasolene Direct injection
 Classification of IC Engines
• 7. Method of fuel input for compression ignition engines:
• (a) Direct injection
• (b) Indirect injection
• (c) Homogeneous charge compression ignition

• 8. Based on the type of fuel used :

• (a) petrol
• (b) diesel
• (c)CNG or LNG or LPG
• (d) Alcohol fuels
• (e) duel fuel
 Classification of IC Engines
• Application:
• Automobile
Type of cooling:
(a) Air cooled
• Locomotive
(b) water or liquid cooled
• Stationery
• Marine
• Aircraft
• Small
• Portable
• chain saw
• model airplane
4-STROKE SINGLE CYLINDER SPARK IGNITION
ENGINE – WORKING (Otto Cycle)
• A four stroke engine is an engine in which the piston traverses 4
strokes and completes 720 deg of rotation of crank shaft and it
produces one power stroke
• There are 3 idle strokes and one power stroke
Working of Two Stroke Engine
• There are only two strokes of the piston
• The cycle is being completed in 360
• Suction + compression – one stroke
• Expansion and exhaust – one stroke
• Valves are replaced by ports
• Mechanical work will be reduced
• Mechanical efficiency will increase
Valve Timing Diagram of a Four Stroke Engine
Port Timing Diagram of a 2 Stroke Engine