Types of Intermolecular Forces

The intermolecular forces of attraction in substances include dipole-dipole London dispersion forces,
hydrogen bonding, and ion-dipole forces.

London Dispersion Forces

London dispersion forces, or simply dispersion forces, are intermolecular forces of attraction between
all atoms and molecules. In addition, dispersion forces are the only kind of intermolecular forces present
among symmetrical nonpolar substances such as O, and CD, and monoatomic species such as noble
gases, Without dispersion forces, such substances could not condense in form liquids or solidify to form
solids.
Dispersion forces are weak attractive forces that result from the continuous movement of electrons in
particles. Nonpolar molecules have zero dipole moment because their electron density is uniform and
symmetrical Nevertheless, the electrons have some freedom to move around the molecule. This induces
temporary dipoles (instantaneous dipoles) in neighboring atoms or molecules. As electron clouds
become larger and more diffuse, they are attracted less strongly by their own positive nuclei. Thus, they
are more easily distorted or polarized by the adjacent/nearby nuclei.
Polarization increases with increasing numbers of electrons and therefore with increasing size of
molecules. Therefore, dispersion forces are generally stronger for molecules that are larger or have
more electrons. For example, between Helium and Argon, two Argon atoms will have greater dispersion
force because they are bigger than Hellum atoms.

Dipole-dipole Forces
Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces between polar molecules, that is, between molecules that
possess dipole moments. Their origin is electrostatic, and they can be understood in terms of Coulomb’s
law. The larger the dipole moment, the greater the force. Dipole-dipole forces are the attraction
between the positive end of one molecule and the negative end of another.
Dipoles form when there is a large difference in electronegativity between two atoms joined by a
covalent bond.

Hydrogen Bonding
The hydrogen bond is a special case of very strong dipole-dipole interaction. It is not a chemical bond in
a formal sense. Strong Hydrogen bonding occurs among polar covalent molecules containing H and one
of the three small, highly electronegative elements-F, O, or N. Like ordinary dipole-dipole interactions,
Hydrogen bonds result from the attraction between (partial positive) atoms of one + molecule, in this
case H atoms and the- (partial negative) atoms of another molecule. The + His attracted to a lone pair of
electrons on an F. O, or N atom. Typically, a Hydrogen bond is about five to ten times stronger than
other dipole-dipole interactions.

Ion-Dipole Forces
Ion-dipole force acts between an ion (either cation or anion) and a polar molecule. When an ionic
compound is placed in an aqueous solution, the positive end of the ionic compound becomes
surrounded by the partial negative end of the lonic compound. In turn, it becomes surrounded by the
partial positive Hydrogen inn in water. In short, the positive pole is attracted to the negative ion (anion),
while the negative pole is attracted to a positive ion (cation).
lon-dipole interactions are involved in the dissolution process, like in the case of sodium chloride table
salt) dissolving in water. The Na+ and Cl-ions are dispersed among water molecules. The Na+ ions will be
surrounded by the partial negative Oxygen of the water molecule, while the Cl- ions will be surrounded
by the partial positive H of the water molecule.
The strength of this interaction depends on the charge and size of the ion and on the magnitude of the
dipole moment and size of the molecule. The charges on cations are generally more concentrated
because cations are usually smaller than anions.
Therefore, a cation interacts more strongly with dipoles than does an anion having a charge of the same
magnitude. These four intermolecular forces vary in strength lon dipole forces are the strongest of the
four, followed by Hydrogen bonding being a special type of dipole- dipole. Dipole-dipole is weaker than
the ion-dipole and Hydrogen bonding, while London dispersion forces are the weakest.

Lesson 3. PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

Liquids are made up of particles that are close to each other and have kinetic energy. The particles are
not confined to a rigid position, and they move, but they can only travel at a short distance before they
collide with each other and change the direction of motion. They roll and slide on top of one another
and flow. Since the molecules flow, they take the shape of their container and diffuse moderately to a
fixed volume.
Liquids have moderately high density since they occupy a fixed volume, and the particien are attracted
to each other. They also have low compressibility and thermal expansion.
The kinetic energy of the molecules break away from their neighbor, and thus, the particles are joined
by intermolecular forces. Most liquids exist as molecules at room temperature. The presence of the
intermolecular forces results in special properties. The physical properties of liquids depend on the type
of the different intermolecular forces

Surface Tension

Surface tension in the force that causes the surface of a liquid to contract. It in the property of the
surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force due to the cohesive nature of its molecules.
Phenomena such as insects walking on the surface of the water, droplets of liquid being spherical in
shape, and needies remaining suspended on the surface of the water can all be explained in terms of
surface tension.
The strength of surface tension depends on the intermolecular force of attraction. If the intermolecular
Brce of attraction of a liquid is strong, then there is a greater force needed to break through the surface
and the greater the surface tension is. Since the intermolecular forces vary in nature and strength,
surface tension is different for various forms of liquids. Water has a high surface tension because of its
ability to form a Hydrogen bond.
Temperature affects surface tension. An increase in the liquid’s temperature causes water molecules at
the surface to evaporate, resulting in the weakening of the force of attraction. Therefore, there is less
force needed to break through the surface of the molecules, and this decreases surface tension
Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by intermolecular forces Molecules at the surface
are pulled downward and sideways by other molecules, not upward away from the surface.
These intermolecular forces tend to pull the molecules into the liquid and cause the surface to tighten
like an elastic film or “skin”.
Capillary action in the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or be drawn into small openings such
as those between grains of a rock. Capillary action, also known as capillarity, is a result of the
intermolecular attraction between the liquid and solid materials.
Capillary action is shown by water rising spontaneously in capillary tubes. A thin film of water adheres to
the wall of the glass tube as water molecules are attracted to atoms making up the glass (SO Surface
tension causes the film of water to contract and pulls the water up the tube.

Two types of forces are involved in capillary action:

1. Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like molecules (the liquid molecules).
2. Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules (such as those in water and in the particles
that make up the glass tube).
These forces also define the shape of the surface of a liquid in a cylindrical container the meniscut.

Viscosity is the resistance of fluids to flow. A liquid’s resistance (friction) to Viscosity flow exists
between the molecules of liquid when they move past each other. The greater the resistance in flowing,
the more viscous the liquid in Maple syrup in pancakes is usually made from the xylem sap of sugar
maple, red maple, or black maple trees. It is boiled down, so it becomes a more concentrated and
viscous liquid. Maple syrup is more viscous than water. The difference in viscosity between the two
liquids in a measure of their intermolecular force of attraction. In order to flow, molecules must move,
roll and slide over one another. A liquid with low intermolecular force allows its molecules to move
freely and has a lower viscosity.
An increase in temperature causes kinetic energy to increase. Heat breaks the intermolecular forces
causing the liquid molecules to move faster. This makes the molecules flow more readily. Therefore, an
increase in temperature decreases viscosity.
Since the structure of maple syrup contains a lot of O-H bond compared to water, more H-bonds are
formed in maple syrup. The greater the number of H-bonds, the stronger the intermolecular force of
attraction is, and the higher the viscosity of the liquid.
Viscosity is expressed in units of centipoise. The table below gives the viscosities of liquidis of some pure
substances. Water has I centipoise or 0.001 Pa/= at 20 °C. Substances with lower viscosities include
carbon tetrachloride and benzene Glyceral has a resistance to the flow of more than a thousand times
greater than water.
Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces have higher viscosities than those that have weak
intermolecular forces. Viscosity decreases as temperature increases: hot molasses flows much faster
than cold molasses.

Vapor Pressure

Vaporization is a phase change from liquid to gas, while the opposite process (gas to liquid) is
condensation. When liquid molecules break free from their neighbors and escape into the gas phase,
the process is called evaporation.
Vaporization is a broader term that includes evaporation and bolling Gas and vapor are similar but not
the same. Vapor in used to refer to the gaseous phase of a substance, which is normally a liquid or solid
at room temperature. The average kinetic energy of the liquid molecules of a substance depends on
temperature. Most liquid particles have higher kinetic energy, and some others move at a slower pace.
Substances that evaporate readily are volatile. They have weak intermolecular forces of attraction. Some
examples of volatile liquids are alcohol, gasoline, paint thinner, and dry cleaning solvents. Volatile
substances bum more readily since they casily combine with Oxygen. Since the kinetic energy of a
molecule in proportional to its temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at higher
temperaturen. As the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average
kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid decreases. Therefore, evaporation is accompanied by
cooling. In a closed container half-filled with liquid, the fast-moving molecules also. Escape into the gas
phase forming vapor at the space above the liquid.

Gas molecules move in random directions, collide with other gas particies and the walls of the container.
Some will strike the liquid surface and condense back into it. In the closed flask, none of the gas particles
are able to get out of the container. Eventually, the number of molecules that goes into the gaseous
state would equal the number of molecules that condenses back. When the rate of condensation of the
gas becomes equal to the rate of evaporation of the liquid, the gas in the container is said to be in
equilibrium with the liquid.
Like any gas sample, the molecules in the gaseous state over its liquid create a pressure. The greater the
number of gaseous particles, the greater the pressure exerted by the gas. The pressure exerted by the
gas in equilibrium with a liquid in a closed container at a given temperature is called the equilibrium
vapor pressure of simply vapor pressure of the liquid.
The equilibrium vapor pressure is the maximum vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature and
that it is constant at a constant temperature. It increase with temperature. Vapor pressure is
independent of the amount of liquid as well as the surface area of the liquid in contact with the gun.
When the temperature is high. More molecules have enough energy to escape from the liquid. At a
lower temperature, fewer molecules have sufficient energy to escape from the liquid. When liquids
evaporate, the molecules have to have sufficient energy to break the attractive forces that hold them in
the liquid state. The stronger these intermolecular forces. Are, the greater the amount of energy needed
to break them.
For some substances with weak intermolecular forces, the energy requirement in easily obtained from
collisions with other molecules and absorption of energy from the surroundings. Many molecules cun
vaporize, resulting in high vapor pressure. For molecules with strong intermolecular forces, gathering
enough energy may not be as easy and register low vapor pressures. The stronger the intermolecular
forces of attraction, the lower the vapor pressure of a liquid.

Molar Heat of Vaporization

The relationship between vapor pressure and strength of intermolecular forces in consistent with the
trends in two other properties of liquids, the enthalpy or molar heat of vaporization and the boiling
point of the liquid.
The molar heat of vaporization (AHvap) is the energy required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given
temperature. His the symbol for enthalpy, which means heat content at a given standard condition.
The heat of vaporization may be considered a measure of the strength of intermolecular forces in a
liquid. If the intermolecular attraction is strong, it takes a lot of energy to free the molecules from the
liquid phase, and the heat of vaporization will be high.
It is easier to vaporize acetone dower Hap than water higher Hrapi at a given temperature, and more
acetone escapes into the vapor phase at a given temperature. Acetone is a polar substance but has no
H-bonding. It has weaker intermolecular forces than water, and therefore acetone molecules are held
less tightly to one another in the liquid phase.
A practical way to demonstrate differences in the molar heat of vaporization is by rubbing acetone on
your hands. Compare what you feel when water is used. Acetone has a lower AHvap than water, so that
heat from our hands in enough to increase the kinetic energy of these molecules and provide additional
heat to vaporize them. As a result of the loss of heat from the skin, our hands feel coul.

Boiling Point
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid changes into a gas. A liquid boils when
its vapor pressure equals the pressure acting on the surface of the liquid. The boiling point is the
temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure The normal boiling
point in the temperature at which the liquid converts to a gas when the external pressure is 1 atm.
The normal boiling point of water in 100 °C. The boiling point of a liquid depends on the external
pressure. For example, at 1 atm, water boils at 100 °C, but if the pressure is reduced to 0.5 atm, water
boils at only 82 °C. The boiling point is related to the molar heat of vaporization; the higher Alap, the
higher the boiling point.

Lesson 4: PROPERTIES OF WATER

Water makes up a large proportion of the entire biosphere, where 95% is and the remaining 5% is
freshwater, saltwater.
Water is locked up in ice and glaciers, deep and shallow underground lakes, soil, atmosphere, and rivers.
The human body consists of 50-75% water. Water serves important purposes for life on earth. Water’s
unique properties result from the strong intermolecular force of attraction characterized by the
hydrogen bond.
Some substances, like common table salt, NaCl, dissolve in water very easily. When placed in water,
sodium chloride molecules fall apart. The positively charged sodium ion (Na) binds to Oxygen, while the
negatively charged chloride ion © attaches to hydrogen. This property of water allows for the transport
of nutrients vital to life in animals and plants. A drop of rainwater falling through the air dissolves
atmospheric gases. When rain reaches the earth, it affects the quality of the land, lakes, and rivers
The following are properties of water:
Boiling point and freezing point.
The high boiling point of water is a consequence of its strong intermolecular forces of attraction caused
by the formation of the H-bond. It also explains why water in liquid at mom temperature. The to
Hydrogen bonding, water molecules cling to each other (cohesion and remain in the liquid state under
temperatures favorable to plants and other living organisms. Pare water at sen level boils at 100 C and
freezes at 0°C, but extra energy is needed to push water molecules into the air. This is called latent heat
the heat required to change water from one phase to another. At higher elevations (lower atmospheric
pressure), water’s boiling temperature decreases. This is why it takes longer to buil an egg at higher
altitudes. The temperature does not get high enough to cook the egg properly If a substance is dissolved
in water, the freezing point is lowered.

Energy is lost when water freezes. A great deal of heat is released into the environment when liquid
water changes to ice. It is lost when the high energy phase of liquid water moves to the low energy
phase of ice. Thus, nights when ice freears often feel warmer than nights when the ice melts.

Specific heat
Specific heat refers to the amount of heat needed to change the temperature of 1 gram of a substance
by 1 C. For water, its specific heat is Ical/g C. It means that water can absorb and release large quantities
of heat without a change in temperature. This is the reason why body temperature remains at 37 -C
even when there a a change in the surrounding. This also explains why occans and lakes exert an
influence on the climate. If there were no large bodies of water, the earth would experience significant
temperature variations. Water has high specific heat. The amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of water by one degree Celsius is quite large. Because so much heat loss or heat input is
required to lower or raise the temperature of the water, the oceans and other large hodies of water
have relatively constant temperaturen. Thus, many organisms living in the oceans are provided with a
relatively constant environmental temperature. The high water content of plants and animals living on
land helps them to maintain a relatively constant internal temperature. The specific heat of water is five
times greater than that of sand.

Density in its liquid form

Water is the only substance that contracts when cooled. For most substances, their solid form is denser
than their liquid form. This is because the H-bond is more extensive in its solid state than in its liquid
state. Ice has an open structure because the hydrogen bonds could not get inside the hexagonal ring
structure, This more open structure of the solid form of water causes the ice to have a smaller number
of molecules packed in a given volume. This causes the mass to be lower. Hence, the density of ice is
lesser than the liquid water, and, as a result, ice floats on water. This also causes the water in ponds or
linken to freeze from the top down. Water is most dense at 4 °C and then begins to expand again
(becoming less dense) as the temperature decreases further. This expansion occurs because its
Hydrogen bonds become more rigid and ordered. The expansion of water takes place even before it
actually freezes. As water temperature drops, the colder water (0-4 “C), where it is less dense rises to
the pond or lake surface. It freezes to form a lid of ice. This ice insulates the water below from the
wintry chill so that it in less likely to freene. Organisms that inhabit the pond are able to survive the
frigid winter below the icy surface.
For most substances, solids are denser than liquids. But the special properties of water make it less
dense as a solid, lee fosts on watert Strong hydrogen bonds formed at freezing 0 °C lock water
molecules away from each other. When ice melts, the structure collapses, and molecules move closer
together. Liquid water at 4 °C is about 9% denser than ice. This property plays an important role in water
ecosystems. Floating ice often insulates and protects animals and plants living in the water below:

Surface tension.
The hydrogen bond formation among water molecules causes water to have high surface tension, as
described earlier. This high surface tension causes water to move from the roots of a tree to the top of
very tall trees and explains why water moves into the fibers of a towel This phenomenon is called
capillarity. Water molecules at the surface (next to air) hold closely together, forming an invisible in
Water’s surface tension can hold a weight that would normally sink. You can carefully float a paper clip
on top of the water. Some aquatic insects, such as the water strider or pond sitater, rely on surface
tension to walk on water Surface tension is essential for the transfer of energy from wind to water to
create waves, Waves are necessary for rapid oxygen diffusion in lakes and seas. Next to mercury, water
has the highest surface tension of all commonly occurring liquids.

Cohesion
Water molecules stick to each other. This is due to the hydrogen bonds among the molecules. Water
molecules at the surface have a much greater attraction for each other than for molecules in the air. This
cohesiveness creates a high surface tension at the surface of the water. The water molecules at the
surface crowd together, producing a strong layer as they are pulled downward by the attraction
of other water molecules beneath them.

Adhesion
Water molecules stick to other substances. You can see this property when water creeps up the inside of
a drinking glass. Think of a sponge or a paper towel used to “soak up spilled water. This is how water
makes things wet. Water also clings to living things. Most plants have adapted to take advantage of
water’s adhesion that helps move water from the roots to the leaves. This is called capillary action. This
can also be seen as blood moves through our capillaries, carrying nutrients to each cell within our body.
One of the tallest plants is the redwood tree. Water moves from its roots to its leaves, more than 90 m
above the ground. As a plant loses water through pores in the leaves, more water moves up from roots
and stems to replace the lost water. The process of water loss by leaves is known as transpiration.

Thermal properties
Water absorbs or releases more heat than many substances for each degree of temperature increase or
decrease. Because of this, it in widely used for cooling and for transferring heat in thermal and chemical
process. Differences in temperature between lakes and rivers and the surrounding air may have a
variety of effects. For example, local fog or mist is likely to occur if a lake cools in the surrounding air
enough to cause saturation-small water droplets are suspended in the air. Large bodies of water, such as
the oceans or the Great Lakes, have a profound influence on climate. They are the world’s great heat
reservoirs and heat exchangers and the source of much of the moisture that falls as rain and snow over
adjacent landmasses. When water is colder than the air, precipitation is curbed, winds are reduced, and
fog banks are formed. These properties of water are crucial in stabilizing temperatures on earth.

Heat of vaporization
A large amount of heat is needed to vaporize given amount of water. This causes a significant drop in
temperature during evaporation When molecules of water absorb heat energy, they move fast in the
water. Eventually, the speed of movement of some molecules becomes so fast, allowing them to
overcome the Intermolecular attraction, detach from the multi-molecular water, form bubbles, and
leave the water surface in the gas state. This property of water helps to cool down the body of living
organisms. This is called evaporative cooling.