CRIME ANALYSIS AND MAPPING

TOPIC1. INTRODUCTORY GUIDE TO CRIME ANALYSIS AND MAPPING

INTRODUCTION
Ever since maps have been available that depict the geographic features of communities, such as streets and
city boundaries, police departments have used such maps to determine patrol areas and emergency routes as well as
to assist patrol officers in finding specific addresses. Police departments have also mapped crime, a process that,
until recently, involved the manual placement of pins on hand-drawn wall maps. This chapter discusses the
emergence of computerized crime mapping as a tool for conducting crime analysis. It begins with an introduction to
key terms and then describes basic concepts before presenting a history of crime mapping and information on the
field’s current status and career paths.
The following topic was developed from the curriculum for the “Introduction to Crime Analysis, Mapping
and Problem Solving”. This topic focuses on definition terms used in this topic, types of crime analysis, introduction
to crime mapping, types of crime mapping and its history.

TOPIC OBJECTIVE
This topic aims to educate the students about the definition of terms used in this topic, the types of crime
analysis, history of crime mapping and the types of crime mapping.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic the student will:
1. Learn the definition of terms used in this topic.
2. Learn the types of crime analysis.
3. Learn the history of crime mapping and the types of crime mapping.

Lesson1. DEFINITION OF TERMS

Apprehending criminals
The main function of crime analysis is to support law enforcement endeavours. One of the primary goals of
law enforcement is the apprehension of criminals; consequently, one of the primary goals of crime analysis is to
assist in the apprehension of criminals. For example, a detective may have a robbery incident in which the suspect
has a snake tattoo on his left arm. The crime analysts may assist by searching a database of field incident cards to
identify individuals with such a tattoo. Also, a crime analyst may conduct a time of day/day of week analysis of
burglary incidents that would assist officers in surveillance of an area to catch offenders.

Crime Analysis
Is a law enforcement function that involves systematic analysis for identifying and analyzing patterns and
trends in crime and disorder. Information on patterns can help law enforcement agencies deploy resources in a more
effective manner, and assist detectives in identifying and apprehending suspects. Crime analysis also plays a role in
devising solutions to crime problems, and formulating crime prevention strategies.

Crime
In a law enforcement agency, the central focus is crime, both those reported to the police and those that are
not. Thus, the central type of data analyzed is crime and the information surrounding it, such as arrests, offenders,
victims, property, and evidence.

Crime mapping
This is a term used in policing to refer to the process of conducting spatial analysis within crime analysis.
This is the process of using a geographic information system to conduct spatial analysis of crime problems and other
police-related issues.
*Crime mapping serves three main functions within crime analysis:
1. It facilitates visual and statistical analyses of the spatial nature of crime and other types of events.
2. It allows analysts to link unlike data sources together based on common geographic variables (e.g.,
linking census information, school information, and crime data for a common area).
3. It provides maps that help to communicate analysis results.

Evaluate organizational procedures

The fourth goal of crime analysis is assisting with the evaluation of organizational procedures. Several
examples include resource allocation, the assessment of crime prevention programs, realigning geographic
boundaries, forecasting staffing needs, and developing performance measures for the police department.
Geographic information system (GIS)
This is a powerful software tool that allows the user to create any kind of geographic representation, from a
simple point map to a three-dimensional visualization of spatial or temporal data.

Law enforcement information

In addition to crime, law enforcement agencies address many other issues and thus collect many other types
of data. Examples of law enforcement data that are often available for crime analysts are calls for service (e.g., noise
complaints, burglary, alarms, suspicious activity), traffic information (e.g., accidents and citations), citizens’
perceptions (e.g., fear of crime, crime prevention behavior, satisfaction with the police), victimization, probation
records, and parole information.

Socio-demographic
This type of information refers to characteristics of individuals and groups such as sex, race, income, age,
and education. On an individual (micro) level, socio-demographic information is used in law enforcement to search
for and identify crime suspects. On a macro level, socio-demographic information is used to determine the
characteristics of groups and how they relate to crime. For example, the information may be used to answer the
questions, “Where can we find the suspect who is a white male, 30-35 years of age with brown hair and brown
eyes?” or “Can demographic characteristics explain why one neighbourhood has a higher rate of crime than another?

Spatial
The location where crimes or activities occur and the relationship of those places to one another and to
other information is an important factor in the analysis of crime. It is not only important where a crime takes place
but also the characteristics of those places and the environment in which the crime occurs. Thus, examination of
spatial data such as streets networks, parcel information, orthophotographs, school locations, business and
residential zoning, among others, is imperative for effective crime analysis.

Prevent crime
Another primary goal of law enforcement is to prevent crime through methods other than apprehension.
This goal lends itself particularly well to assistance from crime analysis. For example, members of the police
department are conducting a crime prevention campaign about residential burglary and would like to target their
resources in the areas that need it the most. Crime analysis can assist in planning community education and patrol
response tailored to the problem by providing spatial analysis of residential burglary, analysis of how, when, and
where the burglaries occurred, and analysis of what items were stolen. This information could be used to develop
crime prevention suggestions such as closing and locking a garage door.

Reduce disorder
Many criminologists contend that social disorder can lead to crime; that is, blight and other indicators of
social decay left unchecked can attract crime and accelerate further decay. Thus, reducing disorder is a law
enforcement objective and, by extension, one for crime analysis as well. Crime analysis can assist with these efforts
by providing research and analysis of disorder indicators such as traffic accidents, noise complaints, or trespass
warnings that can assist officers in addressing these issues before they become more serious problems.

Study
Is a systematic way of looking at crime and law enforcement information. That is, crime analysis is not
examining information haphazardly but rather is applying formal analytical and statistical techniques as well as
research methodology to law enforcement information according to the rules of social science.

Lesson2. Types of Crime Analysis

The following are five types of analysis that fall under the umbrella of crime analysis. As you will see, each
contains characteristics of crime analysis in general, but each is specific in the type of data and analysis used as well
as in its purpose.

Intelligence Analysis
The study of “organized” criminal activity, whether or not it is reported to law enforcement to assist
investigative personnel in linking people, events, and property. The purpose of intelligence analysis is to assist
sworn personnel in the identification of networks and apprehension of individuals to subsequently prevent criminal
activity. A related goal is to link information together, prioritize information, identify relationships, and identify
areas for further investigation by putting the analysis in a framework that is easy to understand. Much of the
information analyzed in the field of intelligence analysis is not reported to the police by citizens but is gathered by
law enforcement. Examples of data collection methods include surveillance, informants, and participant observation.
In addition, the type of information is not limited to criminal information but can include telephone conversations,
travel information, financial/tax information, and family and business relationships. Intelligence analysis has
traditionally focused more or less on organized criminal activity, which includes drugs and prostitution syndicates.
The data analyzed are plentiful and primarily qualitative, and thus are usually analyzed through qualitative methods.

1. Criminal Investigative Analysis

The study of serial criminals, victims, and/or crime scenes as well as physical, socio-demographic,
psychological, and geographic characteristics to develop patterns that will assist in linking together and solving
current serial criminal activity. This type of analysis has also been called “profiling,” which is the process of
constructing a “profile” of an unknown offender based on the nature of the crime, the facts of the case, and the
characteristics of the victim. As with intelligence analysis, this type of analysis focuses primarily on qualitative data
surrounding serious serial crimes such as murder and rape. Data are collected and analyzed on an individual level for
those persons primarily or peripherally involved with the incidents. The spatial nature of the incidents and related
locations such as the body dump sites or the encounter sites is also considered. The primary purpose of criminal
investigative analysis is to develop patterns of serial crimes crossing city, state, and even national boundaries by
linking behavior and evidence within and among incidents in order to catch the offender and/or clear cases. This is a
very specific type of crime analysis that is primarily done on the federal law enforcement level since these types of
crime occur infrequently and cross jurisdictional boundaries.

2. Tactical Crime Analysis

The study of recent criminal incidents and potential criminal activity by examining characteristics such as
how, when, and where the activity has occurred to assist in problem solving by developing patterns and trends,
identifying investigative leads/suspects, and clearing cases. Tactical crime analysis focuses on information from
recent crimes reported to the police. “Recent” can refer to the last few months or longer periods of time for specific
ongoing problems.
Tactical crime analysis also focuses on specific information about each crime such as method of entry,
point of entry, suspects actions, type of victim, type of weapon used, as well as the date, time, location, and type of
location. Field information such as suspicious activity calls for service, criminal trespass warnings, and persons with
scars, marks, or tattoos collected by officers is also considered in the analysis. Although quantitative analysis is
often conducted once a pattern has been identified, qualitative analysis, (i.e., critical thinking and content analysis) is
used to identify patterns and trends initially.
*Three purposes of tactical crime analysis are;
1. Linking cases together and identifying the notable characteristics of the patterns and
trends.
2. Identifying potential suspects of a crime or crime pattern.
3. Clearing cases.
The focus of tactical crime analysis is examining data daily in order to identify
patterns, trends, and investigative leads for recent criminal and potential criminal
activity. Once a crime pattern, suspect, or investigative lead is identified, the
information is compiled and disseminated to patrol officers and detectives.

3. Strategic Crime Analysis

The study of crime and law enforcement information integrated with socio-demographic and spatial factors
to determine long term “patterns” of activity, to assist in problem solving, as well as to research and evaluate
responses and procedures.
Strategic crime analysis consists primarily of quantitative analysis of aggregate data.
(Monthly, quarterly, and/or yearly compilations of criminal and non-criminal information such as crime, calls for
service, and traffic information are analyzed in aggregate form). That is, general categories such as date, time,
location, and type of incident are analyzed instead of qualitative data such as narrative descriptions of incidents.
Variables including race, class, sex, income, population, location, and location type are examined along with law
enforcement information in the analysis process.
Two primary purposes of strategic crime analysis
1. To assist in the identification and analysis of long-term problems such as drug activity or auto
theft.
2. To conduct studies to investigate or evaluate relevant responses and procedures. Both of these
purposes correspond very well to the problem solving.
-These types of studies include
1. Evaluation of crime prevention programs.
2. in depth examination of a particular crime problem.
3. Implementation of a survey of citizens’ perceptions of crime and the police.

They incorporate pre- and post measurement as well as both impact and process evaluation methodology.
Procedures examined include such activities as deployment and staffing, redistricting of beats or precincts, data
entry and integrity, and the reporting process. In sum, strategic crime analysis uses statistical techniques and
research methods to investigate long-term problems and evaluate organizational procedures. Analysts who primarily
conduct strategic crime analysis are also called problem or research analysts.

4. Administrative Crime Analysis

 The presentation of interesting findings of crime research and analysis based on legal, political, and
practical concerns to inform audiences within law enforcement administration, city government/council, and
citizens.
Administrative crime analysis is different from the previous types of analysis in that it refers to presentation
of findings rather than to statistical analysis or research. The decision of what and how to present information is the
primary focus of administrative crime analysis. Often, the type of information that is presented represents the “tip of
the iceberg” of all the work and analysis that has previously been done, for example, an executive summary of a
report. The purpose and the audience of the information determine “what” is presented along with legal (e.g. privacy
and confidentiality), political (e.g., union issues, election concerns), and practical concerns (e.g., complexity of the
information presented). The primary purpose of administrative crime analysis is to inform audiences. These
audiences may vary from one situation to the next, which is why the type and quantity of information should vary as
well. Audiences can be police executives, city council, media, citizens, and neighbourhood groups or a combination.
(An excellent example of administrative crime analysis is the use of the Internet to provide information to the
general public). Audiences of a police Internet site include citizens, police personnel, businesses, victims, criminals,
and media—essentially everyone; therefore, the type of information published should be appropriate for an array of
diverse customers. The information provided should be simple, clear, and concise and should not disclose sensitive
information. One rule of thumb would be to only publish information that one would be comfortable seeing on the
evening news.

Lesson3. Introduction to Crime Analysis Mapping and History

History of Crime Mapping

Even though crime mapping plays a significant role in crime analysis today, conducting spatial analysis and
creating crime maps have only recently become common in policing and crime analysis, thanks to advancements in
technology. Unlike crime analysis, the history of crime mapping begins not with the establishment of the first police
force, but with researchers long before computers were invented.

Beginnings of Crime Mapping

In the 1800s, European researchers who adhered to the school of thought known as the cartographic school
of criminology examined the levels of crime within different areas (regions) and the relationship of these levels to
sociological factors, such as socioeconomic status (Groff & La Vigne, 2002). (For example, in 1829,
Adriano Balbi, an ethnographer and geographer, and André-Michel Guerry, a lawyer, created the first maps of crime
using criminal statistics for the years 1825 to 1827 and demographic data from the census. They examined crimes
against property, crimes against persons, and levels of education in France and found that areas with high levels of
crimes against property had a low incidence of crimes against people and that higher numbers of educated people
lived in areas with more property crime (Weisburd & McEwen, 1997). Also during this period, the Belgian
astronomer and statistician Adolphe Quételet used maps to examine correlations between crime and transportation
routes, education levels, and ethnic and cultural variations (Weisburd & McEwen, 1997).

United States: 1900–1970

In the United States, the use of crime mapping began a little later than it did in Europe. Because the United
States was a relatively new country in the 1800s, reliable maps were not readily available and census data were not
regularly collected, as they were in France and England at that time. The first substantive spatial analysis of crime in
the United States was conducted in the 1920s and 1930s by urban sociologists in Chicago. Their crime research and
related crime maps linked crime and delinquency to factors such as social disorganization and poverty. In fact, these
scholars’ spatial analysis of juvenile delinquency and social conditions in Chicago is considered to be one of the
foremost examples of crime mapping in the first half of the 20th century (Groff & La Vigne, 2002).
Crime mapping was a theoretical component in the development of the concentric zone model, which
contends that in an urban setting different types of zones (areas with different purposes) form around a central
business district and that some of these zones are more prone to crime and disorder than are others. Researchers who
analyzed the locations and distribution of gangs in Chicago based on the concentric zone concept found that gangs
were concentrated in parts of the city where social control was weak and social disorganization was high (Weisburd
& McEwen, 1997).Most of the early crime mapping conducted in both Europe and the United States examined
aggregate levels of crime by area. However, evidence exists of a map that was created by hand in 1929 by Chicago
school researchers in which the home addresses of more than 9,000 delinquents were clustered in particular areas of
Chicago (Weisburd & McEwen, 1997).
Through the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, sociologists and others who were interested in crime and its causes
continued to examine the sociological factors associated with crime. The explanations and geographic methods of
analysis used remained fairly uncomplicated during this period, possibly owing to the researchers’ focus on
sociological factors and the lack of adequate technology (Groff & La Vigne, 2002).
In the late 1960s, scholars began conducting spatial analysis of crime with the help of large computer
systems and unsophisticated visualization methods (Weisburd & McEwen, 1997).

1970 to Present
From the late 1960s through the early 1980s, a group of researchers in England, Canada, and the United
States shifted their focus of the study of crime away from what traditional criminology examined—criminal
offender—and toward the criminal event and its context, including the physical and social environments that create
opportunities for crime (Brantingham & Brantingham, 1981; Clarke, 1980, 1983; Cornish & Clarke, 1986). This
movement affected crime mapping, as researchers shifted from aggregate analysis of crime and social factors to the
analysis of discrete criminal events and their locations (for a more detailed discussion of this theoretical approach.
Consequently, researchers began to incorporate information about geography and environment into their study of
crime problems and related issues, such as rape (LeBeau, 1987) and a host of other crimes (Harries, 1980) as well as
distribution of police personnel (Rengert & Wasilchick, 1985). In the early 1980s, client server technology made
geographic information systems more available, and this enabled a number of police departments to experiment with
crime mapping in their everyday work (Groff & La Vigne, 2002). A project funded by the National Institute of
Justice partnered researchers and practitioners in five U.S. cities to use innovative analytic techniques in studying
drug markets and tracking their movements over time (Groff & La Vigne, 2002):
In New Jersey, Rutgers University and the Jersey City Police Department implemented an experimental
design to test problem-oriented policing responses to reduce violent crime.
onsulting firm based in
Boston, to promote crime mapping as a way of encouraging community involvement in addressing crime problems.

incidents and drug markets with police interventions in an experiment that evolved into a crime mapping system.

which thematic maps were created to show changes in crime by area over time.

innovative narcotics enforcement strategy aimed at reducing the violence and disorder associated with retail drug
sales in residential neighbourhoods. These projects led the way for crime mapping partnerships between
practitioners and researchers and demonstrated how communities could use GIS tools as a central part of crime
control initiatives. The program was focused primarily on the use of geographic police data, but the participants
found that examining other geographically based data contributed to their ability to target problem-solving
strategies, brought together key partners with different perspectives, and facilitated the assessment of their joint
efforts (Taxman & McEwen, 1997).
In the early to mid-1990s, significant improvements in computer technology and police data systems made
electronic crime mapping a much more practical tool for police and researchers. GIS software became available for
desktop computers as these computers became capable of processing large amounts of data quickly. In addition,
police data on crimes, arrests, accidents, and calls for service became available electronically through computer-
aided dispatch systems as well as through electronic records management systems
Geographic data such as street and census information became widely available in electronic format and were
provided free or at minimal cost by a variety of government agencies and commercial organizations. All of these
developments helped to advance the field of crime mapping beyond manual methods and the use of large, costly
mainframe mapping systems.
In 1993, the Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority and the Sociology Department of Loyola
University of Chicago joined forces to present a computer crime mapping workshop in Chicago. In a publication
resulting from the workshop titled Crime Analysis Through Computer Mapping (Block, Dabdoub, & Fregly, 1995),
participants—many of whom are top researchers and analysts in the field today— described spatial analytic
techniques and offered practical advice for both police professionals interested in implementing computer mapping
in their agencies and students of spatial analysis. This workshop was one of the first efforts to bring practitioners and
researchers together to discuss crime mapping.
During the mid-1990s, the federal government, in a movement spearheaded by Vice President Al Gore,
provided increased support for crime mapping technology and methods. Police agencies received federal funding to
obtain crime mapping technology, and several programs were developed specifically to assist police agencies with
the implementation of crime mapping. The U.S. Department of Justice’s Office of Community Oriented Policing
Services (the COPS Office) allocated a significant amount of funding for crime mapping software and equipment
through a program called MORE (Making Officer Redeployment Effective). The primary objective of this funding
was to “expand the amount of time current law enforcement officers can spend on community policing by funding
technology, equipment, and support staff” (Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2004).
Since 1995, the COPS Making Officer Redeployment Effective (MORE) program has provided funds in
excess of 1.3 billion dollars to law enforcement agencies for the purchase of time-saving technology and civilian
personnel. The time savings produced by these grants has resulted in the redeployment of officers to the street in
order to enhance their community policing efforts. Some of the funds provided by MORE grants have been used to
purchase crime mapping and GIS hardware and software. The COPS Office recognizes the important role that crime
mapping plays in the in-depth analysis of community problems. This increased analytic capability improves the
capacity of law enforcement to work with the community to develop more effective solutions to crime and social
disorder problems.—Dr. Matthew Scheider, social science analyst, COPS Office (personal communication, October
8, 2003)

Lesson4. Types of CRIME Mapping

Manual Pin Mapping

Wall maps have long been a simple and useful way to depict crime incidents or hot spots. Many police
departments still have large maps tacked to the wall of the briefing room with the most recent crimes represented by
pins. Although useful, manual wall maps, offer limited utility because they are difficult to keep updated, keep
accurate, make easy to read, and can only display a limited amount of data. (For example, although different colored
pins could be used to represent different types of crime, date and time of incidents, the nature of incidents, and other
information cannot be displayed easily. In order to update a manual wall map, for example, the pins must be
removed each month. Unless a photo or some other mechanism is used to record the previous month’s map, the
information illustrated on the map is lost. Thus, comparison is difficult, if not impossible, from one month to the
next. Finally, the maps become unreadable when they display large amounts of data because of the numerous pins
and/or holes.

Picture 1. Manual pin mapping

Computer Mapping
An Internet mapping program, where an address is entered and a map of the surrounding area appears with
a pin to locate the address. Even though it is possible to zoom in and out of this type of map, the geographic features
(e.g., locations, streets, parks) are static and cosmetic only. In essence, a computer map is similar to a wall map, in
that the computer is used to place a point at a specific location just as a person would put a pin on a wall map.

Picture 2. Computer Mapping

Geographic Information System (GIS)

A geographic information system (GIS) is a set of computer-based tools that allow a person to modify,
visualize, query, and analyze geographic and tabular data. A GIS is a powerful software tool that allows the user to
create anything from a simple point map to a three-dimensional visualization of spatial or temporal data.
A GIS is different from manual pin maps and computer maps in that it allows the analyst to view data
behind the geographic features, combine various features, manipulate the data and maps, and perform statistical
functions.

Picture 1. Geographic Information System

 Picture 2. Geographic Information System

Types of GIS programs which include;

1. Desktop packages (e.g., ArcView®, MapInfo®, GeoMedia®, Atlas GIS®, Maptitude®)
2. Professional software (e.g., ArcInfo® and Intergraph®).

GIS Components
The following is a description of the major components of a GIS, which include
1. Data representation
2. Data features, visualization
3. Scale
4. Querying

Data Representation
Real world data are represented by one of four features in a GIS.
(They include point, line, polygon, and image features).
1. Point feature
A point feature is a discrete location that is usually depicted by a symbol or label. A point feature
in the geographic information system is analogous to a pin placed on a paper wall map. Different symbols are used
to depict the location of crimes, motor vehicle accidents, traffic signs, buildings, beat stations, and cell phone
towers. The following map shows a robbery point map.
2. Line feature
A line feature is a geographic feature that can be represented by a line or set of lines. The
following map shows how different types of geographic features such as railways, streets, and rivers can be
represented by a line in a GIS. Additional examples are streams, streets, power lines, bus routes, student pathways,
and lines depicting the distance from a stolen to a recovered vehicle.

Point and line feature example.

3. Polygon feature
A polygon feature is a multisided figure represented by a closed set of lines. In the following map,
the largest blue polygon represents the city boundary, the green are census tracks, and the black are census block
groups. Other examples of polygon features used in law enforcement would be patrol areas, beats, neighborhoods, or
jurisdictions. Polygon features can represent areas as large as continents and as small as buildings.
 Polygon Feature Example.

4. Image feature
An image feature is a vertical photo taken from a satellite or a plane that is digitized and placed
within the geographic information system coordinate system so that there are -x and -y coordinates associated with
it.

Image Feature example

Data of geographic features

Each type of feature has “attributes” or a table of data that describe it. All the attributes for three of the four
types of features (point, line, and polygon) are stored in a GIS as a data table (Note that a digital orthophotograph
has an –x and –y coordinate but does not have an associated data table worthy of analysis). The ability to view,
query, relate, and manipulate data behind these features is the true power of a GIS. A manual pin map and a
computer map depict points, lines, and polygons but do not have data associated with the features and are not easily
manipulated. In a GIS, simply clicking on a point, line, or polygon can produce the data table associated with that
particular feature.
The primary advantage of a GIS is its functionality that allows geographic data to be manipulated. The
following are some components that enable data to be manipulated.

Connectivity
Refers to streets and other linear features that are represented by segments that connect at intersections.
However, each segment connects at an intersection, and connectivity is the ability of the GIS to recognize that the
two line segments come together to form an intersection.

Contiguity
 Refers to adjacent areas that are represented by adjacent polygons. The following map shows how a GIS
includes adjacent polygons representing parcels and buildings. The ability of the GIS to recognize adjacent polygons
allows for querying, selection of polygons within others, and visualization of complex land units.

Geometry
Refers to the fact that all features in the geographic information system have at least one set of –x and –y
coordinates.

Visual display/mapping Thematic approach

Scale
Scale is the relationship between the dimensions of the map and the dimensions of the Earth. Usually, the
scale depends on the purpose of the analysis or map.
Crime Analysis Mapping
“Crime mapping” is a term that has been used to refer to research analysis using GIS in a law enforcement
setting. The term crime analysis mapping is used to describe this process because using a GIS to analyze crime is not
just the act of placing incidents on a map but also of analysis.
It is the process of using a geographic information system in combination with crime analysis techniques to
focus on the spatial context of criminal and other law enforcement activity.