Verification of the law of parallelogram of forces and using it to determine the mass of a body.

➢ Theory
The principle of parallelogram of forces: - The two forces acting at an inclination to each other are
geometrically represented by the adjacent sides of a parallelogram and the diagonal passing through the
adjacent sides after completing the parallelogram gives the magnitude and the direction of the resultant
force.

Theories related to the equilibrium of an object under three oblique forces are used here to show that the
principle of parallelism is true. That is, the magnitude of the sum of two oblique forces is equal to the third
force.

➢ Materials and apparatus

Parallelogram of forces apparatus, an object (a small stone or a glass stopper) of unknown mass, three known
loads, light inextensible strings, a set square or a short plane mirror strip, a half meter ruler, pins, an A4 white
paper and a three-beam balance.

➢ Method
Step 1 - Fix the paper on the board. Place loads P, Q, R on the balance pans. Pull down the middle load a little
and release and test whether it returns to the original
position. By placing the set square normal to the strings
or the plane mirror strip below the string till the string
covers its own image and then mark on the paper by two
dots the projection of each string. Remove the paper
from the board and draw lines across the dots marked on
the paper. Measure the masses of the pans and add to
the relevant loads. Then mark the lengths corresponding
to the P and Q loads on those lines and complete the
parallelogram using the compass. Then measure the
length of the diagonal passing through the adjacent sides
and check if it corresponds to the R load and if it is
vertical.
Step 2 - Once the principle of parallelogram of forces is shown
to be true, the P and Q loads left unchanged, the R load
removed and replaced by an unknown load. Go through the
above steps to complete the parallelogram and calculate the
unknown load by measuring the length of the diagonal. Then
keep the unknown load unchanged, remove the P and Q loads,
replace them with two known loads, balance the system, complete the parallelogram, measure the length of the
diagonal again, calculate the unknown load and see if it is equal to the previous value.

➢ Important points
• At the beginning of the test, the position of the point where the three strings are connected together is
marked on white paper to see if there is friction in the pulleys, and the center load is slightly lowered, to
see if it moves back to the starting position. Failure to do so will result in friction in the pulleys and the
effect can be eliminated by applying oil / grease to the pulleys.
• If pans are used to hold loads: The weight of the pans should be weighed separately and their weight
added to the corresponding weights.

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 • The strings used here should be light and inextensible. Otherwise, the tensions in the strings are not
equal to the loads applied. Therefore, the lighter the strings, the more accurate the test.
• If a set square is used to mark the perpendicular projections on the white paper, it should be placed
perpendicular to the strings as follows. In addition, in this
case the observer must keep his eye perpendicular to the
board.
• A blade mirror can also be used to mark the perpendicular Sets square
projections of the strings. There the piece of mirror can be
placed under the string and the two ends of the string
reflection seen in the mirror can be marked. The
It is erroneous to place Thus, the square
perpendicular projection of the string can then be applied to the sets square in this should be
the paper by connecting that point using a foot ruler. Do not way. That is, the string is perpendicular to the
use shadows of strings on white paper formed by a bright then displaced from the fiber.
correct position.
light beam, to obtain perpendicular projections of the strings.
This is because the direction of the shadow varies depending on the direction in which the light falls.
• The projection of the third string should also be obtained on paper to see if the diagonal of the
parallelogram created here is exactly vertical. If the drawn diagonal is the projection of the third string
directly, then the drawn diagonal can be determined as vertical.
• In this case, the scale is selected in such a way that 10 g/0.1 N per 1 cm is used to create the
parallelogram. Also, an error of 1 mm in measuring lengths on a meter scale affects the final reading.
• If the diagonal of the parallelogram created in this test is not vertical, the reasons for it can be
summarized as follows.
a) The pulleys are not in the same plane. (When an object is in equilibrium under three oblique
forces, the three oblique forces must be on the same plane so that the sum of the two forces is
equal to the third force).
b) Prescence of friction in the pulleys. (The tensions in the strings do not match the corresponding
loads.)
c) The strings are not light. (The tensions in the strings do not match the corresponding loads.)
d) The loads are in contact with the drawing board. (The tensions in the strings do not match the
corresponding loads.)
e) Using twisting strings. (Difficulty in balancing and due to rotation of load, tension does not
equate to loads.)
f) If a pan is used, its weight has not considered when designing. (The tensions in the strings do
not match the corresponding loads.)
g) Errors in obtaining perpendicular projections.

❖ Past papers – 2005

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 Determination of the mass of a body using the principle of moments.
➢ Materials and apparatus
• A meter ruler, a knife edge, a 50 g weight, a glass stopper, or a small stone (of about 50 g mass), a piece
of string and a block of wood.

➢ Method
• Place the knife edge on the stand
and on it balance the meter ruler
horizontally. As shown in the
figure suspend the known mass
𝑚0 and the unknown mass 𝑚 on
opposite sides of the knife edge
and adjust length 𝑦 keeping length
𝑥 at a selected value until the ruler
is balanced horizontally. Measure
the values 𝑥 and 𝑦. Repeat the
experiment for five other selected
values of x so as to obtain a wide
spread of readings. When taking
readings take care to keep the
balancing point of the ruler on the
knife edge unchanged at the
original position.

➢ Important points
• Here, for an unknown load, a load close to the scales is selected so that the readings for it are
approximately the same. Then a couple of readings can be easily obtained. It can also minimize the
effect of percentage error on length measurement.
• Twisting strings should never be used to hang loads on the above test. The reason for this is that the
loads then rotate before they are balanced. For this it is better to use strings with parallel fibers.
• In this test, instead of hanging the loads on the meter ruler, a balanced position can be obtained by
placing the loads on the meter ruler if necessary. The problem here is that it is necessary to calculate the
distance from the pliers to the line of action of the weight, and that distance is difficult to measure
accurately. (Not knowing where the center of gravity of the unknown load is.) But if something gives you
this kind of opportunity in a problem, measure the distance to the line of symmetry of the loads.
• The following points should be considered when creating the final graph of such an experiment.
o The line should be designed in such a way that
most of the coordinates marked on the graph
paper are located on the graph. The graph
should be designed so that the coordinates
that cannot be drawn on the line are
symmetrically distributed around the line.
o When finding the gradient from the graph
created, two coordinates that were not used to
draw the graph should be used.

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 • The above test can be slightly varied and the load on the meter rule can be calculated. To do this, place
the knife edge slightly away from the center of gravity of the meter rule. After that it should be re-tested
as before, and calculations should be done.

Let us consider the clockwise direction around the point.

MgL + mgl2 − wgl1 = 0
ML + ml2 = wl1
m ML
l1 = ( ) l2 +
w w
Y = mX + C
m
Gradient =
w
ML
C= w

❖ Past papers – 2019

Determination of the relative density of a liquid using the U tube.

➢ Materials and apparatus

• A U tube, two half meter rulers, coconut oil, water, clamp stands, a set square.

➢ Method
• Attach the U tube vertically on to the stand. Fix half-meter rulers on to the stand close to the vertical
limbs of the tube. Pour a certain quantity of water (liquid of higher density) into one limb of the U tube
and then pour into the other limb another quantity of coconut oil. Using the set square obtain
respective readings (𝑥 and 𝑦) for water
meniscus and liquid meniscus and then
the reading (𝑧) corresponding to the oil /
water interface correctly. Adding more
of coconut oil (with lesser density) in
small quantities into its limb, obtain
about six sets of readings of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧.

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 • Considering the surface tension forces on both sides,
2𝑇𝑤 cos 𝜃𝑤 2𝑇𝑙 cos 𝜃𝑙
𝑃0 − 𝑟
+ ℎ𝑤 𝜌𝑤 𝑔=𝑝0 − 𝑟
+ℎ𝑙 𝜌𝑙 𝑔

𝜌𝑙 2(𝑇𝑤 cos 𝜃𝑤 − 𝑇𝑙 cos 𝜃𝑙 )

ℎ𝑤 = ( ) ℎ𝑙 +
𝜌𝑤 𝑟𝜌𝑤 𝑔
𝑇 is the coefficient of surface tension and 𝜃 is the contact angle, r is the internal radius of the arm of the tube.

➢ Important points
• In this case the U tube must be kept vertical. This is because the measured ℎ𝑤 and ℎ1 heights must be
vertical heights.
• When adding liquids to the U tube, two separate funnels can be used to prevent them from dissipating.
• When using the meter scale near each arm in obtaining readings, the eye should always be kept direct to
the interface or to the lower surface of the liquid meniscus. Otherwise, a parallax error will occur. This can
be avoided by using the set square.
• In this case, the denser fluid should be added to the U tube first and then the less dense fluid should be
added to one arm. If a less dense liquid is added first, then there is a risk that the liquid will split along the
arms when the higher density fluid is added.
• In this case, the cross-sections of the two arms of the U tube are not the same, but if there is no effect of
surface tension, it does not affect the test. (The pressure at a point is independent of the area of the fluid.)
As the cross-sectional radius of the tube increases, the capillary rise caused by the surface tension
decreases.
𝟏
𝒉∝
𝒓

• The independent variable in the above calculation should be the height of the stem with the least dense
liquid. If a higher density stem is selected, the height of the lower density stem will not vary accordingly.
• This test should not be used to find the relative density of very high-density liquids such as mercury. The
reason for this is that the height of the mercury stem from the common interface is so small that the
percentage measurement error increases.
• If a fluid less dense than water is used to draw the graph, its inclination should be less than 45°.
• This test can be continued to determine the density of a liquid that mixes with water. All that needs to be
done is to first add to the U tube a mixture of water and the liquid that is expected to find the relative

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 density such as a mixture of mercury and a higher density than both. Then
add water and the relevant liquid to the arms until the mercury meniscus
on both sides is horizontal.

𝑷𝟎 + 𝒉𝟏 𝒅𝒈=𝑷𝟎 + 𝒉𝟐 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝒅
𝒉𝟐 = ( )𝒉
𝝆𝒘 𝟏
Y=mx

• If mercury is difficult to find out, the test can be performed using two U tubes and a rubber tube as
follows.

Pressure inside the rubber tube = 𝑷

Atmospheric pressure=𝑷𝟎
𝒑𝟎 + 𝒉𝟐 𝝆𝒘 𝒈=𝑷
𝒑𝟎 + 𝒉𝟏 𝒅𝒈=𝑷
𝒉𝟐 𝝆𝒘 =𝒉𝟏 𝒅
𝒅
𝒉𝟐 = ( )𝒉
𝝆𝒘 𝟏
Y=mx

❖ Past papers – 2003

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 Comparing the density of two liquids using Hare’s apparatus.
➢ Materials and apparatus
• Hare’s apparatus, a plastic syringe of about 15 cm, water and a copper sulphate solution or any other
suitable solution, a half-meter ruler and a set square.

➢ Method
• Arrange Hare's apparatus as shown in the figure with its limbs having ends dipped into water and liquid
beakers. Open the clip and suck air out either by mouth or by the syringe to form a water column and a
liquid column in the respective limbs
(until the liquid column of lower
density reaches maximum height) and
then close the clip. Adjust each index
until its tip touches the respective
liquid level. With the help of the set
square and using scales measure
height ℎ𝑤 of water column and height
hl of liquid column and record these
readings. Loosening the clip slightly
and again tightening it alternatively
obtain a set of values of ℎ𝑤 and ℎ𝑙 .

➢ Important points
• It is not necessary for both liquid beakers to be at the same horizontal level to perform this test. This is
because even though the two liquid beakers are at different levels, the atmospheric pressure felt at the
liquid surface is the same.
• If the liquid moves up and down the stems, the clip may loosen or explode at some point in the tube.
• The special feature of this method is that the relative density can be easily obtained even in a liquid
mixed with water.
• When the cross-sectional area of the tube is large, the capillary rise caused by surface tension can be
reduced. Then the accuracy of the test increases.
𝟏
𝒉∝
𝒓

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 • Oral suction is not suitable for the suction process if a toxic volatile substance is used for this test.
• If the instrument does not have the indicators as shown here, the zero mark of the meter ruler should
be placed directly on the surface of the liquid and the entire length of the liquid stem should be
measured directly.
• If the test is performed using an indicator hair tool (as shown in the figure above), the method and
theory of reading should be changed as follows. After adjusting the water and liquid stems to a
stationary position, change the indicators so that the water and liquid surfaces in the beaker are in
contact. Measure the height of the water body ℎ𝑤 ′
and the height of the liquid body ℎ1′ from the top
edge of the indicators. If the densities of water and liquid are 𝜌𝑤 and 𝜌𝑙 respectively, the atmospheric
pressure is 𝑃0 and the air pressure inside the tube is 𝑃,

• The height of the liquid stem should be kept as high as possible to minimize the percentage error.
• The main concept used here is that the pressure of a gas is the same everywhere.
• If a thin-armed Hare’s apparatus is used, when drawing a graph between ℎ𝑤 and ℎ1 to obtain relative
density, a straight line passing through the origin is not obtained. Instead, we get a graph of 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
with a (+) intercept. This is because the smaller the diameter, the greater the effect of surface tension
forces.
• Let 𝑇𝑤 be the surface tension coefficient of water, 𝑇𝑙 is the surface tension coefficient of the liquid, and
the radius of the capillary is 𝑟, the height at which the water and liquid rise as ℎ𝑤 and ℎ𝑙 , and let the
contact angle of water and liquid be zero. If the atmospheric pressure in the Hare’s apparatus is 𝑃 and
the pressure just below the meniscus is 𝑃′ and 𝑃′′ is the pressure at the lower end of the capillary tube,

𝟐𝑻
𝑷 − 𝑷′ =
𝒓

𝟐𝑻
𝑷′ = 𝑷 −
𝒓
𝑷′′ = 𝑷′ + 𝒉𝒅𝒈
𝟐𝑻
𝑷′′ = 𝑷 − + 𝒉𝒅𝒈
𝒓
Substituting the above statement for water,
𝟐𝑻𝒘
𝑷′′
𝒍 =𝑷− + 𝒉𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝒓

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 By substituting the above statements for liquid,
𝟐𝑻𝒍
𝑷′′
𝒍 =𝑷− + 𝒉𝒍 𝒅𝒍 𝒈
𝒓 • The relative density of the fluid can be found by the
𝑃0 = 𝑃𝑤′′ = 𝑃𝑙′′ (Because at the same horizontal level gradient of the graph. The surface tension coefficient of the
pressure is equal,) fluid can be found by the intercept.
′′
𝑷′′
𝒘 = 𝑷𝒍

𝟐𝑻𝒘 𝟐𝑻𝒍
𝑷− + 𝒉𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈= 𝑷 − + 𝒉𝒍 𝒅𝒍 𝒈
𝒓 𝒓

𝟐𝑻𝒘 𝟐𝑻𝒍
𝒉𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈 = 𝒉𝒍 𝒅𝒍 𝒈 + −
𝒓 𝒓
𝒅𝟏 𝟐
𝒉𝒘 = ( ) 𝒉𝒍 + (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒍 )
𝒅𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈𝒓 𝒘
𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄

❖ Past papers – 2009, 2018

Determination of the density of a liquid using weighted boiling tube.

➢ Theory
• When an object floats in a stationary homogeneous fluid, its weight is equal to the upthrust force.
➢ Materials and apparatus
• A boiling tube, a tall jar, a few
The mass of the weighted boiling tube = 𝑴
mass units, a vernier caliper, a
graph paper strip marked in The mass of the added weights = 𝒎
millimeters, a sufficient amount The volume of the weighted waxed part of the tube = 𝑽
of a solution of sodium chloride,
External area of the cross section = 𝑨
lead shots / small iron balls
(bicycle) and a small quantity of Reading of the paper scale = 𝒍
wax. Density of the liquid = 𝝆
(𝑴 + 𝒎)𝒈 = 𝒖
(𝑴 + 𝒎)𝒈 = (𝑽 + 𝑨𝒍)𝝆𝒈
(𝑴 + 𝒎)
= 𝑽 + 𝑨𝒍
𝝆
𝑴 𝒎
𝑨𝒍 = + − 𝑽
𝝆 𝝆
𝟏 𝑴 𝑽
𝒍 = ( )𝒎 + ( − )
𝝆𝑨 𝝆𝑨 𝑨
𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄
𝟏
Gradient of the graph (m) = (𝝆𝑨)
𝟏
𝝆=( )
𝒎𝑨

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 ➢ Method
• Put the minimum amount of lead shots that would make the boiling tube float vertically in the liquid.
Pour wax into the tube until the lead shots are completely covered (the spherical portion of the tube
should be filled with wax). Paste the paper strip on the inner wall so that the zero of the scale begins
from the lower end of the cylindrical portion. Fill the tall jar with the liquid (sodium chloride), make the
tube float vertically in it and record the length 𝑙 of the tube immersed in liquid. Insert one mass unit into
the tube and record the corresponding 𝑙 value. Increase 𝑚 and obtain about six values for the
corresponding 𝑙. Measure the external diameter of the tube using a vernier caliper at three different
places of the tube taking three readings normal to each other at each place.

➢ Important points
• Lead shots are added to the tube to keep the center of gravity lower than the center of buoyancy in
order to stabilize the fluid. Here the lead shots are inserted into the tube and added melted wax to the
tube to cover them. The melted wax should be added at least enough to cover the bottom hemisphere
of the tube.
• A boiling tube is used because its cross-sectional area is relatively large compared to a test tube, so it
can easily obtain a large number of readings, even in a low-altitude liquid.
• At the beginning of the test, calculate the mass required to immerse the entire height of the boiling tube
in the liquid to obtain a graph with better dispersion. Then divide that mass into 06 equal parts and put
one piece of mass at a time into the tube and calculate the sinking height.
• Instead of sealing the wax with lead shots, sand can also be applied. But in this method the accuracy is
higher because the lead shots are more stable than the sand. So instead of applying sand, it is more
accurate to put lead on the bottom and seal it with wax.
• Before taking the readings, make sure that the hydrometer does not oscillate and does not touch the
side walls and bottom of the container.
• When testing using a weight box, there are times when the weight has to be lifted to maintain the same
mass. The difficulty of lifting weights can be avoided by preparing similar units of mass for this purpose.
• The above device can be modified as follows to find the relative density of a liquid.

The internal volume of the lower part = 𝑉2 Density of water = 𝜌

The external volume of the lower part = 𝑉1 Density of the fluid = 𝜌1
Internal area = 𝐴2 Mass of the tube = 𝑀
External area = 𝐴1 The height of the water column in the tube =𝑙2
බාහිර හරස්කඩ වර්ගඵලය= 𝐴

කඩදාසි පරිමාණයේ පාඨාාංකය = 𝑙

ද්‍රවයේ ඝනත්වය = 𝜌

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 𝑴𝒈 + (𝑽𝟐 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑨𝟐 ) 𝝆𝒈 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝝆𝟏 𝒈 + 𝑽𝟏 𝝆𝟏 𝒈
𝑰𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝝆𝟏 = (𝑽𝟐 + 𝑰𝟐 𝑨𝟐 )𝝆 + 𝑴 − 𝑽𝟏 𝝆𝟏
𝐴 ρ
𝑰𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝝆𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 𝛒 + 𝑰𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝝆 + 𝑴 − 𝑽𝟏 𝝆𝟏 Since the gradient of the graph is (𝑚) = 𝐴 2𝜌 , it is possible to find
1 1

𝑨𝟐 𝝆 𝑽𝟐 𝛒 + 𝑴 𝟏 the relative density of the fluid by knowing the internal and

𝒍𝟏 = ( ) 𝑰𝟐 + ( − 𝑽𝟏 ) external areas of the tube.
𝑨𝟏 𝝆𝟏 𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝟏
𝑨𝟐 𝛒 𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝒎= =
𝑨𝟏 𝝆𝟏 𝝆 𝒎𝑨𝟏

❖ Past papers – 2012, 2016

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